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- Date: Thu, 28 Jan 1993 14:32:00 GMT
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- Subject: Mutual Aid
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-
- From Greg Williams (930228)
-
- 1. Quoting Durward L. Allen (Professor of Wildlife Biology, Purdue
- University), WOLVES OF MINONG [ISLE ROYALE, IN LAKE SUPERIOR]: THEIR
- VITAL ROLE IN A WILD COMMUNITY, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1979:
-
- 321-323, 325-326 - "Sometimes we see animals doing things that spell
- individual destruction. How do they get away with it? How could THIS
- have survival value? If we pause to reflect, these are not questions
- to be asked of individuals, but of species. Maybe it was for the
- common good that the individual did die. Then too, everything dies; it
- is only a question of when.
- It can be difficult also to explain why animals do certain things
- that simply seem to be wasted effort. A stumper that often challenged
- me is why the beaver girdles or half cuts many food trees without
- finishing the job. He spends untold hours and energy chiseling away
- and gets nothing at once to show for it. Where lies the incentive?
- I may have got a bit more insight into this situation on a hiking
- trip of about 40 miles over the center portion of the island in early
- May 1976.... I found many aspen windfalls blocking the trails that
- spring...
- Around beaver ponds girdled aspens and birches were budding out and
- the sap was running. The trees were still alive, even though some of
- the girdling was from the previous summer....
- High winds had blown down the partially cut trees far and wide. I
- began to realize that the half-job of the beaver was effective after
- all. With a minimum expenditure of energy, the animal now had fallen
- aspens to feed upon, and so did the moose and hare. The removal or
- killing of large trees would open up the stands and accelerate plant
- succession....
- It is a profitable intellectual enterprise to ask why things happen
- and to study the alternatives; good logic may take several directions.
- Cutting or half-cutting trees could sometimes represent a wasted
- effort that has no benefit for the individual beaver. However, this
- animal does not work by judgment, but by a compulsive innate behavior
- pattern. He must cut trees because they are there, and in the long run
- it gets beavers ahead, even though any one piece of business could be
- a loser.
- It came to me vividly how animals do these things on an evening of
- beaver watching... A beaver flooding had inundated the trail.. and I
- crossed on the dam. I climbed the low ridge ahead just before
- sundown....
- Then I went back to the pond for some late-evening watching. Earlier
- I had noticed that a dead aspen stub had been freshly girdled by a
- beaver. The wood seemed hard, but the stub was limbless and so far
- gone it had broken off 20 feet up. Strewn about was better material
- for a dam; the stub was not food; why cut it?...
- I mused at length on why a beaver would spend its energy on that
- useless stub. The explanation may be an extension of the half-cutting
- idea proposed earlier. The cutting of anything and everything is
- generalized behavior that provides for individual and colony survival.
- But it goes beyond that; it is community service. It contributes to
- the pond-meadow-forest rotation that brings diversity to bottomlands
- and benefits all living things in this association. The beaver is a
- good ecological citizen.
- In this vein, what seems like wasted effort is not wasted in the
- long run. For the beaver to survive, its life community must survive.
- In these self-operating organizations of living things nothing
- actually is wasted: not substance, not energy....
- To follow through, one must assume the existence of logical reasons
- for everything he sees. Some reasons seem obvious; many more are a
- mystery. All about us are adaptations we take for granted, but which
- might be understood if we looked long enough.
- For example, how does one explain the unique bark of the birch; the
- bark that, once peeled, will never grow back? It became a magnificent
- cultural material for the Indian. In the forest, that tough thin bark
- lasts for many years after the tree is dead. Why?
- Again, we may be dealing with community benefits. When beavers
- girdle an old birch, or when a stand of trees is flooded behind a new
- dam, the trees are killed and the largely limbless stubs continue to
- stand. The birches will be there after other species have rotted away,
- protruding from the water for decades. The wood softens, and
- woodpeckers dig out nesting cavities....
- These cavities become secondhand nesting places... Some of them
- become large with use... The wood will get so weak the stub eventually
- falls, but the old tree has served for a long time....
- Amid the complexities of nature we can ask endless questions, both
- practical and academic, that could be profitable to explore. For now,
- perhaps, they have value in pointing up our ignorance. They seem to
- say, keep some country in its natural state so we will have time to
- learn what it is really like. Our questions and ignorance suggest a
- go-slow policy in destroying anything irreplacveable.
- In all realism, it is not our nature to slow down on anything. As
- the master species, we are hard at it. I lie in my tent and listen to
- the singing mosquitos. How great it would be, I think, to be an all-
- powerful benevolent biological dictator for just a short spell. What
- good one could do.
- Then it occurs to me that someone said mosquitos pollinate the
- habenaria orchids."
-
- 2. I have never succeeded in getting Kentucky biologists interested in
- pursuing the provocative findings of computer simulations by David
- Sloan Wilson, as published in "Evolution on the Level of Communities,"
- SCIENCE 192, 1976, 1358-1360, and THE NATURAL SELECTION OF POPULATIONS
- AND COMMUNITIES, Benjamin Cummins, Menlo Park, 1980 (especially
- Chapter 6. Multilevel Evolution). I'd very much like to see more work
- on this; the situation here is analogous to the Veblening of economics
- (getting away from "homogeneous [and isolated, almost as monads]
- globules of desire" as models of individuals), which, unfortunately,
- never happened (but might still -- Bill Williams is working on his
- book about PCT foundations for economics again). Gary, I'd be
- interested in reactions of U. of Illinois evolutionary biologists to
- these references. Also, I think the sort of connections Wilson is
- considering might prove to be important in reorganization processes.
- Basically, Wilson explored the upshot of cases where organism A
- increases the probability of survival of organism B (perhaps a
- different species than A), which (perhaps through a complicated chain)
- increases the probability of survival of organism A. The abstract of
- Sloan's SCIENCE paper is as follows:
-
- "According to traditional models, natural selection is largely
- insensitive to an organism's effect on its community. Effects on the
- community at large cannot feed back differentially to the organisms
- that cause them, and, hence, cannot lead to the differential fitness
- of the organisms. However, if a spatial variation exists in community
- composition, organisms do differentially feel their own effects on the
- community, and this leads to a form of evolution on the community
- level. Without violating the principle of individual selection, the
- concept of an organism that exists for the 'function' it performs in
- its community may be valid in some cases."
-
- As ever,
-
- Greg
-