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Social Scientists and Urban Planners

(D.O.T.  029.067; 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, -046;
050.067; 051; 052 except .067-014; 054; 055; 059; 188.167-110; and
199.167-040)

Nature of the Work

   Social scientists study all aspects of human society from the
distribution of goods and services to the beliefs of newly formed
religious groups to modern mass transportation systems.  Social
science research provides insights that help us understand the
different ways in which individuals and groups make decisions,
exercise power, or respond to change.  Through their studies and
analyses, social scientists and urban planners assist educators,
government officials, business leaders, and others in solving
social, economic, and environmental problems.

   Research is a basic activity for many social scientists.  They use
established or newly discovered methods to assemble facts and theory
that contribute to human knowledge.  Applied research usually is
designed to produce information that will enable people to make
better decisions or manage their affairs more effectively.
Interviews and surveys are widely used to collect facts, opinions,
or other information.  Data collection takes many other forms,
however, including living and working among the people studied;
archaeological and other field investigations; the analysis of
historical records and documents; experiments with human subjects or
animals in a psychological laboratory; the administration of
standardized tests and questionnaires; and the preparation and
interpretation of maps and graphic materials.

   Social sciences are interdisciplinary in nature.  Specialists in one
field often find that the research they are performing overlaps work
that is being conducted in another social science discipline.
Regardless of their field of specialization, social scientists are
concerned with some aspect of society, culture, or personality.

   Anthropologists study the origin and the physical, social, and
cultural development and behavior of humans.  They may study the way
of life, remains, language, or physical characteristics of people in
various parts of the world; they compare the customs, values, and
social patterns of different cultures.  Anthropologists generally
concentrate in sociocultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics,
or biological-physical anthropology.  Sociocultural anthropologists
study the customs, cultures, and social lives of groups in a wide
range of settings from nonindustrialized societies to modern urban
cultures.  Archaeologists engage in the systematic recovery and
examination of material evidence, such as graves, buildings, tools,
and pottery, remaining from past human life and culture, to
determine the history, customs, and living habits of earlier
civilizations.  Linguistic anthropologists study the role of
language in various cultures.  Biological-physical anthropologists
study the evolution of the human body and look for the earliest
evidences of human life.

   Economists study the production, distribution, and consumption of
commodities and services.  They may conduct surveys and analyze data
to determine public preferences for these goods and services.  Most
economists are concerned with the practical applications of economic
policy in a particular area, such as finance, labor, agriculture,
transportation, energy, or health.  Others develop theories to
explain economic phenomena such as unemployment or inflation.
Marketing research analysts research market conditions in
localities, regions, the Nation, or the world to determine potential
sales of a product or service; they examine and analyze data on past
sales and trends to develop forecasts.

   Geographers study the distribution of both physical and cultural
phenomena on local, regional, continental, and global scales.
Geographers specialize, as a rule.  Economic geographers study the
regional distribution of resources and economic activities.
Political geographers are concerned with the relationship of
geography to political phenomena local, national, and international.
Physical geographers study the distribution of climates, vegetation,
soil, and land forms.  Urban and transportation geographers study
cities and metropolitan areas, while regional geographers study the
physical, climatic, economic, political, and cultural
characteristics of regions, ranging in size from a congressional
district, to a State, country, continent, or the entire world.
Medical geographers study health care delivery systems,
epidemiology, and the effect of the environment on health.

   Geographic Information Systems (GIS) a relatively new specialty
combines computer graphics, artificial intelligence, and high-speed
communication to store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze, and map
geographic data.  GIS is widely used in weather forecasting,
emergency management, resource analysis and management, and other
activities.  (Some occupational classification systems include
geographers under physical scientists rather than social
scientists.)

   Historians research and analyze the past.  They use many sources of
information during their research, including government and
institutional records, newspapers and other periodicals,
photographs, interviews, films, and unpublished manuscripts such as
diaries and letters.  Historians usually specialize in a specific
country or region; in a particular time period; or in a particular
field, such as social, intellectual, political, or diplomatic
history.  Biographers collect detailed information on individuals.
Genealogists trace family histories.  Other historians help study
and preserve archival materials, artifacts, and historic buildings
and sites.

   Political scientists study the origin, development, and operation of
political systems.  They conduct research on a wide range of
subjects such as relations between the United States and foreign
countries, the beliefs and institutions of foreign nations, for
example those in Asia and Africa, the politics of small towns or a
major metropolis, or the decisions of the U.S.  Supreme Court.
Studying topics such as public opinion, political decisionmaking,
and ideology, they analyze the structure and operation of
governments as well as informal political entities.  Depending on
the topic under study, a political scientist might conduct a public
opinion survey, analyze election results, or analyze public
documents.

   Psychologists, who constitute over half of all social scientists,
study human behavior and use their expertise to counsel or advise
individuals or groups.  Their research also assists business
advertisers, politicians, and others interested in influencing or
motivating people.  While clinical psychology is the largest
specialty, psychologists specialize in many other fields such as
counseling, experimental, social, or industrial psychology.

   Sociologists analyze the development, structure, and behavior of
groups or social systems such as families, neighborhoods, or clubs.
Sociologists may specialize in a particular field such as
criminology, rural sociology, or medical sociology.

   Urban and regional planners develop comprehensive plans and programs
for the use of land for industrial and public sites.  Planners
prepare for situations that are likely to develop as a result of
population growth or social and economic change.

Working Conditions

Most social scientists have regular hours.  Generally working behind
a desk, either alone or in collaboration with other social
scientists, they read and write research reports.  Many experience
the pressures of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes they
must work overtime, for which they generally are not reimbursed.
Social scientists often work as an integral part of a research team.
Their routine may be interrupted frequently by telephone calls,
letters to answer, special requests for information, meetings, or
conferences.  Travel may be necessary to collect information or
attend meetings.  Social scientists on foreign assignment must
adjust to unfamiliar cultures and climates.

   Some social scientists do fieldwork.  For example, anthropologists,
archaeologists, and geographers often must travel to remote areas,
live among the people they study, and stay for long periods at the
site of their investigations.  They may work under primitive
conditions, and their work may involve strenuous physical exertion.

   Social scientists employed by colleges and universities generally
have flexible work schedules, often dividing their time among
teaching, research, consulting, or administrative responsibilities.

Employment

Social scientists held about 258,000 jobs in 1992.  Over half of all
social scientists are psychologists.  About one-third of all social
scientists overwhelmingly psychologists are self-employed, involved
in counseling, consulting, or research.

   Salaried social scientists worked for a wide range of employers.
Nearly 4 out of 10 worked for Federal, State, and local governments;
3 out of 10 worked in health, research, and management services
firms; and 2 out of 10 worked in educational institutions, as
researchers, administrators, and counselors.  Other employers
include social service agencies, international organizations,
associations, museums, historical societies, computer and data
processing firms, and business firms.

   In addition, many persons with training in a social science
discipline teach in colleges and universities, and in secondary and
elementary schools.  (For more information, see the Handbook
statements on college and university faculty, and kindergarten,
elementary, and secondary school teachers.) The proportion of social
scientists who teach varies by occupation for example, the academic
world generally is a more important source of jobs for graduates in
sociology than for graduates in psychology.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Educational attainment of social scientists is among the highest of
all occupations.  The Ph.D.  or equivalent degree is a minimum
requirement for most positions in colleges and universities and is
important for advancement to many top level nonacademic research and
administrative posts.  Graduates with master's degrees generally
have better professional opportunities outside of colleges and
universities, although the situation varies by field.  For example,
job prospects for master's degree holders in urban or regional
planning are brighter than for master's degree holders in history.
Graduates with a master's degree in a social science discipline
qualify for teaching positions in junior colleges.  Bachelor's
degree holders have limited opportunities and in most social science
occupations do not qualify for professional positions.  The
bachelor's degree does, however, provide a suitable background for
many different kinds of entry level jobs, such as research
assistant, administrative aide, or management trainee.  With the
addition of sufficient education courses, social science graduates
also can qualify for teaching positions in secondary and elementary
schools.

   Training in statistics and mathematics is essential for many social
scientists.  Mathematical and other quantitative research methods
are increasingly used in economics, geography, political science,
experimental psychology, and other fields.  The ability to use
computers for research purposes is mandatory in most disciplines.

   Depending on their jobs, social scientists and urban planners may
need a wide range of personal characteristics.  Because they
constantly seek new information about people, things, and ideas,
intellectual curiosity and creativity are fundamental personal
traits.  The ability to think logically and methodically is
important to a political scientist comparing the merits of various
forms of government.  The ability to analyze data is important to an
economist studying proposals to reduce Federal budget deficits.
Objectivity, openmindedness, and systematic work habits are
important in all kinds of social science research.  Perseverance is
essential for an anthropologist, who might spend years accumulating
artifacts from an ancient civilization.  Emotional stability and
sensitivity are vital to a clinical psychologist working with mental
patients.  Written and oral communication skills are essential to
all these workers.

Job Outlook

Employment of social scientists is expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through the year 2005, spurred by rising
concern over the environment, crime, communicable disease, mental
illness, the growing elderly and homeless populations, the
increasingly competitive global economy, and a wide range of other
issues.  Psychologists, the largest social science occupation, is
expected to grow much faster than average.  Economists and marketing
research analysts, urban and regional planners, and all other social
scientists combined, including anthropologists, geographers,
historians, political scientists, and sociologists, should
experience average growth.  Most job openings, however, will result
from the need to replace social scientists who transfer to other
occupations or stop working altogether.

   Prospects are best for those with advanced degrees, and generally
are better in disciplines such as economics, psychology, and urban
and regional planning, which offer many opportunities in nonacademic
settings.  However, graduates in all social science fields are
expected to find enhanced job opportunities in applied fields due to
the excellent research, communication, and quantitative skills they
develop in school.  Government agencies, health and social service
organizations, marketing, research and consulting firms, and a wide
range of businesses seek social science graduates.

   Social scientists currently face stiff competition for academic
positions.  However, competition may ease in the future due to a
wave of retirements expected among college and university faculty.
The growing importance and popularity of social science subjects in
secondary schools is strengthening the demand for social science
teachers at this level as well.

   Other considerations that affect employment opportunities in these
occupations include specific skills and technical expertise, desired
work setting, salary requirements, and geographic mobility.  In
addition, experience acquired through internships can prove
invaluable later in obtaining a full-time position in a social
science field.

Earnings

Median annual earnings of all social scientists were about $36,700
in 1992.  The middle 50 percent earned between $24,700 and $51,300
annually.  The lowest 10 percent earned under $17,800, while the
highest 10 percent earned over $68,700.

   According to a 1993 survey by the College Placement Council, people
with a bachelor's degree in a social science field received starting
offers averaging about $19,000 a year in 1993, those with a master's
degree in a social science field received starting offers averaging
about $28,400 a year in 1993, and the average salary offer for
doctoral social scientists was $30,000.

   In the Federal Government, social scientists with a bachelor's
degree and no experience could start at $18,300 or $22,700 a year in
1993, depending on their college records.  Those with a master's
degree could start at $27,800, and those having a Ph.D.  degree
could begin at $33,600, while some individuals with experience and
an advanced degree could start at $40,300.  The average salary of
all social scientists working for the Federal Government in
nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was about
$43,000 in 1993.

   Social scientists entering careers in higher education may receive
benefits such as summer research money, computer access, student
research assistants, and secretarial support.

Related Occupations

A number of fields that require training and personal qualities
similar to those of the various social science fields are covered
elsewhere in the Handbook. These include lawyers, statisticians,
mathematicians, computer programmers, computer scientists and
systems analysts, reporters and correspondents, social workers,
religious workers, college and university faculty, and counselors.

Sources of Additional Information

   More detailed information about economists and marketing research
analysts, psychologists, sociologists, and urban and regional
planners is presented in the Handbook statements that follow this
introductory statement.

   Anthropology

   For information about careers, job openings, grants and fellowships,
and schools that offer training in anthropology, and for a copy of
Getting a Job Outside the Academy (special publication no.  14),
contact:

   The American Anthropological Association, 4350 N.  Fairfax Dr.,
Suite 640, Arlington, VA 22203.

   Archaeology

   For information about careers in archaeology, contact:

   Society for American Archaeology, 900 2nd St.  NE., #12, Washington,
DC 20002.

   Archaeological Institute of America, 675 Commonwealth Ave., Boston,
MA 02215.

   Geography

   Two publications that provide information on careers and job
openings for geographers Geography Today's Career for Tomorrow,
available free of charge, and Careers in Geography, available for $3
and the annual publication listing schools offering various programs
in geography A Guide to Programs of Geography in the U.S.  and
Canada may be obtained from:

   Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St.  NW., Washington,
DC 20009.

   History

   Information on careers for students of history is available from:

   American Historical Association, 400 A St.  SE., Washington, DC
20003.

   General information on careers for historians is available from:

   Organization of American Historians, 112 North Bryan St.,
Bloomington, IN 47408.

   For additional information on careers for historians, send a
self-addressed, stamped envelope to:

   American Association for State and Local History, 530 Church St.,
6th Floor, Nashville, TN 37219.

   Political Science

   Information on careers and job openings, including

   Careers and the Study of Political Science: A Guide for
Undergraduates, available for $3.50 plus $1.00 postage and handling,
with bulk rates for multiple copies, may be purchased from:

   American Political Science Association, 1527 New Hampshire Ave.
NW., Washington, DC 20036.

   Programs in Public Affairs and Administration, a biennial directory
that contains data on the academic content of programs, the student
body, the format of instruction, and other information, may be
purchased from:

   National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and
Administration, 1120 G St.  NW., Suite 730, Washington, DC 20005.