Move the mouse into the structure to identify the components of the polynucleotide
18 of 21
backround
"structure"
mouseenter
mouseenter
structure
B t"|
sugars
"Sugar"
"structure"
mouseenter
mouseenter
Sugar
structure
phosphates
"Phosphate"
"structure"
mouseenter
mouseenter
Phosphate
structure
Bases
"Base"
"structure"
mouseenter
mouseenter
structure
Structure
Deoxyribonucleic Acidid
The bases belonging to different molecular chains can interact via weak bonds called hydrogen bonds. The interactions are specific between certain pairs of bases and this plays the key role in genetic replication and expression.
Important polynucleotides in this context are the nucleic acids deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
:PHYSSIZE
The double helical structure of DNA.
19 of 21
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Press this button to accept answers and obtain a final mark....ark............
From the following list indicate whether the element is one of the the four most abundant found in living organisms:
A. Iron
B. Silicon
C. Oxygen
D. Carbon
E. Magnesium
F. Phosphorus
G. Nitrogen
H. Calcium
I. Hydrogennn
"yn1"
"yn2"
"yn3"
"yn4"
"yn5"
"yn6"
"yn7"
"yn8"
"yn9"
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Press this button to accept answers and obtain a final mark...
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others
Other Substances
In addition to the organic molecules described in this tutorial it should be remembered that water forms a major constituent of the cell, both in free state in the cytoplasm and in association with other molecules as water of hydration.
Minerals also play an important role in the cell, notably the cations sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++), and the anions chloride (Cl-), sulphate (SO4--) and phosphate in its various forms (especially HPO4-- and H2PO4-).
Finally some elements occur in very small quantities in the cell and yet are vital for its function, these are the trace elements which include iron, zinc, iodine and cobalt.
Turn to the next page and complete the short revision execise.....
20 of 21
4AnswerList
Zynscore, yngrps, answers, x, y
-- Type
be tested
here,
order
-- presentation
questions
%follows:
--
-- (a) should be "N",
-- (b)
-- (c)
-- (d)
-- (e)
-- (f)
-- (g)
-- (h)
-- (i)
--
-- below
(Don't forget
quotes!):
"NNYYNNYNY"
cx <>
x <>
(YNgrps)
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YNscore
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"N")
-- no points
"Well Done!
You scored a total
" &&
&&"out
"elements"
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a wrong
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f"Try
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"yn3"
"yn4"
"yn5"
"yn6"
"yn7"
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"yn9"
"Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen
Nitrogen are
most abundant
living systems (
2shown
). Press OK
d." --
"solution"
"The
snow
"info"
B"no"
B"no"
B"no"
B"no"
B"yes"
B"no"
B"no"
B"no"
B"no"
B"no"
B"no"
B"MCQbutton"
B"Exit"
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NNYYNNYNY
YNgrps
Error! Mismatch in number of answers or number of Y/N groups on this page!
YNscore
YNgrps
YNgrps
YNscore
YNscore
YNscore
YNscore
YNscore
YNscore
Well Done! You scored a total of
out of 9
elements
One point is awarded for a correct answer, one point is deducted for a wrong answer, no attempt scores 0. You scored a total of
out of 9.
Try again.
Give Up
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Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen are the most abundant elements in living systems (the correct answers are shown in green). Press OK to continue.
The correct answers are now shown.
0,50,100
0,50,100
120,50,100
120,50,100
0,50,100
0,50,100
120,50,100
0,50,100
120,50,100
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AnswerList
carbon
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First Page
duckjibe
D(+) and L(-) Isomerismm
The naturally occurring stereoisomer for a monosaccharide such as glucose is the Dextrorotatary or D(+) for-so called as it rotates polarised light to the right. Stereoisomers that rotate polarised light in a leftward direction are termed Laevorotatory or L(-).
Monosaccharides can readily link together. When just two monomers link a Disaccharide is formed-examples include Maltose and Sucrose. When many monomers are linked a Polymer is formed examples being Starch and Cellulose.
Glucose is an important metabolic fuel. Starch and glycogen are important storage molecules for glucose whilst cellulose is a structural compound and carbohydrates associated with proteins and lipids Glycoproteins and Glycolipids form important binding sites facilitating recognition between molecules.
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lipids
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LipidsIm
Important classes of lipids include:
Triacylglycerols - formed as esters of Glycerol and Fatty Acids
These act as metabolic fuels.
Phospholipids - formed as esters of Glycerol and fatty acids but including a phosphate group.
These are important components of biological membranes.
Steroids - based on the carbon structure
Steroids act as hormones and cholesterol acts as an important component of the cell membrane.....ane..........................................................................................................................................................................................................
Triacylglycerol
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triacylglycerol
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triacylglycerol
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triacylglycerol
phospholipid
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Phospholipid
phospholipid
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Phospholipid
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phospholipid
steroids
steroids
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steroids
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steroids
12 of 21
triacylglycerol
Sketch of a triacylglycerol highlighting the ester
bonds.
steroids
Sketch of a Steroid
Steroid ring structure
Cholesterol
phospholipid
Sketch of a phospholipid. The ester bonds and
charge on the molecule are highlighted in blue
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revision
Amino Acids
"YesNo"
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YesNo
Amino Acidsssssssss
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. An amino acid has at least two functional groups, a carboxyl group and an amino group
Apart from glycine (which has R1=H) R1 is always a carbon containing group. If R1 is not a carboxyl group will this molecule exhibit stereoisomerism?
ong! - As the central carbon always has four different groups attached to it is asymmetric and the molecule will exhibit optical activity-hence stereoisomerism will occur.tereoisomerism will occur...oups attached to it is asymmetric and the molecule will exhibit optical activity-hence stereoisomerism will occur...............................................................................
Go to page 18
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Wrong
As the central carbon always has four different groups attached to it it is assymetric and the molecule will exhibit optical activity-hence stereoisomerism will occur.
peptide bonds
Amino Acids & Peptide Bondsss
Therefore apart from glycine, amino acids exhibit stereoisomerism, the naturally occurring stereoisomer having the L(-) configuration.
R1 represents a variety of different groups. In man some 20 different amino acids are encountered. With some exceptions these may be categorised under one of three headings.
Class Example (R1) Name of Acid
Neutral -CH3 Alanine
Acid -CH2CH2COOH Glutamic acid
Base -CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2 Lysine
Amino acids can link with each other with the elimination of a water molecule, the resultant being called a peptide bond...
peptide bond
peptidebond
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peptidebond
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peptidebond
peptidebond
The formation of a peptide bond (shown in blue).
highlighteddddddddddd
14 of 21
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molecular chains
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Molecular Chains
Different amino acids can link using peptide bonds to form molecular chains with a wide range of different side groups. The peptide bonds have been highlighted.
The molecule starts with a free amino group, the amino terminal, and ends with a free carboxyl group, the acid terminal. Linear chains of up to about 100 amino acids are often termed peptides whilst larger chains are termed proteins but there is no hard and fast distinction between the two classes of molecule.
Proteins and peptides are .................... formed from amino acids
15 of 21
answerj
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"Polymers"
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Polymers
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Polymers
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How to type in your answer
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polymers
Page Design
nucleotides
Isomerism
organic molecules
polynucleotide
proteins
Proteins
Linear chains of amino acids form the primary structure of a protein. Side groups can interact by weak chemical bonds to fold the primary structure into more complex forms - secondary and higher order structures can therefore be formed. The shape or configuration of a protein is of great importance for its biological function.
Proteins perform a wide range of functions in the cell. Structural proteins are vital for the structure both of cytoplasm and membranes whilst the metabolic reactions in the cell are catalysed by proteins termed enzymes.
16 of 21
nucleotides
nucleotides
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Nucleotides
Nucleotides are based on a repeating unit made up of three components, a pentose, a nitrogen-containing organic base and a phosphate group. Click on each group in turn to view the structures of the molecules belonging to that group.
Nucleotides such as adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) play an important role in the energy metabolism of the cell. In addition to this however the nucleotides can covalently bond to form linear sequences with differing bases as side groups.
nucleotides
nitrogenous
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Nitrogenous
base
R V b
phosphate
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Phosphate
phosphate
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pentose
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pentose
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Pentose
sugar
Deoxyribose (in DNA)
Ribose (in RNA))))))
17 of 21
Pyrimidines
Purinessssssss
Nitrogenous base molecules are classified into two groups, the pyrimidines and the purines. The molecules from each group are shown below...
"nucleotides"
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Monosacharides
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Revision Exercise
1. A lipoprotein is formed from a protein and a .............. molecule.
2. Proteins which catalyses metabolic reactions are ................
3. Starch is a polymer formed from .................... molecules.
4. An amino acid always carries two functional groups named ...................
and ...................
5. Specific base pairs in DNA interact by means of .................... bonds.
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EndText
End of ToolBookkeeeee
University of Aberdeen
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answerl
You are still incorrect. The answer is Lipid.
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Lipid
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answerm
response1
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"answerp" =
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"Carboxyl"
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Amino
answerp
Carboxyl
Correct!
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answerp
You are still incorrect. The answer is Amino.
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Amino
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"answern" =
"Glucose"
"Correct!"
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Glucose
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answern
You are still incorrect. The answer is Glucose.
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Glucose
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Enzymes
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answerm
answerm
You are still incorrect. The answer is Enzymes.
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Enzymes
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4PRTtries
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"Amino"
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answero
answero
Carboxyl
answero
Amino
Correct!
answero
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answero
Wrong. You answered
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answero
answero
You are still incorrect. The answer is Carboxyl.
answero
Carboxyl
answero
answerp
response1
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Acceptq
4PRTtries
"answerq" =
"Hydrogen"
"Correct!"
g < 3
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answerq
answerq
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Hydrogen
Correct!
answerq
answerp
answerq
Wrong. You answered
. The compound is an Amine.
That was attempt
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answerq
answerq
You are still incorrect. The answer is Hydrogen.
answerq
Hydrogen
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pthrptext
How to type in your answer
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If you make a mistake you can use the backspace key to correct your answer.
When you are satisfied with your answer click on the 'Accept' button. th your answer click on the 'Accept' button.
"help"
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peptide bonds
elements
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elements
Elemental Composition
The following table lists the relative abundance of the elements in humans and a bacterium:
%Dry Weight
Element E.Coli. Human
Oxygen (O) 20 18
Carbon (C) 50 54
Hydrogen (H) 10 8
Nitrogen (N) 10 9
Phosphorus (P) 4 3
Sulphur (S) 1 0.75
All remaining elements 5 7.25
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$&$&$&
Carbon Skeletonsnnn
The following structures illustrate some typical carbon skeletons. Identify the structure and type the name under each one.
ructures and type your answer in the dialog box.
5 of 21
answera
answerb
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"Estradiol"
"Oestradiol"
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answerc
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Estradiol
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Oestradiol
Correct!
answerc
answerb
answerc
Wrong. You answered
. Its a Steroid.
That was attempt
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You are still incorrect. The answer is Oestradiol.
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Oestradiol
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ethstruc
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name this structure
benzstruc
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structure"
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Steroid
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"answera" =
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answera
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Ethane
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answera
answerb
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answera
answera
You are still incorrect. The answer is Ethane.
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Ethane
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"answerb" =
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answerb
Benzene
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answerb
You are still incorrect. The answer is Benzene.
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Benzene
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How to type in your answer
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When you are satisfied with your answer click on the 'Accept' button. th your answer click on the 'Accept' button.
"help"
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answera
answerb
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answerc
4PRTtries
"answeri" =
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Stereoisomerism
Correct!
answeri
answeri
Stereo
Correct, You answered Stereo
The full answer is Stereoisomerism.
answeri
Stereoisomerism
answeri
answeri
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Correct, You answered Bollocks
The full answer is Stereoisomerism.
answeri
Stereoisomerism
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answeri
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answeri
answeri
You are still incorrect. The answer is Stereoisomerism.
answeri
Stereoisomerism
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Amino Acids
` ` '
organic molecules
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Organic Molecules in Biological Systemsss
There are four broad categories of organic molecule found in all living cells. These are classified as carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides and ......................
.............
8 of 21
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6,`_#
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Protein
Functional groups
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Functional Groups
The structures of ethane, benzene and estradiol illustrate how carbon atoms can form very different molecular skeletons. The chemical properties of these molecules are largely determined by the functional groups attached to the carbon skeleton.
Identify the following functional groups:
clicking the mouse on each of the groups and typing your answer in the dialog box.
)
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Acceptd
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"answerd" =
"Hydroxyl"
"Correct!"
g < 3
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answerd
answerd
answerd
Hydroxyl
Correct!
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answerd
Wrong. You answered
. The group contains Hydrogen and Oxygen.
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answerd
answerd
You are still incorrect. The answer is Hydroxyl.
answerd
Hydroxyl
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"answerf" =
"Amino"
"Correct!"
d < 3
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answerf
answerf
Amino
Correct!
answerf
answere
answerf
Wrong. You answered
. The compound is an Amine.
That was attempt
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answerf
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You are still incorrect. The answer is Amino.
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pthrptext
How to type in your answer
A cursor appears on the screen indicating that you must type an answer.
If you make a mistake you can use the backspace key to correct your answer.
When you are satisfied with your answer click on the 'Accept' button. th your answer click on the 'Accept' button.
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6 of 21
carbohydrates
4PRTtries, CHK
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules based on repeating units or monomers with a general formula (CH2O)n. Carbohydrates consisting of one monomer unit are called monosaccharides. Glucose is an example of a monosaccharide and as in the general formula n=6 it is called a hexose, i.e. its formula reads C6H12O6.
Other examples of monosaccharides include Ribose (a pentose as n=5) and
Glyceraldehyde which is a ................ .............................
Glucose
Glyceraldehydeeeeee
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If you make a mistake you can use the backspace key to correct your answer.
When you are satisfied with your answer click on the 'Accept' button. th your answer click on the 'Accept' button.
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9 of 21
Monosacharides
4PRTtries, CHK
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Monosaccharides
A ketone (in ketoses) or a aldehyde (in aldoses) group are important functional groups associated with monosacharides.
Monosacharides contain an asymmetric carbon atom i.e. for glucose
Where R1=CHO, R2=H, R3=OH and R4=C4O4H9
The isomerism exhibited by monosacharides is termed .....................................
10 of 21
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molecular chains
proteins
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Chemical Composition of the Cell
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Tutorial 1 The Chemical Composition of the CellLLLLLLLLLLLL
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Start Tutorial
UniofAberdeen
University of Aberdeen
Department of Biomedical Sciences
Computer Assisted Learningg
What to do
Use the mouse to click on the button of your choice.
Hotwords, shown in bold underline, become active when you place the mouse operated cursor over them. Try pressing this Hotword now!
If you want to know more about the tutorial or if you are unsure about using the mouse or the computer then click on the grey 'Help' Button.
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y&player
Introduction
The objective of this tutorial is to supplement the lecture material on the chemical composition of the cell together with a set of questions and answers highlighting the main points covered by the lecture.
It is based on the following Chapters of "Biology" Third Ed 1993 by N. A. Campbell: 2 (Atoms Molecules and Chemical Bonds), 3 (Water and Fitness of the Environment), 4 (Carbon and Molecular Diversity) and 5 (Structure and Function of Macromolecules)
Use the navigation arrows at the bottom of each page to move around the tutorial and answer the questions that occur. Follow any instructions given on the pages.
1 of 21
Next Move
Use the mouse to click on the grey button to move ononnn
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MainBackground
carbon
& Author
Carbon
Of the four most abundant elements in living systems carbon is by far the most important. Carbon's ability to form chains of covalently bonded atoms gives it a unique ability to provide the diverse range of molecules necessary for the structure and metabolism of living systems.
In understanding the behaviour of an organic molecule we must consider two important aspects, the carbon skeleton and the nature of the functional groups in the molecule..
Let us start with :he carbon skeleton::::::::::::
4 of 21
carbon skeleton
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Isomerism
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Isomerism
Another important aspect of the structure of organic molecules is the ability of molecules of identical chemical formula to exist in more than one structural form. This property is called isomerism and each structural form is termed an isomer.
There are three forms of isomerism, structural, geometric and optical isomerism. Please click and hold on one of the isomeric forms listed below to reveal the appropriate example.
a) Structural isomers
b) Geometric isomers
c) Optical isomersnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnOptical isomers: variation in
Stuctural isomers
covalent
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geometric isomers
geometric
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Optical isomers
optical
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7 of 21
optical
Geometric
Optical isomers of Alanine showing variation
in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric
carbon resulting in molecules that are mirror
images
x 3 s
covalent
Structural isomers of Butane showing variation
in covalent arrangement
Geometric
Geometric isomers of Ethanediol showing variation in arrangement around a double
bond
geometric
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SizeToPage"
app isn't running, so we'll
\work\utl\bmshelp.tbk"
LeaveBook
FALSE
"tbkdlg.dll"
"tbkwin.
"kernel"
--Alphabetic Input data
accept buttons
alphacheck
"answer1"
"Type your
kbox. Do
xuse numbers, "&&\
"hyphens
tabs."
) >= 65
) <= 90
) >= 97
) <= 122
--test
alphabetic
HelpMainMenu
EnterBook
LeaveBook
alphacheck
EnterBook
sizetopage
&Help Me
Help Main Menu
Help Me
HelpMainMenu
bringWindowToTop
sysWindowHandle
bringwindowtotop
send SizeToPage
\toolbook\work\utl\bmshelp.tbk
fAppName
toolbook
LeaveBook
tbkdlg.dll
tbkwin.dll
kernel
alphacheck
answer1
Type your answer in the yellow box. Do not use numbers,
hyphens or tabs.
answer1
Type your answer in the yellow box. Do not use numbers,