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Geologists and Geophysicists

(D.O.T.  024.061 except -014, and .161)

Nature of the Work

Geologists and geophysicists study the physical aspects and history
of the earth.  They identify and examine rocks, study information
collected by remote sensing instruments in satellites, conduct
geological surveys, construct maps, and use instruments to measure
the earth's gravity and magnetic field.  They also analyze
information collected through seismic prospecting, which involves
bouncing sound waves off buried rock layers.  Many geologists and
geophysicists search for oil, natural gas, minerals, and underground
water.

   Increasingly, geologists, geophysicists, and other earth scientists
are becoming known as geological scientists or geoscientists, terms
which better describe their role in studying all aspects of the
earth.

   Geoscientists play an increasingly important part in studying,
preserving, and cleaning up the environment.  Many design and
monitor waste disposal sites, preserve water supplies, and reclaim
contaminated land and water to comply with stricter Federal
environmental rules.  They also help locate safe sites for hazardous
waste facilities and landfills.

   Geologists and geophysicists examine chemical and physical
properties of specimens in laboratories, sometimes under controlled
temperature and pressure.  They may study fossil remains of animal
and plant life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through
rocks.  Some geoscientists use two- or three-dimensional computer
modeling to portray water layers and the flow of water or other
fluids through rock cracks and porous materials.  A large variety of
sophisticated laboratory instruments is used, including x-ray
diffractometers, which determine the crystal structure of minerals,
and petrographic microscopes, for study of rock and sediment
samples.  The locations and intensities of earthquakes are
determined using seismographs, instruments which measure energy
waves resulting from movements in the earth's crust.

   Geologists and geophysicists also apply geological knowledge to
engineering problems in constructing large buildings, dams, tunnels,
and highways.  Some administer and manage research and exploration
programs, and others become general managers in petroleum and mining
companies.

   Geology and geophysics are closely related fields, but there are
some major differences.  Geologists study the composition,
structure, and history of the earth's crust.  They try to find out
how rocks were formed and what has happened to them since their
formation.  Geophysicists use the principles of physics and
mathematics to study not only the earth's surface but its internal
composition, ground and surface waters, atmosphere, and oceans as
well as its magnetic, electrical, and gravitational forces.  Both,
however, commonly apply their skills to the search for natural
resources and to solve environmental problems.

   Geologists and geophysicists often specialize.

   Geological oceanographers study and map the ocean floor.  They
collect information using remote sensing devices aboard surface
ships or underwater research craft.

   Physical oceanographers study the physical aspects of oceans such as
currents and the interaction of the surface of the sea with the
atmosphere.  Chemical oceanographers study the chemical composition,
dissolved elements, and nutrients of oceans.  Although biological
scientists who study ocean life are also called oceanographers (as
well as marine biologists), the work they do and the training they
need are related to biology rather than geology or geophysics.  (See
the statement on biological scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.)

   Hydrologists study the distribution, circulation, and physical
properties of underground and surface waters.  They study the form
and intensity of precipitation, its rate of infiltration into the
soil, and its return to the ocean and atmosphere.  Petroleum
geologists explore for oil and gas by studying and mapping the
subsurface of the ocean or land.  They use sophisticated geophysical
instrumentation, well log data, and computers to collect
information.

   Mineralogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones
according to composition and structure.

   Paleontologists study fossils found in geological formations to
trace the evolution of plant and animal life and the geologic
history of the earth.  Seismologists interpret data from
seismographs and other geophysical instruments to detect earthquakes
and locate earthquake-related faults.  Stratigraphers help to
locate minerals by studying the distribution and arrangement of
sedimentary rock layers and by examining the fossil and mineral
content of such layers.

   Geologists and geophysicists often apply their knowledge of the
physical aspects of the earth to solve or prevent environmental
problems.

Working Conditions

   Some geoscientists spend the majority of their time in an office,
others divide their time between fieldwork and office or laboratory
work.  Geologists often travel to remote field sites by helicopter
or four-wheel drive vehicles and cover large areas by foot.
Exploration geologists and geophysicists often work overseas or in
remote areas, and job relocation is not unusual.  Geological and
physical oceanographers may spend considerable time at sea.

Employment

Geologists and geophysicists held about 48,000 jobs in 1992.  In
addition, thousands of persons held geology, geophysics, and
oceanography faculty positions in colleges and universities.  (See
the statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the
Handbook.) out 1 in 4 were employed in oil and gas companies or oil
and gas field service firms.  Many other geologists worked for
consulting firms and business services, especially engineering
services, which often provide services to oil and gas companies.
About 1 geologist in 10 was self-employed; most of these were
consultants to industry or government.

   The Federal Government employed about 6,400 geologists,
geophysicists, oceanographers, and hydrologists in 1992.  Over
one-half worked for the Department of the Interior in the U.S.
Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Minerals
Management Service, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of
Reclamation.  Others worked for the Departments of Defense,
Agriculture, Commerce, and Energy, and the Environmental Protection
Agency.  Some worked for State agencies such as State geological
surveys and State departments of conservation.  Geologists and
geophysicists also worked for nonprofit research institutions.  Some
were employed by American firms overseas for varying periods of
time.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

A bachelor's degree in geology or geophysics is adequate for entry
into some lower level geology jobs, but better jobs with good
advancement potential usually require at least a master's degree in
geology or geophysics.  Persons with strong backgrounds in physics,
chemistry, mathematics, or computer science also may qualify for
some geophysics or geology jobs.  A Ph.D.  degree is essential for
most college or university teaching positions, and is important for
work in Federal agencies that involves basic research.

   Over 500 colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree in
geology, geophysics, oceanography, or other geoscience.  Other
programs offering related training for beginning geological
scientists include geophysical technology, geophysical engineering,
geophysical prospecting, engineering geology, petroleum geology, and
geochemistry.  In addition, more than 300 universities award
advanced degrees in geology or geophysics.

   Geologists and geophysicists need to be able to work as part of a
team.  Computer modeling, data processing, and effective oral and
written communication skills are important, as well as the ability
to think independently and creatively.  Those involved in fieldwork
must have physical stamina.

   Traditional geoscience courses emphasizing classical geologic
methods and concepts (such as mineralogy, paleontology,
stratigraphy, and structural geology) are important for all
geoscientists.  However, those students interested in working in the
environmental or regulatory fields should take courses in hydrology,
hazardous waste management, environmental legislation, chemistry,
fluid mechanics, and geologic logging.

   Geologists and geophysicists often begin their careers in field
exploration or as research assistants in laboratories.  They are
given more difficult assignments as they gain experience.
Eventually they may be promoted to project leader, program manager,
or other management and research positions.

Job Outlook

Employment of geologists and geophysicists is expected to grow about
as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005.
Many jobs for geologists and geophysicists are in or related to the
petroleum industry, especially the exploration for oil and gas.
This industry is subject to cyclical fluctuations.  Low oil prices,
higher production costs, improvements in energy efficiency, and
restrictions on potential drilling sites have caused exploration
activities to be curtailed in the United States.  If these
conditions continue, there will be few openings in the petroleum
industry for geoscientists working in the United States.

   As a result of generally poor job prospects in the past few years,
the number of students enrolling in geology and geophysics has
dropped considerably.  Although enrollments are rising again, the
number of students trained in petroleum geology is likely to be so
low that even a small increase in openings in the oil industry will
be greater than the number of petroleum geologists and geophysicists
available to fill them, creating good employment opportunities if
exploration activities increase.

   Despite the generally poor job prospects encountered by
geo-scientists in recent years in the petroleum industry, the demand
for these professionals in environmental protection and reclamation
has been growing rapidly.  Geologists and geophysicists will be
needed to help clean up contaminated sites in the United States, and
to help private companies and government comply with more numerous
and complex environmental regulations.  In particular, jobs
requiring training in engineering geology, hydrology and
geochemistry should be in demand.  However, if the number of
geo-scientists who obtain training in these areas increases very
rapidly, they may experience competition despite the increasing
number of jobs available.

Earnings

Surveys by the College Placement Council indicate that graduates
with bachelor's degrees in the geological sciences received an
average starting offer of $25,704 a year in 1992.

   According to a 1991 American Geological Institute survey, the
average starting salaries for inexperienced geoscientists were about
$23,100 for those with a bachelor's degree, $28,100 for those with a
master's degree, and $33,600 for those with a Ph.D.  However, the
starting salaries can vary widely depending on the employing
industry.  For example, the oil and gas industry offered an average
starting salary of $36,250 for bachelor's degree holders, while in
research institutions, colleges, and universities, new hires with a
bachelor's degree averaged about $21,000.

   Although the petroleum, mineral, and mining industries offer higher
salaries, the competition in these areas is normally intense, and
the job security less than in other areas.

   In 1993, the Federal Government's average salary for geologists in
managerial, supervisory, and nonsupervisory positions was $51,800;
for geophysicists, $57,929; for hydrologists, $47,793; and for
oceanographers, $54,552.

Related Occupations

Many geologists and geophysicists work in the petroleum and natural
gas industry.  This industry also employs many other workers in the
scientific and technical aspects of petroleum and natural gas
exploration and extraction, including engineering technicians,
science technicians, petroleum engineers, and surveyors.  Also, some
life scientists, physicists, chemists, and meteorologists, as well
as mathematicians, computer scientists, soil scientists, and mapping
scientists, do related work in both petroleum and natural gas
exploration and extraction and in environment-related activities.

Sources of Additional Information

   Information on training and career opportunities for geologists is
available from:

   American Geological Institute, 4220 King St., Alexandria, VA
22302-1507.

   Geological Society of America, P.O.  Box 9140, 3300 Penrose Pl.,
Boulder, CO 80301.

   American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Communications
Department, P.O.  Box 979, Tulsa, OK 74101.

   Information on training and career opportunities for geophysicists
is available from:

   American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave.  NW., Washington, DC
20009.

   Society of Exploration Geophysicists, P.O.  Box 70240, Tulsa, OK
74170.

   Information on training and career opportunities in oceanography is
available from:

   Marine Technology Society, 1828 L St.  NW., Suite 906, Washington,
DC 20036.

   Information on Federal job opportunities is available from local
offices of State employment services or offices of the U.S.  Office
of Personnel Management located in major metropolitan areas.