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CONTENTS
___________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 1 BASM.DOC 1 Inline assembly and register
Inline assembly language . . . . 1 variables . . . . . . . . . 7
BASM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Inline assembly, offsets, and
Inline syntax . . . . . . . . 2 size overrides . . . . . . 7
Opcodes . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Using C structure members . . 7
String instructions . . . . 5 Using jump instructions and
Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . 5 labels . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Jump instructions . . . . . 5 Interrupt functions . . . . . . 9
Assembly directives . . . . 6 Using low-level practices . . . 10
Inline assembly references to
data and functions . . . . . . 6 Index 13
i
TABLES
___________________________________________________________________________
1.1: Opcode mnemonics . . . . . . 4 1.3: Jump instructions . . . . . .6
1.2: String instructions . . . . . 5
ii
Online document
___________________________________________________________________________
BASM.DOC
This online file tells you how to use the Turbo C++
built-in inline assembler (BASM) to include assembly
language routines in your C and C++ programs without
any need for a separate assembler. Such assembly
language routines are called inline assembly, because
they are compiled right along with your C routines,
rather than being assembled separately, then linked
together with modules produced by the C compiler.
Of course, Turbo C++ also supports traditional mixed-
language programming in which your C program calls
assembly language routines (or vice-versa) that are
separately assembled by TASM (Turbo Assembler), sold
separately. In order to interface C and assembly
language, you must know how to write 80x86 assembly
language routines and how to define segments, data
constants, and so on. You also need to be familiar with
calling conventions (parameter passing sequences) in C
and assembly language, including the pascal parameter
passing sequence in C.
Inline assembly =======================================================
language
Turbo C++ lets you write assembly language code right
inside your C and C++ programs. This is known as inline
assembly.
------------------ If you don't invoke TASM, Turbo C++ can assemble your
BASM inline assembly instructions using the built-in
------------------ assembler (BASM). This assembler can do everything TASM
can do with the following restrictions:
o It cannot use assembler macros
- 1 -
o It cannot handle 80386 or 80486 instructions
o It does not permit Ideal mode syntax
o It allows only a limited set of assembler directives
(see page 6)
------------------ Of course, you also need to be familiar with the 80x86
Inline syntax instruction set and architecture. Even though you're
------------------ not writing complete assembly language routines, you
still need to know how the instructions you're using
work, how to use them, and how not to use them.
Having done all that, you need only use the keyword asm
to introduce an inline assembly language instruction.
The format is
asm opcode operands ; or newline
where
o opcode is a valid 80x86 instruction (Table 1.0 lists
all allowable opcodes).
o operands contains the operand(s) acceptable to the
opcode, and can reference C constants, variables, and
labels.
o ; or newline is a semicolon or a new line, either of
which signals the end of the asm statement.
A new asm statement can be placed on the same line,
following a semicolon, but no asm statement can
continue to the next line.
To include a number of asm statements, surround them
with braces:
The initial brace asm {
must appear on the pop ax; pop ds
same line as the iret
asm keyword. }
Semicolons are not used to start comments (as they are
in TASM). When commenting asm statements, use C-style
comments, like this:
- 2 -
asm mov ax,ds; /* This comment is OK */
asm {pop ax; pop ds; iret;} /* This is legal too */
asm push ds ;THIS COMMENT IS
INVALID!!
The assembly language portion of the statement is
copied straight to the output, embedded in the assembly
language that Turbo C++ is generating from your C or
C++ instructions. Any C symbols are replaced with ap-
propriate assembly language equivalents.
Because the inline assembly facility is not a complete
assembler, it may not accept some assembly language
constructs. If this happens, Turbo C++ will issue an
error message. You then have two choices. You can
simplify your inline assembly language code so that the
assembler will accept it, or you can use an external
assembler such as TASM. However, TASM might not identi-
fy the location of errors, since the original C source
line number is lost.
Each asm statement counts as a C statement. For
example,
myfunc()
{
int i;
int x;
if (i > 0)
asm mov x,4
else
i = 7;
}
This construct is a valid C if statement. Note that no
semicolon was needed after the mov x,4 instruction. asm
statements are the only statements in C that depend on
the occurrence of a new line. This is not in keeping
with the rest of the C language, but this is the
convention adopted by several UNIX-based compilers.
An assembly statement can be used as an executable
statement inside a function, or as an external
declaration outside of a function. Assembly statements
located outside any function are placed in the data
segment, and assembly statements located inside func-
tions are placed in the code segment.
- 3 -
------------------ You can include any of the 80x86 instruction opcodes as
Opcodes inline assembly statements. There are four classes of
------------------ instructions allowed by the Turbo C++ compiler:
o normal instructions--the regular 80x86 opcode set
o string instructions--special string-handling codes
o jump instructions--various jump opcodes
o assembly directives--data allocation and definition
Note that all operands are allowed by the compiler,
even if they are erroneous or disallowed by the
assembler. The exact format of the operands is not
enforced by the compiler.
-------------------------------------------------------
Opcode mnemonics aaa fclex fldenv fstenv
aad fcom fldl2e fstp
aam fcomp fldl2t fstsw
aas fcompp fldlg2 fsub
adc fdecstp** fldln2 fsubp
This table lists add fdisi fldpi fsubr
the opcode and fdiv fldz fsubrp
mnemonics that can bound fdivp fmul ftst
be used in inline call fdivr fmulp fwait
assembler. cbw fdivrp fnclex fxam
clc feni fndisi fxch
cld ffree** fneni fxtract
Inline assembly in cli fiadd fninit fyl2x
routines that use cmc ficom fnop fyl2xp1
floating-point cmp ficomp fnsave hlt
emulation doesn't cwd fidiv fnstcw idiv
support the daa fidivr fnstenv imul
opcodes marked das fild fnstsw in
with **. dec fimul fpatan inc
div fincstp** fprem int
enter finit fptan into
f2xm1 fist frndint iret
fabs fistp frstor lahf
fadd fisub fsave lds
faddp fisubr fscale lea
fbld fld fsqrt leave
fbstp fld1 fst les
fchs fldcw fstcw lsl
- 4 -
mul or ret stc
neg out rol std
nop pop ror sti
not popa sahf sub
popf sal test
push sar verr
pusha sbb verw
pushf shl wait
rcl shr xchg
rcr smsw xlat
xor
-------------------------------------------------------
String instructions
=======================================================
In addition to the listed opcodes, the string
instructions given in the following table can be used
alone or with repeat prefixes.
String
instructions -------------------------------------------------------
cmps insw movsb outsw stos
cmpsb lods movsw scas stosb
cmpsw lodsb outs scasb stosw
ins lodsw outsb scasw
insb movs
-------------------------------------------------------
Prefixes
=======================================================
The following prefixes can be used:
lock rep repe repne repnz repz
Jump instructions
=======================================================
Jump instructions are treated specially. Since a label
cannot be included on the instruction itself, jumps
must go to C labels (discussed in "Using jump
instructions and labels" on page 8). The allowed jump
instructions are given in the next table.
- 5 -
Table 1.3: Jump instructions (continued)_______________
Jump -------------------------------------------------------
instructions ja jge jnc jns loop
jae jl jne jnz loope
jb jle jng jo loopne
jbe jmp jnge jp loopnz
jc jna jnl jpe loopz
jcxz jnae jnle jpo
je jnb jno js
jg jnbe jnp jz
-----------------------------------------
Assembly directives
=======================================================
The following assembly directives are allowed in Turbo
C++ inline assembly statements:
db dd dw extrn
------------------ You can use C symbols in your asm statements; Turbo C++
Inline assembly automatically converts them to appropriate assembly
references to data language operands and appends underscores onto
and functions identifier names. You can use any symbol, including
------------------ automatic (local) variables, register variables, and
function parameters.
In general, you can use a C symbol in any position
where an address operand would be legal. Of course, you
can use a register variable wherever a register would
be a legal operand.
If the assembler encounters an identifier while parsing
the operands of an inline assembly instruction, it
searches for the identifier in the C symbol table. The
names of the 80x86 registers are excluded from this
search. Either uppercase or lowercase forms of the
register names can be used.
- 6 -
Inline assembly and register variables
=======================================================
Inline assembly code can freely use SI or DI as scratch
registers. If you use SI or DI in inline assembly code,
the compiler won't use these registers for register
variables.
Inline assembly, offsets, and size overrides
=======================================================
When programming, you don't need to be concerned with
the exact offsets of local variables. Simply using the
name will include the correct offsets.
However, it may be necessary to include appropriate
WORD PTR, BYTE PTR, or other size overrides on assembly
instruction. A DWORD PTR override is needed on LES or
indirect far call instructions.
------------------ You can reference structure members in an inline
Using C structure assembly statement in the usual fashion (that is,
members variable.member). In such a case, you are dealing with
------------------ a variable, and you can store or retrieve values.
However, you can also directly reference the member
name (without the variable name) as a form of numeric
constant. In this situation, the constant equals the
offset (in bytes) from the start of the structure
containing that member. Consider the following program
fragment:
struct myStruct {
int a_a;
int a_b;
int a_c;
} myA ;
myfunc()
{
...
asm {mov ax, myA.a_b
mov bx, [di].a_c
}
...
}
- 7 -
We've declared a structure type named myStruct with
three members, a_a, a_b, and a_c; we've also declared a
variable myA of type myStruct. The first inline
assembly statement moves the value contained in myA.a_b
into the register AX. The second moves the value at the
address [di] + offset(a_c) into the register BX (it
takes the address stored in DI and adds to it the
offset of a_c from the start of myStruct). In this
sequence, these assembler statements produce the
following code:
mov ax, DGROUP : myA+2
mov bx, [di+4]
Why would you even want to do this? If you load a
register (such as DI) with the address of a structure
of type myStruct, you can use the member names to
directly reference the members. The member name
actually can be used in any position where a numeric
constant is allowed in an assembly statement operand.
The structure member must be preceded by a dot (.) to
signal that a member name, rather than a normal C
symbol, is being used. Member names are replaced in the
assembly output by the numeric offset of the structure
member (the numeric offset of a_c is 4), but no type
information is retained. Thus members can be used as
compile-time constants in assembly statements.
However, there is one restriction. If two structures
that you are using in inline assembly have the same
member name, you must distinguish between them. Insert
the structure type (in parentheses) between the dot and
the member name, as if it were a cast. For example,
asm mov bx,[di].(struct tm)tm_hour
------------------ You can use any of the conditional and unconditional
Using jump jump instructions, plus the loop instructions, in
instructions and inline assembly. They are only valid inside a function.
labels Since no labels can be defined in the asm statements,
------------------ jump instructions must use C goto labels as the object
of the jump. If the label is too far away, the jump
will be automatically converted to a long-distance
jump. Direct far jumps cannot be generated.
- 8 -
In the following code, the jump goes to the C goto
label a.
int x()
{
a: /* This is the goto label "a" */
...
asm jmp a /* Goes to label "a" */
...
}
Indirect jumps are also allowed. To use an indirect
jump, you can use a register name as the operand of the
jump instruction.
Interrupt func- =======================================================
tions
The 80x86 reserves the first 1024 bytes of memory for a
set of 256 far pointers--known as interrupt vectors--to
special system routines known as interrupt handlers.
These routines are called by executing the 80x86
instruction
int int#
where int# goes from 0h to FFh. When this happens, the
computer saves the code segment (CS), instruction
pointer (IP), and status flags, disables the
interrupts, then does a far jump to the location
pointed to by the corresponding interrupt vector. For
example, one interrupt call you're likely to see is
int 21h
which calls most DOS routines. But many of the
interrupt vectors are unused, which means, of course,
that you can write your own interrupt handler and put a
far pointer to it into one of the unused interrupt
vectors.
To write an interrupt handler in Turbo C++, you must
define the function to be of type interrupt; more
specifically, it should look like this:
void interrupt myhandler(bp, di, si, ds, es, dx,
- 9 -
cx, bx, ax, ip, cs, flags,
... );
As you can see, all the registers are passed as
parameters, so you can use and modify them in your code
without using the pseudovariables discussed earlier in
this online file. You can also pass additional
parameters (flags, ...) to the handler; those should be
defined appropriately.
A function of type interrupt will automatically save
(in addition to SI, DI, and BP) the registers AX
through DX, ES, and DS. These same registers are
restored on exit from the interrupt handler.
Interrupt handlers may use floating-point arithmetic in
all memory models. Any interrupt handler code that uses
an 80x87 must save the state of the chip on entry and
restore it on exit from the handler.
An interrupt function can modify its parameters.
Changing the declared parameters will modify the
corresponding register when the interrupt handler
returns. This may be useful when you are using an
interrupt handler to act as a user service, much like
the DOS INT 21 services. Also, note that an interrupt
function exits with an IRET (return from interrupt)
instruction.
So, why would you want to write your own interrupt
handler? For one thing, that's how most memory-resident
routines work. They install themselves as interrupt
handlers. That way, whenever some special or periodic
action takes place (clock tick, keyboard press, and so
on), these routines can intercept the call to the
routine handling the interrupt and see what action
needs to take place. Having done that, they can then
pass control on to the routine that was there.
Using low-level =======================================================
practices
You've already seen a few examples of how to use these
different low-level practices in your code; now it's
time to look at a few more. Let's start with an
interrupt handler that does something harmless but
tangible (or, in this case, audible): It beeps whenever
it's called.
- 10 -
First, write the function itself. Here's what it might
look like:
#include <dos.h>
void interrupt mybeep(unsigned bp, unsigned di,
unsigned si,
unsigned ds, unsigned es,
unsigned dx,
unsigned cx, unsigned bx,
unsigned ax)
{
int i, j;
char originalbits, bits;
unsigned char bcount = ax >> 8;
/* Get the current control port setting */
bits = originalbits = inportb(0x61);
for (i = 0; i <= bcount; i++){
/* Turn off the speaker for awhile */
outportb(0x61, bits & 0xfc);
for (j = 0; j <= 100; j++)
; /* empty statement */
/* Now turn it on for some more time */
outportb(0x61, bits | 2);
for (j = 0; j <= 100; j++)
; /* another empty statement */
}
/* Restore the control port setting */
outportb(0x61, originalbits);
}
Next, write a function to install your interrupt
handler. Pass it the address of the function and its
interrupt number (0 to 255 or 0x00 to 0xFF).
void install(void interrupt (*faddr)(), int inum)
{
setvect(inum, faddr);
}
Finally, call your beep routine to test it out. Here's
a function to do just that:
- 11 -
void testbeep(unsigned char bcount, int inum)
{
_AH = bcount;
geninterrupt(inum);
}
Your main function might look like this:
main()
{
char ch;
install(mybeep,10);
testbeep(3,10);
ch = getch();
}
You might also want to preserve the original interrupt
vector and restore it when your main program is
finished. Use the getvect and setvect functions to do
this.
- 12 -
INDEX
___________________________________________________________________________
A F
asm (keyword) 2 floating point
braces and 2 arithmetic
assembler interrupt functions and 10
built in 1 functions
assembly language calling
inline 1 in inline assembly code 6
braces and 2
C structure members and 7
restrictions 8 G
calling functions 6 goto statements
commenting 2 assembly language and 8
directives 6
goto in 8
jump instructions 5, 8 I
option (*B) 1 INT instruction 9
referencing data in 6 interrupt (keyword) 9
register variables in 7 interrupts
semicolons and 3 beep
size overrides in 7 example 11
syntax 2 functions
variable offsets in 7 example of 10
floating-point arithmetic in 10
handlers
B calling 11
braces installing 11
asm keyword and 2 programming 9
built-in assembler 1
J
C jump instructions, inline assembly language
command-line compiler table 5
options using 8
assembly language and 1
-B (inline assembler code) 1
inline assembler code 1 L
comments labels
inline assembly language code 2 in inline assembly code 8
Index 13
M repeat prefix opcodes 5
memory-resident routines 10
S
O size overrides in inline assembly
opcodes 3 code 7
defined 2 software interrupt instruction 9
mnemonics sounds
table 4 beep 11
repeat prefixes 5 structures
operands (assembly language) 2 members
in inline assembly code 7
restrictions 8
P syntax
prefix opcodes, repeat 5 inline assembly language 2
programs
terminate and stay resident
interrupt handlers and 10 T
terminate and stay resident
programs
R interrupt handlers and 10
referencing data in inline assembly Turbo Assembler 1
code 6
registers
DI V
assembly language and 7 variables
SI offsets in inline assembly code 7
assembly language and 7
variables
in inline assembly code 7
- 14 -
