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Physicists and Astronomers

(D.O.T.  015.021-010; 021.067-010; 023.061-010, -014, and .067;
079.021-014)

Nature of the Work

Physicists explore and identify basic principles governing the
structure and behavior of matter, the generation and transfer of
energy, and the interaction of matter and energy.  Some physicists
use these principles in theoretical areas, such as the nature of
time and the origin of the universe, while others work in practical
areas such as the development of advanced materials, electronic and
optical devices, and medical equipment.

   Physicists design and perform experiments with lasers, cyclotrons,
telescopes, mass spectrometers, and other equipment.  Based on
observations and analysis, they attempt to discover the laws that
describe the forces of nature, such as gravity, electromagnetism,
and nuclear interactions.  They also find ways to apply physical
laws and theories to problems in nuclear energy, electronics,
optics, materials, communications, aerospace technology, and medical
instrumentation.

   Astronomy is sometimes considered a subfield of physics.
Astronomers use the principles of physics and mathematics to learn
about the fundamental nature of the universe, including the sun,
moon, planets, stars, and galaxies.  They apply their knowledge to
problems in navigation and space flight.

   Most physicists work in research and development.  Some do basic
research to increase scientific knowledge.  For example, they
investigate the structure of the atom or the nature of gravity.

   Physicists who conduct applied research build upon the discoveries
made through basic research and work to develop new devices,
products, and processes.  For instance, basic research in
solid-state physics led to the development of transistors and then
to the integrated circuits used in computers.

   Physicists also design research equipment.  This equipment often has
additional unanticipated uses.  For example, lasers are used in
surgery; microwave devices are used for ovens; and measuring
instruments can analyze blood or the chemical content of foods.  A
small number work in inspection, testing, quality control, and other
production-related jobs in industry.

   Much physics research is done in small or medium-size laboratories.
However, experiments in plasma, nuclear, high energy, and some other
areas of physics require extremely large, expensive equipment such
as particle accelerators.  Physicists in these subfields often work
in large teams.  Although physics research may require extensive
experimentation in laboratories, research physicists still spend
time in offices planning, recording, analyzing, and reporting on
research.

   Almost all astronomers do research.  They analyze large quantities
of data gathered by observatories and satellites and write
scientific papers or reports on their findings.  Most astronomers
spend only a few weeks each year making observations with optical
telescopes, radio telescopes, and other instruments.  Contrary to
the popular image, astronomers almost never make observations by
looking directly through a telescope because enhanced photographic
and electronic detecting equipment can see more than the human eye.

   Most physicists specialize in one of many subfields elementary
particle physics; nuclear physics; atomic and molecular physics;
physics of condensed matter (solid-state physics); optics;
acoustics; plasma physics; or the physics of fluids.  Some
specialize in a subdivision of one of these subfields; for example,
within condensed matter physics, specialties include
superconductivity, crystallography, and semiconductors.  However,
all physics involves the same fundamental principles, so specialties
may overlap, and physicists may switch from one subfield to another.
Also, growing numbers of physicists work in combined fields such as
biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics.

   Research and development work is an integral part of most
physicists' jobs.

Working Conditions

Physicists often work regular hours in laboratories and offices.  At
times, however, those who are deeply involved in research may work
long or irregular hours.  Most do not encounter unusual hazards in
their work.  Some physicists work away from home temporarily at
national or international facilities with unique equipment such as
particle accelerators.  Astronomers who make observations may travel
to observatories, which are usually in remote locations, and
routinely work at night.

Employment

Physicists and astronomers held nearly 21,000 jobs in 1992.  Also, a
significant number held physics or astronomy faculty positions in
colleges and universities.  (See the statement on college and
university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) About two-fifths of
all nonfaculty physicists worked for research, development, and
testing laboratories in industry.  The Federal Government employed
almost one-fifth, mostly in the Departments of Defense and Commerce
and in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.  Others
worked in colleges and universities in nonfaculty positions and for
aerospace firms, noncommercial research laboratories, electrical
equipment manufacturers, engineering services firms, and the
transportation equipment industry.

   Although physicists are employed in all parts of the country, most
work in areas that have universities and large research and
development laboratories.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

A doctoral degree is the usual educational requirement for
physicists and astronomers, because most jobs are in research and
development or in teaching at large universities or 4-year colleges.

   Those having bachelor's or master's degrees in physics are generally
qualified to work in an engineering-related area or other scientific
fields, to work as technicians, or to assist in setting up
laboratories.  Some may qualify for applied research jobs in private
industry or nonresearch positions in the Federal Government, and a
master's degree often suffices for teaching jobs in 2-year colleges.
Astronomy bachelor's degree holders often enter a field unrelated to
astronomy, but they are also qualified to work in planetariums
running science shows or to assist astronomers doing research.  (See
statements on engineers, geologists and geophysicists, computer
programmers, and computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere
in the Handbook.)

   About 750 colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree in
physics.  The undergraduate program provides a broad background in
the natural sciences and mathematics.  Typical physics courses
include mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, thermodynamics, atomic
physics, and quantum mechanics.

   About 180 colleges and universities have physics departments which
offer Ph.D.  degrees in physics.  Graduate students usually
concentrate in a subfield of physics such as elementary particles or
condensed matter.  Many begin studying for their doctorate
immediately after their bachelor's degree.

   About 72 universities offer the Ph.D.  degree in astronomy, either
through an astronomy department, a physics department, or a combined
physics/astronomy department.  Applicants to astronomy doctoral
programs face keen competition for available slots.  Those planning
a career in astronomy should have a very strong physics background
in fact, an undergraduate degree in physics is excellent
preparation, followed by a Ph.D.  in astronomy.

   Mathematical ability, computer skills, an inquisitive mind,
imagination, and the ability to work independently are important
traits for anyone planning a career in physics or astronomy.
Prospective physicists who hope to work in industrial laboratories
applying physics knowledge to practical problems should broaden
their educational background to include courses outside of physics,
such as economics, computer technology, and current affairs.  Good
oral and written communication skills are also becoming increasingly
important.

   Most Ph.D.  physics and astronomy graduates choose to take a
postdoctoral position, which is helpful for those who want to
continue research in their specialty and for those who plan a career
teaching at the university level.  Beginning physicists, especially
those without a Ph.D., often do routine work under the close
supervision of more senior scientists.  After some experience, they
are assigned more complex tasks and given more independence.
Physicists who develop new products or processes sometimes form
their own companies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas.

Job Outlook

A large proportion of physicists and astronomers are employed on
research projects, many of which, in the past, were defense related.
Expected reductions in defense-related research and an expected
slowdown in the growth of civilian physics-related research will
cause employment of physicists and astronomers to decline through
the year 2005.  Since the number of doctorates granted in physics is
not expected to decrease much from present levels, competition is
expected for the kind of research and academic jobs that those with
new doctorates in physics have traditionally sought.

   Although research and development budgets in private industry will
continue to grow, many research laboratories in private industry are
expected to reduce basic research, which is where much physics
research takes place, in favor of applied research and product and
software development.  Furthermore, although the number of retiring
academic physicists is expected to increase in the late 1990's, it
is possible that many of them will not be replaced or will be
replaced by faculty in other disciplines.

   Persons with only a bachelor's degree in physics are not qualified
to enter most physicist jobs.  However, many find jobs as high
school physics teachers and in engineering, technician, mathematics,
and computer-and environment-related occupations.  (See the
statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Also,
those with advanced degrees in physics will find their skills
transferrable to many other occupations.

Earnings

Starting salaries for physicists averaged about $30,000 a year in
1992 for those with a bachelor's or master's degree, and about
$41,000 for those with a doctoral degree, according to the College
Placement Council.

   The American Institute of Physics reported a median salary of
$65,000 in 1992 for its members with Ph.D.'s.  Those working in
4-year colleges (9-10 months a year) earned the least $43,000 while
those employed in industry and hospitals earned the most $71,500 and
78,000, respectively.

   Average earnings for physicists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and
managerial positions in the Federal Government in 1993 were $61,956
a year, and for astronomy and space scientists, $65,709.

Related Occupations

The work of physicists and astronomers relates closely to that of
other scientific and mathematic occupations such as chemist,
geologist, geophysicist, and mathematician.  Engineers and
engineering and science technicians also use the principles of
physics in their work.

Sources of Additional Information

   General information on career opportunities in physics is available
from:

   American Institute of Physics, American Center for Physics, 1
Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740.

   American Physical Society, American Center for Physics, 1 Physics
Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740.

   For a pamphlet containing information on careers in astronomy and on
schools offering training in the field, send your request to:

   American Astronomical Society, Education Office, University of
Texas, Department of Astronomy, Austin, TX 78712-1083.