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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1. Title page ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                            The macro package for TeX

                                       by

                             Leslie Lamport  et  al

                                   Edition 1.6

                                  December 1994

This is edition 1.6 of the LaTeX2e documentation, and is for the Texinfo that
is distributed as part of Version 19 of GNU Emacs. It uses version 2.134 or
later of the texinfo.tex input file.

This is translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. This
pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State
University. It has been edited to this form by Paul Nothard of Edinburgh
University.

The original (latex.texi and latex2.texi) was distributed by Stephen Gilmore
<[e-mail]>, August 26th 1993.

Version 1.1 was made by Piet van Oostrum <[e-mail]> on Dec 14, 1993 by
merging and cleaning up latex.texi and latex2.texi.

Versions 1.2 trough 1.6 by Torsten Martinsen <[e-mail]>.

This Texinfo file may be copied and distributed in accordance with the usual
copying permissions of the Free Software Foundation.  These permissions are
given in the General Public License section of the ``GNU Emacs Manual''.  This
software comes with NO WARRANTY.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual
provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all
copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual
under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting
derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to
this one.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2. Top ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

LaTeX2e is a document preparation system implemented as a macro package for
Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program.

LaTeX was originally conceived by Leslie Lamport.

This is edition 1.6 of the LaTeX2e documentation.

Overview                                What is LaTeX?
Commands                                Commands within a LaTeX document.
Parameters                              The command line.
Command Index                           An alphabetical list of LaTeX commands.
Concept Index                           An alphabetical list of concepts.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 3. Overview of LaTeX and Local Guide ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program and the LaTeX
Macro package for TeX.  To be more specific, it processes an input file
containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that describe how
the text should be formatted.  It produces at least three files as output:

 1. A ``Device Independent'', or `.dvi' file. This contains commands that can
    be translated into commands for a variety of output devices.  You can view
    the output of LaTeX by using a program such as xdvi, which actually uses
    the `.dvi' file.

 2. A ``transcript'' or `.log' file that contains summary information and
    diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file.

 3. An ``auxiliary'' or `.aux' file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for things
    such as sectioning.

For a description of what goes on inside TeX, you should consult The TeXbook by
Donald E. Knuth, ISBN 0-201-13448-9, published jointly by the American
Mathematical Society and Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

For a description of LaTeX, you should consult:

LaTeX: A Document Preparation System, by Leslie Lamport, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, 2nd edition, 1994.

The LaTeX Companion, by Michel Goossens, Frank Mittelbach, and Alexander
Samarin, Addison-Wesley, 1994.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4. Commands ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a \ followed by
either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter.  Arguments contained
in square brackets, [], are optional while arguments contained in braces, {},
are required.

NOTE:  LaTeX  is case sensitive.  Enter  all commands  in lower  case unless
explicitly directed to do otherwise.

Counters                                Internal counters used by LaTeX.
Cross References                        Automatic referencing.
Definitions                             Define your own commands etc.
Document Classes                        Some of the various classes available.
Environments                            Such as enumerate & itemize.
Footnotes                               How to produce footnotes.
Layout                                  Controlling the page layout.
Lengths                                 The length commands.
Letters                                 The letter class.
Line & Page Breaking                    How to insert pagebreaks etc.
Making Paragraphs                       Paragraph commands.
Margin Notes                            Putting remarks in the margin.
Math Formulae                           How to create mathematical formulae.
Modes                                   Paragraph, Math or LR modes.
Page Styles                             Various styles of page layout.
Sectioning                              How to section properly.
Spaces & Boxes                          All the associated commands.
Special Characters                      Special reserved characters.
Splitting the Input                     Dealing with big files by splitting.
Starting & Ending                       The formal start & end layouts.
Table of Contents                       How to create a table of contents.
Terminal Input/Output                   User interaction.
Typefaces                               Such as bold, italics etc.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1. Counters ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of
the counter is the same as the name of the environment or command that produces
the number, except with no \.  (enumi - enumiv are used for the nested
enumerate environment.)  Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX's
standard document classes to control numbering.

 part            paragraph       figure          enumi
 chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
 section         page            footnote        enumiii
 subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
 subsubsection

\addtocounter                           Add a quantity to a counter.
\alph                                   Print value of a counter using letters.
\arabic                                 Print value of a counter using
                                        numerals.
\fnsymbol                               Print value of a counter using symbols.
\newcounter                             Define a new counter.
\refstepcounter                         Add to counter, resetting subsidiary
                                        counters.
\roman                                  Print value of a counter using roman
                                        numerals.
\setcounter                             Set the value of a counter.
\stepcounter                            Add to counter, resetting subsidiary
                                        counters.
\usecounter                             Use a specified counter in a list
                                        environment.
\value                                  Use the value of a counter in an
                                        expression.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.1. \addtocounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\addtocounter{counter}{value}

The \addtocounter command increments the counter by the amount specified by the
value argument.  The value argument can be negative.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.2. \alph ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\alph{counter}

This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in alphabetic
characters.  The \alph command uses lower case alphabetic alphabetic
characters, i.e., a, b, c... while the \Alph command uses upper case alphabetic
characters, i.e., A, B, C....


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.3. \arabic ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\arabic{counter}

The \arabic command causes the value of the counter to be printed in Arabic
numbers, i.e., 3.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.4. \fnsymbol ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\fnsymbol{counter}

The \fnsymbol command causes the value of the counter to be printed in a
specific sequence of nine symbols that can be used for numbering footnotes.

NB. counter must have a value between 1 and 9 inclusive.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.5. \newcounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\newcounter{foo}[counter]

The \newcounter command defines a new counter named foo. The counter is
initialized to zero.

The optional argument [counter] causes the counter foo to be reset whenever the
counter named in the optional argument is incremented.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.6. \refstepcounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\refstepcounter{counter}

The \refstepcounter command works like  \stepcounter See \stepcounter, except
it also defines the current \ref value to be the result of \thecounter.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.7. \roman ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\roman{counter}

This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in Roman numerals.
The \roman command uses lower case Roman numerals, i.e., i, ii, iii..., while
the \Roman command uses upper case Roman numerals, i.e., I, II, III....


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.8. \stepcounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\stepcounter{counter}

The \stepcounter command adds one to the counter and resets all subsidiary
counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.9. \setcounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\setcounter{counter}{value}

The \setcounter command sets the value of the counter to that specified by the
value argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.10. \usecounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\usecounter{counter}

The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the list environment
to allow the counter specified to be used to number the list items.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.11. \value ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\value{counter}

The \value command produces the value of the counter named in the mandatory
argument.  It can be used where LaTeX expects an integer or number, such as the
second argument of a \setcounter or \addtocounter command, or in:

        \hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}

It is useful for doing arithmetic with counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.2. Cross References ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the
reader to them, as in ``See Figure 3 for more details.''

\label                                  Assign a symbolic name to a piece of
                                        text.
\pageref                                Refer to a page number.
\ref                                    Refer to a section, figure or similar.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.2.1. \label ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\label{key}

A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to the key the number of
the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment assigns
that number to the key.

A key can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or punctuation
characters.  Upper and lowercase letters are different.

To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is common to
use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon. The
prefixes conventionally used are

o cha for chapters

o sec for lower-level sectioning commands

o fig for figures

o tab for tables

o eq for equations

Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:bandersnatch.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.2.2. \pageref ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\pageref{key}

The \pageref command produces the page number of the place in the text where
the corresponding \label command appears. ie. where \label{key} appears.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.2.3. \ref ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\ref{key}

The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation number,
... of the corresponding \label command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3. Definitions ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\newcommand                             Define a new command.
\newenvironment                         Define a new environment.
\newtheorem                             Define a new theorem-like environment.
\newfont                                Define a new font name.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3.1. \newcommand ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
 \newcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}
 \renewcommand{cmd}[args]{definition}
 \renewcommand{cmd}[args][default]{definition}

These commands define (or redefine) a command.

cmd
          A command name beginning with a \.  For \newcommand it must not be
          already defined and must not begin with \end; for \renewcommand it
          must already be defined.

args
          An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the
          command being defined.  The default is for the command to have no
          arguments.

def
          If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command's
          first argument is optional. The default value of the optional
          argument is def.

definition
          The text to be substituted for every occurrence of cmd; a parameter
          of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of the nth argument
          when this substitution takes place.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3.2. \newenvironment ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
 \newenvironment{nam}[args][default]{begdef}{enddef}
 \renewenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}

These commands define or redefine an environment.

nam
          The name of the environment.  For \newenvironment there must be no
          currently defined environment by that name, and the command \nam must
          be undefined.  For \renewenvironment the environment must already be
          defined.

args
          An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the
          newly-defined environment.  The default is no arguments.

default
          If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and default
          gives the default value for that argument.

begdef
          The text substituted for every occurrence of \begin{nam}; a parameter
          of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of the nth argument
          when this substitution takes place.

enddef
          The text substituted for every occurrence of \end{nam}.  It may not
          contain any argument parameters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3.3. \newtheorem ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newtheorem{env_name}{caption}[within]
 \newtheorem{env_name}[numbered_like]{caption}

This command defines a theorem-like environment.

env_name
          The name of the environment to be defined. A string of letters.  It
          must not be the name of an existing environment or counter.

caption
          The text printed at the beginning of the environment, right before
          the number. This may simply say ``Theorem'', for example.

within
          The name of an already defined counter, usually of a sectional unit.
          Provides a means of resetting the new theorem counter *within* the
          sectional unit.

numbered_like
          The name of an already defined theorem-like environment.

The \newtheorem command may have at most one optional argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3.4. \newfont ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\newfont{cmd}{font_name}

Defines the command name cmd, which must not be currently defined, to be a
declaration that selects the font named font_name to be the current font.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.4. Document Classes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Valid LaTeX document classes include:

o article

o report

o letter

o book

o slides

Other document classes are often available. See Overview, for details. They are
selected with the following command:

\documentclass [options] {class}

All the standard classes (except slides) accept the following options for
selecting the typeface size (10 pt is default):

10pt, 11pt, 12pt

All classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default is
letter):

a4paper, a5paper, b5paper, letterpaper, legalpaper, executivepaper

Miscellaneous options:

o landscape --- selects landscape format. Default is portrait.

o titlepage, notitlepage --- selects if there should be a separate title page.

o leqno --- equation number on left side of equations. Default is right side.

o fleqn --- displayed formulas flush left. Default is centred.

o openbib --- use ``open'' bibliography format.

o draft, final --- mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a rule. Default is
  final.

These options are not available with the slides class:

o oneside, twoside --- selects one- or twosided layout. Default is oneside,
  except for the book class.

o openright, openany --- determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand
  page. Default is openright for book.

o onecolumn, twocolumn --- one or two columns. Defaults to one column.

The slides class offers the option clock for printing the time at the bottom of
each note.

If you specify more than one option, they must be separated by a comma.

Additional packages are loaded by a

\usepackage[options]{pkg}

command. If you specify more than one package, they must be separated by a
comma.

Any options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown by the
selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with \usepackage.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5. Layout ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page.

\flushbottom                            Make all text pages the same height.
\onecolumn                              Use one-column layout.
\raggedbottom                           Allow text pages of differing height.
\twocolumn                              Use two-column layout.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.1. \flushbottom ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same height, adding extra
vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.

This is the standard if twocolumn mode is selected.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.2. \onecolumn ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces single-column output.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.3. \raggedbottom ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the text on that
page.  No extra vertical space is added.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.4. \twocolumn ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\twocolumn[text]

The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output. If
the optional text argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6. Environments ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each
environment begins and ends in the same manner.

        \begin{environment-name}
        .
        .
        .
        \end{environment-name}

array                                   Math arrays.
center                                  Centred lines.
description                             Labelled lists.
enumerate                               Numbered lists.
eqnarray                                Sequences of aligned equations.
equation                                Displayed equation.
figure                                  Floating figures.
flushleft                               Flushed left lines.
flushright                              Flushed right lines.
itemize                                 Bulleted lists.
letter                                  Letters.
list                                    Generic list environment.
minipage                                Miniature page.
picture                                 Picture with text, arrows, lines and
                                        circles.
quotation                               Indented environment with paragraph
                                        indentation.
quote                                   Indented environment with no paragraph
                                        indentation.
tabbing                                 Align text arbitrarily.
table                                   Floating tables.
tabular                                 Align text in columns.
thebibliography                         Bibliography or reference list.
theorem                                 Theorems, lemmas, etc.
titlepage                               For hand crafted title pages.
verbatim                                Simulating typed input.
verse                                   For poetry and other things.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.1. array ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\begin{array}{col1col2...coln}
column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
 .
 .
 .
\end{array}

Math arrays are produced with the array environment.  It has a single mandatory
argument describing the number of columns and the alignment within them.  Each
column, coln, is specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row
should be formatted.

o c --- for centred

o l --- for flush left

o r --- for flush right

Column entries must be separated by an &.  Column entries may include other
LaTeX commands.  Each row of the array must be terminated with the string \\.

Note that the array environment can only be used in math mode, so normally it
is used inside an equation environment.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.2. center ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{center}
 Text on line 1 \\
 Text on line 2 \\
 .
 .
 .
 \end{center}

The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines
that are centred within the left and right margins on the current page.  Each
line must be terminated with the string \\.

\centering                              The declaration form of the center
                                        environment.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.2.1. \centering ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

This declaration corresponds to the center environment.  This declaration can
be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox.  The text of a
figure or table can be centred on the page by putting a \centering command at
the beginning of the figure or table environment.

Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does not start a new
paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units.  To affect a
paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
unit.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.3. description ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{description}
 \item [label] First item
 \item [label] Second item
 .
 .
 .
 \end{description}

The description environment is used to make labelled lists.  The label is bold
face and flushed right.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.4. enumerate ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{enumerate}
 \item First item
 \item Second item
 .
 .
 .
 \end{enumerate}

The enumerate environment produces a numbered list.  Enumerations can be nested
within one another, up to four levels deep.  They can also be nested within
other paragraph-making environments.

Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command. There must be at
least one \item command within the environment.

The enumerate environment uses the enumi through enumiv counters (see
Counters). The type of numbering can be changed by redefining \theenumi etc.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.5. eqnarray ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{eqnarray}
 math formula 1 \\
 math formula 2 \\
 .
 .
 .
 \end{eqnarray}

The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of equations or
inequalities.  It is very much like a three-column array environment, with
consecutive rows separated by \\ and consecutive items within a row separated
by an &.

An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a \nonumber
command.

The command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It
typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.6. equation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{equation}
  math formula
 \end{equation}

The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places the
equation number in the right margin.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.7. figure ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{figure}[placement]

  body of the figure

 \caption{figure title}
 \end{figure}

Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually
``floated'' to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Figures will not be
split between two pages.

The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try to place your
figure.  There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float:

 1. h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure environment
    appears.

 2. t (Top) - at the top of a text page.

 3. b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.

 4. p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page containing
    no text, only floats.

The standard report and article classes use the default placement tbp.

The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc. you
wish.  The \caption command allows you to title your figure.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.8. flushleft ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{flushleft}
 Text on line 1 \\
 Text on line 2 \\
 .
 .
 .
 \end{flushleft}

The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines
that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin. Each line must be terminated
with the string \\.

\raggedright                            The declaration form of the flushleft
                                        environment.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.8.1. \raggedright ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment.  This declaration
can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox.

Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command does not start a new
paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units.  To affect a
paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
unit.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.9. flushright ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{flushright}
 Text on line 1 \\
 Text on line 2 \\
 .
 .
 .
 \end{flushright}

The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines
that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin. Each line must be terminated
with the string \\.

\raggedleft                             The declaration form of the flushright
                                        environment.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.9.1. \raggedleft ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment.  This declaration
can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox.

Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command does not start a new
paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units.  To affect a
paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
unit.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.10. itemize ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{itemize}
 \item First item
 \item Second item
 .
 .
 .
 \end{itemize}

The itemize environment produces a ``bulleted'' list.  Itemizations can be
nested within one another, up to four levels deep.  They can also be nested
within other paragraph-making environments.

Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command. There must be at
least one \item command within the environment.

The itemize environment uses the itemi through itemiv counters (see Counters).
The type of numbering can be changed by redefining \theitemi etc.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.11. letter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

This environment is used for creating letters. See Letters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.12. list ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The list environment is a generic environment which is used for defining many
of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in documents, but often in
macros.

 \begin{list}{label}{spacing}
 \item First item
 \item Second item
 .
 .
 .
 \end{list}

The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled. This argument is a
piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label.  This argument can
and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.

The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for
the list.  This argument will most often be null, i.e., {}.  This will select
all default spacing which should suffice for most cases.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.13. minipage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{minipage}[position]{width}
  text
 \end{minipage}

The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command. It takes the same
optional position argument and mandatory width argument.  You may use other
paragraph-making environments inside a minipage.

Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is particularly
useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables.  A \footnote or
\footnotetext command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead
of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the mpfootnote counter instead of the
ordinary footnote counter See Counters.

NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they
may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14. picture ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
  .
  .
  picture commands
  .
  .
 \end{picture}

The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you
want containing text, lines, arrows and circles.  You tell LaTeX where to put
things in the picture by specifying their coordinates.  A coordinate is a
number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign --- a number like 5, 2.3
or -3.1416.  A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length
\unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm, then the coordinate 2.54
specifies a length of 2.54 centimetres.  You can change the value of
\unitlength anywhere you want, using the \setlength command, but strange things
will happen if you try changing it inside the picture environment.

A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying the point
with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5. Coordinates are specified in the
usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner
of the picture.  Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not
enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.

The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a position.  It
specifies the size of the picture.  The environment produces a rectangular box
with width and height determined by this argument's x- and y-coordinates.

The picture environment also has an optional position argument, following the
size argument, that can change the origin.  (Unlike ordinary optional
arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional
argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the
picture (thereby determining the origin).  For example, if \unitlength has been
set to 1mm, the command

   \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)

produces a picture of width 100 millimetres and height 200 millimetres, whose
lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is
therefore the point (110,220).  When you first draw a picture, you will omit
the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner.  If you
then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you just add the
appropriate optional argument.

The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the
picture.  This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX
will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page.
The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in determining how much room to
leave for it.

Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put command. The command

   \put (11.3,-.3){...}

puts the object specified by ... in the picture, with its reference point at
coordinates (11.3,-.3).  The reference points for various objects will be
described below.

The \put command creates an LR box.  You can put anything in the text argument
of the \put command that you'd put into the argument of an \mbox and related
commands.  When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner
of the box.

Picture commands:

\circle                                 Draw a circle.
\dashbox                                Draw a dashed box.
\frame                                  Draw a frame around an object.
\framebox (picture)                     Draw a box with a frame around it.
\line                                   Draw a straight line.
\linethickness                          Set the line thickness.
\makebox (picture)                      Draw a box of the specified size.
\multiput                               Draw multiple instances of an object.
\oval                                   Draw an ellipse.
\put                                    Place an object at a specified place.
\shortstack                             Make a pile of objects.
\vector                                 Draw a line with an arrow.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.1. \circle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\circle[*]{diameter}

The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified
one as possible.  If the *-form of the command is used, LaTeX draws a solid
circle.

Note that only circles up to 40 pt can be drawn.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.2. \dashbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Draws a box with a dashed line.

\dashbox{dash_length}(width,height){...}

The \dashbox has an extra argument which specifies the width of each dash.  A
dashed box looks best when the width and height are multiples of the
dash_length.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.3. \frame ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\frame{...}

The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around the object specified in the
argument.  The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame.  No
extra space is put between the frame and the object.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.4. \framebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\framebox(width,height)[position]{...}

The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox command, except that
it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates.

The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule, and leaves a space
\fboxsep between the rule and the contents of the box.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.5. \line ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\line(x slope,y slope){length}

The \line command draws a line of the specified length and slope.

Note that LaTeX can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where x and y have
integer values from -6 through 6.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.6. \linethickness ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\linethickness{dimension}

Declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture
environment to be dimension, which must be a positive length. It does not
affect the thickness of slanted lines and circles, or the quarter circles drawn
by \oval to form the corners of an oval.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.7. \makebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}

The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to the normal
\makebox command except that you must specify a width and height in multiples
of \unitlength.

The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that your text
appears in.  You may select up to two of the following:

o t - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle

o b - Moves the item to the bottom

o l - Moves the item to the left

o r - Moves the item to the right

See \makebox.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.8. \multiput ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\multiput(x coord,y coord)(delta x,delta y){number of copies}{object}

The \multiput command can be used when you are putting the same object in a
regular pattern across a picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.9. \oval ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\oval(width,height)[portion]

The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.  The optional
argument, [portion], allows you to select part of the oval.

o t - Selects the top portion

o b - Selects the bottom portion

o r - Selects the right portion

o l - Selects the left portion

Note that the ``corners'' of the oval are made with quarter circles with a
maximum radius of 20 pt, so large ``ovals'' will look more like boxes with
rounded corners.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.10. \put ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\put(x coord,y coord){ ...  }

The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory argument at the
given coordinates.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.11. \shortstack ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\shortstack[position]{...  \\ ...  \\ ...}

The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects.  The valid positions are:

o r - Moves the objects to the right of the stack

o l - Moves the objects to the left of the stack

o c - Moves the objects to the centre of the stack (default)


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.14.12. \vector ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\vector(x slope,y slope){length}

The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and
slope.  The x and y values must lie between -4 and +4, inclusive.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.15. quotation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{quotation}
  text
 \end{quotation}

The margins of the quotation environment are indented on the left and the
right.  The text is justified at both margins and there is paragraph
indentation.  Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.16. quote ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{quote}
  text
 \end{quote}

The margins of the quote environment are indented on the left and the right.
The text is justified at both margins.  Leaving a blank line between text
produces a new paragraph.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.17. tabbing ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{tabbing}
 text \= more text \= still more text \= last text \\
 second row \>  \> more \\
 .
 .
 .
 \end{tabbing}

The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by
setting tab stops and tabbing to them much the way you do with an ordinary
typewriter.

It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and
known in advance.

This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular environment.

The following commands can be used inside a tabbing enviroment:

\=
          Sets a tab stop at the current position.

\>
          Advances to the next tab stop.

\<
          This command allows you to put something to the left of the local
          margin without changing the margin. Can only be used at the start of
          the line.

\+
          Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one
          tab stop to the right.

\-
          Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one
          tab stop to the left.

\'
          Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column,
          i.e. everything from the most recent \>, \<, \', \\, or \kill
          command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the
          current column's tab stop.

\`
          Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including
          tab stop 0.  However, it can't move text to the right of the last
          column because there's no tab stop there.  The \` command moves all
          the text that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing} command that
          ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing environment.  There
          must be no \> or \' command between the \` and the command that ends
          the line.

\kill
          Sets tab stops without producing text.  Works just like  \\ except
          that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for
          it.  The effect of any \=, \+ or \- commands in that line remain in
          effect.

\pushtabs
          Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing
          tab stop positions in the middle of a tabbing environment.

\pushtabs
          Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs.

\a
          In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and \` do not produce
          accents as normal. Instead, the commands \a=, \a' and \a` are used.

This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:

        \begin{tabbing}
        function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
                 \> begin \= \+ \\
                       \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
                                fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
                          else \+ \\
                                fact := 1; \-\- \\
                    end;\\
        \end{tabbing}


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.18. table ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{table}[placement]

  body of the table

 \caption{table title}
 \end{table}

Tables  are objects  that  are not part  of the normal  text,  and are usually
``floated''  to a convenient  place,  like  the top  of a page. Tables will not
be split between two pages.

The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try to place your
table.  There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float:

o h : Here - at the position in the text where the table environment appears.

o t : Top - at the top of a text page.

o b : Bottom - at the bottom of a text page.

o p : Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page containing no
  text, only floats.

The standard report and article classes use the default placement [tbp].

The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc., you
wish.  The \caption command allows you to title your table.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.19. tabular ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
 column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
 .
 .
 .
 \end{tabular}

    or

 \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
 column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
 .
 .
 .
 \end{tabular*}

These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of items,
aligned vertically in columns.  The mandatory and optional arguments consist
of:

width
          Specifies the width of the tabular* environment.  There must be
          rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the
          specified width.

pos
          Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre
          of the environment.

   o t - align on top row

   o b - align on bottom row

cols
          Specifies the column formatting.  It consists of a sequence of the
          following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and
          intercolumn material.

   o l - A column of left-aligned items.

   o r - A column of right-aligned items.

   o c - A column of centred items.

   o | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.

   o @{text} - This inserts text in every row.  An @-expression suppresses the
     intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any desired space
     between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be included in text.
     An \extracolsep{wd} command in an @-expression causes an extra space of
     width wd to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until
     countermanded by another \extracolsep command.  Unlike ordinary
     intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression.
     An \extracolsep command can be used only in an @-expression in the cols
     argument.

   o p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width wd,
     as if it were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd} command.  However, a \\ may
     not appear in the item, except in the following situations:

       1. inside an environment like minipage, array, or tabular.

       2. inside an explicit \parbox.

       3. in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or \raggedleft
          declaration.  The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an
          environment when used in a p-column element.

   o *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is any positive
     integer and cols is any list of column-specifiers, which may contain
     another *-expression.

These commands can be used inside a tabular environment:

\cline                                  Draw a horizontal line spanning some
                                        columns.
\hline                                  Draw a horizontal line spanning all
                                        columns.
\multicolumn                            Make an item spanning several columns.
\vline                                  Draw a vertical line.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.19.1. \cline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\cline{i-j}

The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns specified,
beginning in column i and ending in column j, which are identified in the
mandatory argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.19.2. \hline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \hline command will draw a horizontal line the width of the table.  It's
most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of
the table.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.19.3. \multicolumn ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}

The \multicolumn is used to make an entry that spans several columns.  The
first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the number of columns to span.  The
second mandatory argument, pos, specifies the formatting of the entry; c for
centred, l for flushleft, r for flushright.  The third mandatory argument,
text, specifies what text is to make up the entry.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.19.4. \vline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full height and
depth of its row.  An \hfill command can be used to move the line to the edge
of the column.  It can also be used in an @-expression.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.20. thebibliography ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
 \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
 .
 .
 .
 \end{thebibliography}

The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or reference list.  In
the article class, this reference list is labelled ``References''; in the
report class, it is labelled ``Bibliography''.

o widest-label: Text that, when printed, is approximately as wide as the widest
  item label produces by the \bibitem commands.

\bibitem                                Specify a bibliography item.
\cite                                   Refer to a bibliography item.
\nocite                                 Include an item in the bibliography.
Using BibTeX                            Automatic generation of bibliographies.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.20.1. \bibitem ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\bibitem[label]{cite_key}

The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by label. If the label
argument is missing, a number is generated as the label, using the enumi
counter.  The cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation
symbols not containing a comma.  This command writes an entry on the `.aux'
file containing cite_key and the item's label.  When this `.aux' file is read
by the \begin{document} command, the item's label is associated with cite_key,
causing the reference to cite_key by a \cite command to produce the associated
label.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.20.2. \cite ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\cite[text]{key_list}

The key_list argument is a list of citation keys.  This command generates an
in-text citation to the references associated with the keys in key_list by
entries on the `.aux' file read by the \begin{document} command.

The optional text argument will appear after the citation, i.e. \cite[p.
2]{knuth} might produce `[Knuth, p. 2]'.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.20.3. \nocite ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\nocite{key_list}

The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, which is a list of
one or more citation keys, on the `.aux' file.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.20.4. Using BibTeX ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if you need
a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain your bibliography,
you don't use the thebibliography environment. Instead, you include the lines

        \bibliographystyle{style}
        \bibliography{bibfile}

where style refers to a file style.bst, which defines how your citations will
look. The standard styles distributed with BibTeX are:

alpha
          Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year
          of publication.

plain
          Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.

unsrt
          Like plain, but entries are in order of citation.

abbrv
          Like plain, but more compact labels.

In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the demands of
various publications.

The argument to \bibliography refers to the file bibfile.bib, which should
contain your database in BibTeX format. Only the entries referred to via \cite
and \nocite will be listed in the bibliography.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.21. theorem ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{theorem}
  theorem text
 \end{theorem}

The theorem environment produces ``Theorem x'' in boldface followed by your
theorem text.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.22. titlepage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{titlepage}
  text
 \end{titlepage}

The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e.  a page with no printed
page number or heading.  It also causes the following page to be numbered page
one.  Formatting the title page is left to you.  The \today command comes in
handy for title pages.

Note that you can use the \maketitle (see \maketitle) command to produce a
standard title page.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.23. verbatim ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{verbatim}
  text
 \end{verbatim}

The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment that gets LaTeX to
print exactly what you type in.  It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage
returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a typewriter.

\verb                                   The macro form of the verbatim
                                        environment.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.23.1. \verb ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\verb char literal_text char

\verb*char literal_text char

Typesets literal_text exactly as typed, including special characters and
spaces, using a typewriter (\tt) type style. There may be no space between
\verb or \verb* and char (space is shown here only for clarity).  The *-form
differs only in that spaces are printed as a special character.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.24. verse ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \begin{verse}
  text
 \end{verse}

The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses
for it.

The margins are indented on the left and the right. Separate the lines of each
stanza with \\, and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.7. Footnotes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways.  They can be produced with one
command, the \footnote command.  They can also be produced with two commands,
the \footnotemark and the \footnotetext commands.  See the specific command for
information on why you would use one over the other.

\footnote                               Insert a footnote.
\footnotemark                           Insert footnote mark only.
\footnotetext                           Insert footnote text only.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.7.1. \footnote ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\footnote[number]{text}

The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text at the bottom of the
current page.  The optional argument, number, is used to change the default
footnote number.  This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e.,
you cannot use it in sectioning commands like \chapter, in figures, tables or
in a tabular environment.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.7.2. \footnotemark ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \footnotemark command puts the footnote number in the text.  This command
can be used in inner paragraph mode.  The text of the footnote is supplied by
the \footnotetext command.

This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote markers
referring to the same footnote by using

\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]

after the first \footnote command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.7.3. \footnotetext ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\footnotetext[number]{text}

The \footnotetext command produces the text to be placed at the bottom of the
page.  This command can come anywhere after the \footnotemark command.  The
\footnotetext command must appear in outer paragraph mode.

The optional argument, number, is used to change the default footnote number.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8. Lengths ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

A length is a measure of distance.  Many LaTeX commands take a length as an
argument.

\newlength                              Define a new length.
\setlength                              Set the value of a length.
\addtolength                            Add a quantity to a length.
\settodepth                             Set a length to the depth of something.
\settoheight                            Set a length to the height of
                                        something.
\settowidth                             Set a length to the width of something.
Predefined lengths                      Lengths that are, like, predefined.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.1. \newlength ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\newlength{\gnat}

The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument, \gnat, as a length
command with a value of 0in.  An error occurs if a \gnat command already
exists.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.2. \setlength ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\setlength{\gnat}{length}

The \setlength command is used to set the value of a length command.  The
length argument can be expressed in any terms of length LaTeX understands,
i.e., inches (in), millimetres (mm), points (pt), etc.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.3. \addtolength ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\addtolength{\gnat}{length}

The \addtolength command increments a ``length command'' by the amount
specified in the length argument.  It can be a negative amount.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.4. \settodepth ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\settodepth{\gnat}{text}

The \settodepth command sets the value of a length command equal to the depth
of the text argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.5. \settoheight ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\settoheight{\gnat}{text}

The \settoheight command sets the value of a length command equal to the height
of the text argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.6. \settowidth ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\settowidth{\gnat}{text}

The \settowidth command sets the value of a length command equal to the width
of the text argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.7. Predefined lengths ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\width

\height

\depth

\totalheight

These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands
See Spaces & Boxes. They specify the natural width etc. of the text in the box.
\totalheight equals \height + \depth. To make a box with the text stretched to
double the natural size, e.g., say

\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9. Letters ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business.  The letter
document class is designed to make a number of letters at once, although you
can make just one if you so desire.

Your `.tex' source file has the same minimum commands as the other document
classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a minimum:

 \documentclass{letter}
 \begin{document}
  ... letters ...
 \end{document}

Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name and address of
the recipient.  For example, you might have:

 \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
      \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
   ...
 \end{letter}

The letter itself begins with the \opening command.  The text of the letter
follows.  It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input.  Commands that make no sense in
a letter, like \chapter, do not work.  The letter closes with a \closing
command.

After the closing, you can have additional material.  The \cc command produces
the usual ``cc: ...''.  There's also a similar \encl command for a list of
enclosures. With both these commands, use \\ to separate the items.

These commands are used with the letter class:

\address                                Your return address.
\cc                                     Cc list.
\closing                                Saying goodbye.
\encl                                   List of enclosed material.
\location                               Your organisation's address.
\makelabels                             Making address labels.
\name                                   Your name, for the return address.
\opening                                Saying hello.
\ps                                     Adding a postscript.
\signature                              Your signature.
\startbreaks                            Allow page breaks.
\stopbreaks                             Disallow page breaks.
\telephone                              Your phone number.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.1. \address ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\address{Return address}

The return address, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope.
Separate lines of the address should be separated by \\ commands. If you do not
make an \address declaration, then the letter will be formatted for copying
onto your organisation's standard letterhead. (See Overview, for details on
your local implementation).  If you give an \address declaration, then the
letter will be formatted as a personal letter.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.2. \cc ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\cc{Kate Schechter\\Rob McKenna}

Generate a list of other persons the letter was sent to. Each name is printed
on a separate line.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.3. \closing ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\closing{text}

The letter closes with a \closing command, i.e.,

 \closing{Best Regards,}


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.4. \encl ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\encl{CV\\Certificates}

Generate a list of enclosed material.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.5. \location ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\location{address}

This modifies your organisation's standard address.  This only appears if the
firstpage pagestyle is selected.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.6. \makelabels ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\makelabels{number}

If you issue this command in the preamble, LaTeX will create a sheet of address
labels. This sheet will be output before the letters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.7. \name ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\name{June Davenport}

Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.8. \opening ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\opening{text}

The letter begins with the \opening command.  The mandatory argument, text, is
whatever text you wish to start your letter, i.e.,

 \opening{Dear Joe,}


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.9. \ps ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\ps

Use this command before a postscript.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.10. \signature ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\signature{Harvey Swick}

Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the space
for your signature.  Items that should go on separate lines should be separated
by \\ commands.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.11. \startbreaks ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\startbreaks

Used after a \stopbreaks command to allow page breaks again.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.12. \stopbreaks ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\stopbreaks

Inhibit page breaks until a \startbreaks command occurs.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.13. \telephone ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\telephone{number}

This is your telephone number.  This only appears if the firstpage pagestyle is
selected.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10. Line & Page Breaking ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your
input file into a string of glyphs and spaces.  To produce a printed document,
this string must be broken into lines, and these lines must be broken into
pages.  In some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the \\
command, but LaTeX usually does it for you.

\\                                      Start a new line.
\- (hyphenation)                        Insert explicit hyphenation.
\cleardoublepage                        Start a new right-hand page.
\clearpage                              Start a new page.
\enlargethispage                        Enlarge the current page a bit.
\fussy                                  Be fussy about line breaking.
\hyphenation                            Tell LaTeX how to hyphenate a word.
\linebreak                              Break the line.
\newline                                Break the line prematurely.
\newpage                                Start a new page.
\nolinebreak                            Don't break the current line.
\nopagebreak                            Don't make a page break here.
\pagebreak                              Please make a page break here.
\sloppy                                 Be sloppy about line breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.1. \\ ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\\[*][extra-space]

The \\ command tells LaTeX to start a new line.  It has an optional argument,
extra-space, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to be inserted
before the next line.  This can be a negative amount.

The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command except that it tells
LaTeX not to start a new page after the line.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.2. \- ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \- command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point.  LaTeX
is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find all correct hyphenation
points.  The \- command is used for the exceptional cases.

Note that when you insert \- commands in a word, the word will only be
hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that LaTeX
might otherwise have chosen.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.3. \cleardoublepage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all figures and
tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided
printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page,
producing a blank page if necessary.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.4. \clearpage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables
that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.5. \enlargethispage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\enlargethispage{size}

\enlargethispage*{size}

Enlarge the \textheight for the current page by the specified amount; e.g.
\enlargethispage{\baselineskip} will allow one additional line.

The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as
possible. This is normally used together with an explicit \pagebreak.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.6. \fussy ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\fussy

This declaration (which is the default) makes TeX more fussy about line
breaking. This can avoids too much space between words, but may produce
overfull boxes.

This command cancels the effect of a previous  \sloppy command. \sloppy


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.7. \hyphenation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\hyphenation{words}

The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points, where words is a
list of words, separated by spaces, in which each hyphenation point is
indicated by a - character.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.8. \linebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\linebreak[number]

The \linebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current line at the point of
the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
\linebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

The \linebreak command causes LaTeX to stretch the line so it extends to the
right margin.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.9. \newline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \newline command breaks the line right where it is. It can only be used in
paragraph mode.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.10. \newpage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \newpage command ends the current page.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.11. \nolinebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\nolinebreak[number]

The \nolinebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current line at the
point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
\nolinebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.12. \nopagebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\nopagebreak[number]

The \nopagebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current page at the
point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
\nopagebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.13. \pagebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\pagebreak[number]

The \pagebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current page at the point of
the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
\pagebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.14. \sloppy ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\sloppy

This declaration makes TeX less fussy about line breaking. This can prevent
overfull boxes, but may leave too much space between words.

Lasts until a \fussy command is issued. \fussy.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.11. Making Paragraphs ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines --- lines not
containing even a %.  A blank line should not appear where a new paragraph
cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of a sectioning
command.

\indent                                 Indent this paragraph.
\noindent                               Do not indent this paragraph.
\par                                    Another way of writing a blank line.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.11.1. \indent ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\indent

This produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the paragraph
indentation.  It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise
be suppressed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.11.2. \noindent ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\noindent

When used at the beginning of the paragraph, it suppresses the paragraph
indentation.  It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.11.3. \par ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Equivalent to a blank line; often used to make command or environment
definitions easier to read.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.12. Margin Notes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The command \marginpar[left]{right} creates a note in the margin. The first
line will be at the same height as the line in the text where the \marginpar
occurs.

When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text will be placed

o in the right margin for one-sided layout

o in the outside margin for two-sided layout

o in the nearest margin for two-column layout.

By issuing the command \reversemarginpar, you can force the marginal notes to
go into the opposite (inside) margin.

When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left margin, and right is
used for the right margin.

The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable hyphenation by
prefixing the first word with a \hspace{0pt} command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13. Math Formulae ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode:

math
          For Formulae that appear right in the text.

displaymath
          For Formulae that appear on their own line.

equation
          The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an
          equation number in the right margin.

The math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the
displaymath and equation environments can be used only in paragraph mode.  The
math and displaymath environments are used so often that they have the
following short forms:

    \(...\)     instead of     \begin{math}...\end{math}

    \[...\]     instead of     \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}

In fact, the math environment is so common that it has an even shorter form:

    $ ... $     instead of     \(...\)

Subscripts & Superscripts               Also known as exponent or index.
Math Symbols                            Various mathematical squiggles.
Spacing in Math Mode                    Thick, medium, thin and negative
                                        spaces.
Math Miscellany                         Stuff that doesn't fit anywhere else.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.1. Subscripts & Superscripts ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type _{exp}.  To
get exp to appear as a superscript, you type ^{exp}. LaTeX handles
superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way.  It even
does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.2. Math Symbols ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. The
commands for generating them can be used only in math mode.  For example, if
you include $\pi$ in your source, you will get the symbol ``pi'' in your
output.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.3. Spacing in Math Mode ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

In a math environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and puts in the
spacing that it thinks is best.  LaTeX formats mathematics the way it's done in
mathematics texts.  If you want different spacing, LaTeX provides the following
four commands for use in math mode:

 1. \; - a thick space

 2. \: - a medium space

 3. \, - a thin space

 4. \! - a negative thin space


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.4. Math Miscellany ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\cdots
          Produces a horizontal ellipsis where the dots are raised to the
          centre of the line.

\ddots
          Produces a diagonal ellipsis.

\frac{num}{den}
          Produces the fraction num divided by den.

\ldots
          Produces an ellipsis.  This command works in any mode, not just math
          mode.

\overbrace{text}
          Generates a brace over text.

\overline{text}
          Causes the argument text to be overlined.

\sqrt[root]{arg}
          Produces the square root of its argument.  The optional argument,
          root, determines what root to produce, i.e., the cube root of x+y
          would be typed as $\sqrt[3]{x+y}$.

\underbrace{text}
          Generates text with a brace underneath.

\underline{text}
          Causes the argument text to be underlined. This command can also be
          used in paragraph and LR modes.

\vdots
          Produces a vertical ellipsis.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.14. Modes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes:

o Paragraph mode

o Math mode

o Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short

LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a different
level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. Mode changes occur
only when entering or leaving an environment, or when LaTeX is processing the
argument of certain text-producing commands.

``Paragraph mode'' is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when processing
ordinary text.  In that mode, LaTeX breaks your text into lines and breaks the
lines into pages.  LaTeX is in ``math mode'' when it's generating a
mathematical formula.  In ``LR mode'', as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers
the output that it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them.
However, unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it never
starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words into an \mbox,
LaTeX would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and
then complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line.

LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox command.  You can
get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for example, you can make it
enter math mode to put a formula in the box. There are also several
text-producing commands and environments for making a box that put LaTeX in
paragraph mode.  The box make by one of these commands or environments will be
called a parbox.  When LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is
said to be in ``inner paragraph mode''.  Its normal paragraph mode, which it
starts out in, is called ``outer paragraph mode''.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15. Page Styles ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \documentclass command determines the size and position of the page's head
and foot.  The page style determines what goes in them.

\maketitle                              Generate a title page.
\pagenumbering                          Set the style used for page numbers.
\pagestyle                              Change the headings/footings style.
\thispagestyle                          Change the headings/footings style for
                                        this page.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.1. \maketitle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\maketitle

The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title page - except in
the article class, where the title normally goes at the top of the first page.
Information used to produce the title is obtained from the following
declarations:

See Page Styles for the commands to give the information.

\author                                 Who wrote this stuff?
\date                                   The date the document was created.
\thanks                                 A special form of footnote.
\title                                  How to set the document title.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.2. \author ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\author{names}

The \author command declares the author(s), where names is a list of authors
separated by \and commands.  Use \\ to separate lines within a single author's
entry -- for example, to give the author's institution or address.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.3. \date ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\date{text}

The \date command declares text to be the document's date.  With no \date
command, the current date is used.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.4. \thanks ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\thanks{text}

The \thanks command produces a \footnote to the title.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.5. \title ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\title{text}

The \title command declares text to be the title.  Use \\ to tell LaTeX where
to start a new line in a long title.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.6. \pagenumbering ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\pagenumbering{num_style}

Specifies the style of page numbers.  Possible values of num_style are:

o arabic - Arabic numerals

o roman - Lowercase Roman numerals

o Roman - Uppercase Roman numerals

o alph - Lowercase letters

o Alph - Uppercase letters


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.7. \pagestyle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\pagestyle{option}

The \pagestyle command changes the style from the current page on throughout
the remainder of your document.

The valid options are:

o plain - Just a plain page number.

o empty - Produces empty heads and feet - no page numbers.

o headings - Puts running headings on each page.  The document style specifies
  what goes in the headings.

o myheadings - You specify what is to go in the heading with the \markboth or
  the \markright commands.

\markboth                               Set left and right headings.
\markright                              Set right heading only.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.8. \markboth ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\markboth{left head}{right head}

The \markboth command is used in conjunction with the page style myheadings for
setting both the left and the right heading.  You should note that a
``left-hand heading'' is generated by the last \markboth command before the end
of the page, while a ``right-hand heading'' is generated by the first \markboth
or \markright that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one
before the page.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.9. \markright ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\markright{right head}

The \markright command is used in conjunction with the page style myheadings
for setting the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.  You should
note that a ``left-hand heading'' is generated by the last \markboth command
before the end of the page, while a ``right-hand heading'' is generated by the
first \markboth or \markright that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise
by the last one before the page.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.10. \thispagestyle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\thispagestyle{option}

The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the \pagestyle command
except that it changes the style for the current page only.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.16. Sectioning ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units.

o \part

o \chapter (report and book class only)

o \section

o \subsection

o \subsubsection

o \paragraph

o \subparagraph

All sectioning commands take the same general form, i.e.,

\chapter[optional]{title}

In addition to providing the heading in the text, the mandatory argument of the
sectioning command can appear in two other places:

 1. The table of contents

 2. The running head at the top of the page

You may not want the same thing to appear in these other two places as appears
in the text heading.  To handle this situation, the sectioning commands have an
optional argument that provides the text for these other two purposes.

All sectioning commands have *-forms that print a title, but do not include a
number and do not make an entry in the table of contents.

\appendix

The \appendix command changes the way sectional units are numbered.  The
\appendix command generates no text and does not affect the numbering of parts.
The normal use of this command is something like

\chapter{The First Chapter}
...
\appendix
\chapter{The First Appendix}


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17. Spaces & Boxes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

All the predefined length parameters See Predefined lengths can be used in the
arguments of the box-making commands.

Horizontal space

\dotfill                                Stretchable horizontal dots.
\hfill                                  Stretchable horizontal space.
\hrulefill                              Stretchable horizontal rule.
\hspace                                 Fixed horizontal space.
Vertical space

\addvspace                              Fixed vertical space.
\bigskip                                Fixed vertical space.
\medskip                                Fixed vertical space.
\smallskip                              Fixed vertical space.
\vfill                                  Stretchable vertical space.
\vspace                                 Fixed vertical space.
Boxes

\fbox                                   Framebox.
\framebox                               Framebox, adjustable position.
lrbox                                   An environment like \sbox.
\makebox                                Box, adjustable position.
\mbox                                   Box.
\newsavebox                             Declare a name for saving a box.
\parbox                                 Box with text in paragraph mode.
\raisebox                               Raise or lower text.
\rule                                   Lines and squares.
\savebox                                Like \makebox, but save the text for
                                        later use.
\sbox                                   Like \mbox, but save the text for later
                                        use.
\usebox                                 Print saved text.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.1. \dotfill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \dotfill command produces a ``rubber length'' that produces dots instead of
just spaces.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.2. \hfill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \hfill fill command produces a ``rubber length'' which can stretch or
shrink horizontally.  It will be filled with spaces.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.3. \hrulefill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \hrulefill fill command produces a ``rubber length'' which can stretch or
shrink horizontally.  It will be filled with a horizontal rule.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.4. \hspace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\hspace[*]{length}

The \hspace command adds horizontal space.  The length of the space can be
expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., points, inches, etc.  You
can add negative as well as positive space with an \hspace command.  Adding
negative space is like backspacing.

LaTeX removes horizontal space that comes at the end of a line.  If you don't
want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * argument.  Then the
space is never removed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.5. \addvspace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\addvspace{length}

The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height length.
However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the
output by a previous \addvspace command, then this command will not add more
space than needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal
to length.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.6. \bigskip ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \bigskip command is equivalent to \vspace{bigskipamount} where
bigskipamount is determined by the document class.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.7. \medskip ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \medskip command is equivalent to \vspace{medskipamount} where
medskipamount is determined by the document class.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.8. \smallskip ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\smallskip

The \smallskip command is equivalent to \vspace{smallskipamount} where
smallskipamount is determined by the document class.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.9. \vfill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length which can stretch or shrink
vertically.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.10. \vspace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\vspace[*]{length}

The \vspace command adds vertical space.  The length of the space can be
expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., points, inches, etc.  You
can add negative as well as positive space with an \vspace command.

LaTeX removes vertical space that comes at the end of a page.  If you don't
want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * argument.  Then the
space is never removed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.11. \fbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\fbox{text}

The \fbox command is exactly the same as the \mbox command, except that it puts
a frame around the outside of the box that it creates.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.12. \framebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\framebox[width][position]{text}

The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox command, except that
it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates.

The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule, and leaves a space
\fboxsep between the rule and the contents of the box.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.13. lrbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}

This is the environment form of \sbox.

The text inside the environment is saved in the box cmd, which must have been
declared with \newsavebox.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.14. \makebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\makebox[width][position]{text}

The \makebox command creates a box just wide enough to contain the text
specified.  The width of the box is specified by the optional width argument.
The position of the text within the box is determined by the optional position
argument.

o c --- centred (default)

o l --- flushleft

o r --- flushright

o s --- stretch from left to right margin. The text must contain stretchable
  space for this to work.

See \makebox (picture).


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.15. \mbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\mbox{text}

The \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by
its argument.

Use this command to prevent text from being split across lines.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.16. \newsavebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\newsavebox{cmd}

Declares cmd, which must be a command name that is not already defined, to be a
bin for saving boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.17. \parbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text}

A parbox is a box whose contents are created in paragraph mode.  The \parbox
has two mandatory arguments:

o width - specifies the width of the parbox, and

o text - the text that goes inside the parbox.

LaTeX will position a parbox so its centre lines up with the centre of the text
line.  The optional position argument allows you to line up either the top or
bottom line in the parbox (default is top).

If the height argument is not given, the box will have the natural height of
the text.

The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside the box. If it
is not specified, position is used.

o t --- text is placed at the top of the box.

o c --- text is centred in the box.

o b --- text is placed at the bottom of the box.

o s --- stretch vertically. The text must contain vertically stretchable space
  for this to work.

A \parbox command is used for a parbox containing a small piece of text, with
nothing fancy inside.  In particular, you shouldn't use any of the
paragraph-making environments inside a \parbox argument.  For larger pieces of
text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use
a minipage environment See minipage.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.18. \raisebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\raisebox{distance}[extend-above][extend-below]{text}

The \raisebox command is used to raise or lower text.  The first mandatory
argument specifies how high the text is to be raised (or lowered if it is a
negative amount).  The text itself is processed in LR mode.

Sometimes it's useful to make LaTeX think something has a different size than
it really does - or a different size than LaTeX would normally think it has.
The \raisebox command lets you tell LaTeX how tall it is.

The first optional argument, extend-above, makes LaTeX think that the text
extends above the line by the amount specified.  The second optional argument,
extend-below, makes LaTeX think that the text extends below the line by the
amount specified.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.19. \rule ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\rule[raise-height]{width}{thickness}

The \rule command is used to produce horizontal lines.  The arguments are
defined as follows:

o raise-height - specifies how high to raise the rule (optional)

o width - specifies the length of the rule (mandatory)

o thickness - specifies the thickness of the rule (mandatory)


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.20. \savebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \savebox{cmd}[width][pos]{text}

This command typeset text in a box just as for \makebox. However, instead of
printing the resulting box, it saves it in bin cmd, which must have been
declared with \newsavebox.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.21. \sbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\sbox{text}

This commands typeset text in a box just as for \mbox. However, instead of
printing the resulting box, it saves it in bin cmd, which must have been
declared with \newsavebox.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.22. \usebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\usebox{cmd}

Prints the box most recently saved in bin cmd by a \savebox command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.18. Special Characters ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called ``special
printing characters'', or simply ``special characters''.

                       # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }

Whenever you put one of these special characters into your file, you are doing
something special.  If you simply want the character to be printed just as any
other letter, include a \ in front of the character. For example, \$ will
produce $ in your output.

One exception to this rule is the \ itself because \\ has its own special
meaning.  A \ is produced by typing $\backslash$ in your file.

Also, \~ means `place a tilde accent over the following letter', so you will
probably want to use \verb instead.

In addition, you can access any character of a font once you know its number by
using the \symbol command. For example, the character used for displaying
spaces in the \verb* command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as
\symbol{32}.

You can also specify octal numbers with ' or hexadecimal numbers with ", so the
previous example could also be written as \symbol{'40} or \symbol{"20}.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.19. Splitting the Input ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

A large document requires a lot of input.  Rather than putting the whole input
in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into several smaller
ones.  Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is one that is the
root file; it is the one whose name you type when you run LaTeX.

\include                                Conditionally include a file.
\includeonly                            Determine which files are included.
\input                                  Unconditionally include a file.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.19.1. \include ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\include{file}

The \include command is used in conjunction with the \includeonly command for
selective inclusion of files.  The file argument is the first name of a file,
denoting `file.tex'.  If file is one the file names in the file list of the
\includeonly command or if there is no \includeonly command, the \include
command is equivalent to

\clearpage \input{file} \clearpage

except that if the file `file.tex' does not exist, then a warning message
rather than an error is produced.  If the file is not in the file list, the
\include command is equivalent to \clearpage.

The \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file read by
another \include command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.19.2. \includeonly ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\includeonly{file_list}

The \includeonly command controls which files will be read in by an \include
command.  file_list should be a comma-separated list of filenames. Each
filename must match exactly a filename specified in a \include command. This
command can only appear in the preamble.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.19.3. \input ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\input{file}

The \input command causes the indicated file to be read and processed, exactly
as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at that point.  The
file name may be a complete file name with extension or just a first name, in
which case the file `file.tex' is used.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.20. Starting & Ending ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Your input file must contain the following commands as a minimum:

 \documentclass{class}
 \begin{document}
   ... your text goes here ...
 \end{document}

where the class selected is one of the valid classes for LaTeX. See Document
Classes (and see Overview), for details of the various document classes
available locally.

You may include other LaTeX commands between the \documentclass and the
\begin{document} commands (i.e., in the `preamble').


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.21. Table of Contents ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

A table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents command. You put the
command right where you want the table of contents to go; LaTeX does the rest
for you.  It produces a heading, but it does not automatically start a new
page.  If you want a new page after the table of contents, include a \newpage
command after the \tableofcontents command.

There are similar commands \listoffigures and \listoftables  for producing a
list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. Everything works exactly
the same as for the table of contents.

NOTE: If you want any of these items to be generated, you cannot have the
\nofiles command in your document.

\addcontentsline                        Add an entry to table of contents etc.
\addtocontents                          Add text directly to table of contents
                                        file etc.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.21.1. \addcontentsline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\addcontentsline{file}{sec_unit}{entry}

The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified list or table
where:

o file is the extension of the file on which information is to be written: toc
  (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or lot (list of tables).

o sec_unit controls the formatting of the entry.  It should be one of the
  following, depending upon the value of the file argument:

    1. toc --- the name of the sectional unit, such as part or subsection.

    2. lof --- figure

    3. lot --- table

o entry is the text of the entry.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.21.2. \addtocontents ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\addtocontents{file}{text}

The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands) directly to the
file that generates the table of contents or list of figures or tables.

o file is the extension of the file on which information is to be written: toc
  (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or lot (list of tables).

o text is the information to be written.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.22. Terminal Input/Output ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\typein                                 Read text from the terminal.
\typeout                                Write text to the terminal.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.22.1. \typein ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\typein[cmd]{msg}

Prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for you to type a
line of input, ending with return.  If the cmd argument is missing, the typed
input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the
\typein command.  If the cmd argument is present, it must be a command name.
This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.22.2. \typeout ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

\typeout{msg}

Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file.  Commands in msg that are
defined with \newcommand or \renewcommand are replaced by their definitions
before being printed.

LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring
spaces after a command name apply to msg.  A \space command in msg causes a
single space to be printed. A ^^J in msg prints a newline.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.23. Typefaces ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The typeface is specified by giving the ``size'' and ``style''.  A typeface is
also called a ``font''.

Styles                                  Select roman, italics etc.
Sizes                                   Select point size.
Low-level font commands                 Commands for wizards.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.23.1. \Styles ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.

These commands are used like \textit{italics text}. The corresponding command
in parenthesis is the ``declaration form'', which takes no arguments. The scope
of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of
the current group.

The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say \sffamily\bfseries to
get sans serif boldface.

You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; e.g.
\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}.

\textrm (\rmfamily)
          Roman.

\textit (\itshape)

\emph
          Emphasis (toggles between \textit and \textrm).

\textmd (\mdseries)
          Medium weight (default). The opposite of boldface.

\textbf (\bfseries)
          Boldface.

\textup (\upshape)
          Upright (default). The opposite of slanted.

\textsl (\slshape)
          Slanted.

\textsf (\sffamily)
          Sans serif.

\textsc (\scshape)
          Small caps.

\texttt (\ttfamily)
          Typewriter.

\textnormal (\normalfont)
          Main document font.

\mathrm
          Roman, for use in math mode.

\mathbf
          Boldface, for use in math mode.

\mathsf
          Sans serif, for use in math mode.

\mathtt
          Typewriter, for use in math mode.

\mathit
          Italics, for use in math mode, e.g. variable names with several
          letters.

\mathnormal
          For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration.

\mathcal
          `Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode.

In addition, the command \mathversion{bold} can be used for switching to bold
letters and symbols in formulas. \mathversion{normal} restores the default.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.23.2. Sizes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX.

The commands as listed here are "declaration forms". The scope of the
declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the
current group.

You can also use the environment form of these commands; e.g.
\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}.

\tiny

\scriptsize

\footnotesize

\small

\normalsize
          (default)

\large

\Large

\LARGE

\huge

\Huge


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.23.3. Low-level font commands ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages.  The
commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones. For full details,
you should consult Chapter 7 of The LaTeX Companion.

\fontencoding{enc}
          Select font encoding. Valid encodings include OT1 and T1.

\fontfamily{family}
          Select font family. Valid families include:

   o cmr  for Computer Modern Roman

   o cmss for Computer Modern Sans Serif

   o cmtt for Computer Modern Typewriter

          and numerous others.

\fontseries{series}
          Select font series. Valid series include:

   o m  Medium (normal)

   o b  Bold

   o c  Condensed

   o bc Bold condensed

   o bx Bold extended

          and various other combinations.

\fontshape{shape}
          Select font shape. Valid shapes are:

   o n  Upright (normal)

   o it Italic

   o sl Slanted (oblique)

   o sc Small caps

   o ui Upright italics

   o ol Outline

          The two last shapes are not available for most font families.

\fontsize{size}{skip}
          Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to; the
          second is the \baselineskip to use. The unit of both parameters
          defaults to pt. A rule of thumb is that the baselineskip should be
          1.2 times the font size.

\selectfont
          The changes made by calling the four font commands described above do
          not come into effect until \selectfont is called.

\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}
          Equivalent to calling \fontencoding, \fontfamily, \fontseries and
          \fontshape with the given parameters, followed by \selectfont.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 5. Parameters ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX uses
`.tex' as a default file extension.  If you omit the input file entirely, TeX
accepts input from the terminal.  You specify command options by supplying a
string as a parameter to the command; e.g.

latex ``\scrollmode\input foo.tex''

will process `foo.tex' without pausing after every error.

Output files are always created in the current directory. When you fail to
specify an input file name, TeX bases the output names on the file
specification associated with the logical name TEX_OUTPUT, typically
texput.log.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6. Concept Index ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Sorry, no cp index


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 7. Command Index ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

Sorry, no fn index