OS/2 Professional/OS2PRO194.ISO/os2/editor/tex/latex/inf/latex.inf

OS/2 Help File | 1993-12-08 | 111.1 KB | 5,074 lines

ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1. -Preface- ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

This file documents LaTeX, a document preparation system. LaTeX is a macro
package for TeX.

This is edition 1.0 of the LaTeX documentation, and is for the Texinfo that is
distributed as part of Version 18 of GNU Emacs. It uses version 2.90 of the
texinfo.tex input file.

This is translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS Help Library.  The
pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State
University.

Copyright 1988 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual
provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all
copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual
under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting
derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to
this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into
another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that
the sections entitled ``Distribution'' and ``General Public License'' may be
included in a translation approved by the author instead of in the original
English.

License                       Licensing information.
Overview                      What is LaTeX?
Commands                      Commands within a LaTeX document.
Parameters                    The command line.
Index                         An alphabetical "Concept Index".


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2. Licensing Information ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

  The programs currently being distributed that relate to Texinfo include two
 portions of GNU Emacs, plus two other separate programs (texindex and
 texinfo.tex).  These programs are free; this means that everyone is free to
 use them and free to redistribute them on a free basis.  The Texinfo related
 programs are not in the public domain; they are copyrighted and there are
 restrictions on their distribution, but these restrictions are designed to
 permit everything that a good cooperating citizen would want to do.  What is
 not allowed is to try to prevent others from further sharing any version of
 these programs that they might get from you.

  Specifically, we want to make sure that you have the right to give away
 copies of the programs that relate to Texinfo, that you receive source code or
 else can get it if you want it, that you can change these programs or use
 pieces of them in new free programs, and that you know you can do these
 things.

  To make sure that everyone has such rights, we have to forbid you to deprive
 anyone else of these rights.  For example, if you distribute copies of the
 Texinfo related programs, you must give the recipients all the rights that you
 have.  You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code.
 And you must tell them their rights.

  Also, for our own protection, we must make certain that everyone finds out
 that there is no warranty for the programs that relate to Texinfo. If these
 programs are modified by someone else and passed on, we want their recipients
 to know that what they have is not what we distributed, so that any problems
 introduced by others will not reflect on our reputation.

  The precise conditions of the licensees for the programs currently being
 distributed that relate to Texinfo are found in the General Public Licensees
 that accompany them.  The programs that are part of GNU Emacs are covered by
 the GNU Emacs copying terms (see Section  of The GNU Emacs Manual), and other
 programs are covered by licensees that are contained in their source files.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 3. Overview of LaTeX and Local Guide ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The LaTeX command typesets a file of text using the TeX program and the LaTeX
 Macro package for TeX.  To be more specific, it processes an input file
 containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that describe how
 the text should be formatted.  It produces at least three files as output:

  1. A "Device Independent", or '.dvi' file. This contains commands that can be
     translated into commands for a variety of output devices.  You can view
     the output of LaTeX by using a program such as xdvi, which actually uses
     the '.dvi' file.

  2. A "transcript" or '.log' file that contains summary information and
     diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file.

  3. An "auxiliary" or '.aux' file. This is used by LaTeX itself, for things
     such as sectioning.

 For a description of what goes on inside TeX, you should consult The TeXbook
 by Donald E. Knuth, ISBN 0-201-13448-9, published jointly by the American
 Mathematical Society and Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

 For a description of LaTeX, you should consult:

 LaTeX: A Document Preparation System, by Leslie Lamport, ISBN 0-201-15790-X,
 published jointly by the American Mathematical Society and Addison-Wesley
 Publishing Company, 1985.

 LaTeX for Engineers & Scientists, by David J. Buerger, ISBN 0-07-008845-4,
 McGraw-Hill, 1990.

 The LaTeX Cookbook, by F. Teagle, Informatics Department, Rutherford Appelton
 Laboratory, Chilton, Didcot, Oxon, OX11 0QX, 1991.

 LaTeX for Everyone, by Jane Hahn, available from PCTeX in California, and from
 the TeX Users Group, 1991.

 LaTeX Line by Line: Tips and Techniques for Document Processing by Antoni
 Diller, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1992.

 A Guide to LaTeX, by Helmut Kopka and Patrick Daly, Addison-Wesley, 1992.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4. Commands ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a \ followed
 by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter.  Arguments
 contained in square brackets, [], are optional while arguments contained in
 braces, {}, are required.

 NOTE:  LaTeX  is case sensitive.  Enter  all commands  in lower  case unless
 explicitly directed to do otherwise.

 Counters                      Information on internal counters.
 Cross References              Automatic referencing.
 Definitions                   Define your own commands etc.
 Document Styles               Some of the various styles available.
 Environments                  Such as enumerate & itemize.
 Footnotes                     How to produce footnotes.
 Lengths                       The length commands.
 Letters                       The letter style.
 Line & Page Breaking          How do insert pagebreaks etc.
 Making Paragraphs             Paragraph commands.
 Math Formulae                 How to create mathematical formulae.
 Modes                         Paragraph, Math or LR modes.
 Page Styles                   Various styles of page layout.
 Sectioning                    How to section properly.
 Spaces & Boxes                All the associated commands.
 Special Characters            Special reserved characters.
 Splitting the Input           Dealing with big files by splitting.
 Starting & Ending             The formal start & end layouts.
 Table of Contents             How to create a table of contents.
 Terminal Input/Output         User interaction.
 Typefaces                     Such as bold, italics etc.  also available┬╖┬╖┬╖
 List of Commands              An alphabetical list of all LaTex commands.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1. Counters ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of
 the counter is the same as the name of the environment or command that
 produces the number, except with no \.  (enumi - enumiv are used for the
 nested enumerate environment.)  Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX
 's standard document styles to control numbering.

                       part       paragraph    figure      enumi
                       chapter     subparagraph   table      enumii
                       section     page       footnote     enumiii
                       subsection    equation     mpfootnote    enumiv
                       subsubsection

 \addtocounter
 \alph
 \arabic
 \fnsymbol
 \newcounter
 \roman
 \setcounter
 \usecounter
 \value


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.1. \addtocounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addtocounter{counter}{value}

 The \addtocounter command increments the counter by the amount specified by
 the value argument.  The value argument can be negative.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.2. \alph ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \alph{counter}

 This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in alphabetic
 characters.  The \alph command causes lower case alphabetic alphabetic
 characters, i.e., a, b, c┬╖┬╖┬╖ while the \Alph command causes upper case
 alphabetic characters, i.e., A, B, C┬╖┬╖┬╖.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.3. \arabic ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \arabic{counter}

 The \arabic command causes the value of the counter to be printed in arabic
 numbers, i.e., 3.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.4. \fnsymbol ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \fnsymbol{counter}

 The \fnsymbol command causes the value of the counter to be printed in a
 specific sequence of nine symbols that can be used for numbering footnotes.

 eg. From 1-9:

 NB. counter must have a value between 1 and 9 inclusive.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.5. \newcounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newcounter{foo}[counter]

 The \newcounter command defines a new counter named foo. The optional argument
 [counter] causes the counter foo to be reset whenever the counter named in the
 optional argument is incremented.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.6. \roman ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \roman{counter}

 This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in roman numerals.
 The \roman command causes lower case roman numerals, i.e., i, ii, iii┬╖┬╖┬╖,
 while the \Roman command causes upper case roman numerals, i.e., I, II,
 III┬╖┬╖┬╖.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.7. \setcounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \setcounter{counter}{value}

 The \setcounter command sets the value of the counter to that specified by the
 value argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.8. \usecounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \usecounter{counter}

 The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the list environment
 to allow the counter specified to be used to number the list items.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.1.9. \value ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \value{counter}

 The \value command produces the value of the counter named in the mandatory
 argument.  It can be used where LaTeX expects an integer or number, such as
 the second argument of a \setcounter or \addtocounter command, or in:

                          \hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}

 It is useful for doing arithmetic with counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.2. Cross References ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the
 reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details."

 \label
 \pageref
 \ref


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.2.1. \label ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \label{key}

 A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to the key the number of
 the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment
 assigns that number to the key.

 A key can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or punctuation
 characters.  Upper and lowercase letters are different.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.2.2. \pageref ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \pageref{key}

 The \pageref command produces the page number of the place in the text where
 the corresponding \label command appears. ie. where \label{key} appears.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.2.3. \ref ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \ref{key}

 The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation number,
 ┬╖┬╖┬╖ of the corresponding \label command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3. Definitions ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newcommand
 \newenvironment
 \newtheorem
 \newfont


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3.1. \newcommand ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \newcommand{cmd}[args]{def}
                       \renewcommand{cmd}[args]{def}

 These commands define (or redefine) a command.

 cmd       A command name beginning with a \.  For \newcommand it must not be
           already defined and must not begin with \end; for \renewcommand it
           must already be defined.

 args      An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the
           command being defined.  The default is for the command to have no
           arguments.

 def       The text to be substituted for every occurrence of cmd; a parameter
           of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of the nth argument
           when this substitution takes place.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3.2. \newenvironment ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \newenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
                       \renewenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}

 These commands define or redefine an environment.

 nam       The name of the environment.  For \newenvironment there must be no
           currently defined environment by that name, and the command \nam
           must be undefined.  For \renewenvironment the environment must
           already be defined.

 args      An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the
           newly-defined environment.  The default is no arguments.

 begdef    The text substituted for every occurrence of \begin{nam}; a
           parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of the nth
           argument when this substitution takes place.

 enddef    The text substituted for every occurrence of \end{nam}.  It may not
           contain any argument parameters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3.3. \newtheorem ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \newtheorem{env_name}{caption}[within]
                       \newtheorem{env_name}[numbered_like]{caption}

 This command defines a theorem-like environment.

 env_name  The name of the environment to be defined. A string of letters.  It
           must not be the name of an existing environment or counter.

 caption   The text printed at the beginning of the environment, right before
           the number. This may simply say "Theorem", for example.

 within    The name of an already defined counter, usually of a sectional unit.
           Provides a means of resetting the new theorem counter within the
           sectional unit.

 numbered_likeThe name of an already defined theorem-like environment.

 The \newtheorem command may have at most one optional argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.3.4. \newfont ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newfont{cmd}{font_name}

 Defines the command name cmd, which must not be currently defined, to be a
 declaration that selects the font named font_name to be the current font.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.4. Document Styles ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Valid LaTeX document styles include:

 o article

 o report

 o letter

 o book

 Other document styles are often available. See Overview, for details. They are
 selected with the following command:

 \documentstyle [options] {style}

 The options for the different styles are:

  1. article - 11pt, 12pt, twoside, twocolumn, draft, fleqn, leqno, acm

  2. report  - 11pt, 12pt, twoside, twocolumn, draft, fleqn, leqno, acm

  3. letter  - 11pt, 12pt, fleqn,  leqno, acm

  4. book   - 11pt, 12pt, twoside, twocolumn, draft, fleqn, leqno

 If you specify more than one option, they must be separated by a comma.

 \flushbottom
 \onecolumn
 \raggedbottom
 \twocolumn


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.4.1. \flushbottom ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same height, adding
 extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.

 This is the standard for the book style.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.4.2. \onecolumn ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces single-column
 output.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.4.3. \raggedbottom ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the text on that
 page.  No extra vertical space is added.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.4.4. \twocolumn ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5. Environments ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 LaTeX provides a number of different paragraph-making environments. Each
 environment begins and ends in the same manner.

                          \begin{environment-name}
                          .
                          .
                          .
                          \end{environment-name}

 array
 center
 description
 enumerate
 eqnarray
 equation
 figure
 flushleft
 flushright
 itemize
 list
 minipage
 picture
 quotation
 quote
 tabbing
 table
 tabular
 thebibliography
 theorem
 titlepage
 verbatim
 verse


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.1. array ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                      \begin{array}{col1col2┬╖┬╖┬╖coln}
                      column 1 entry & column 2 entry ┬╖┬╖┬╖ & column n entry \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                      \end{array}

 Math arrays are produced with the array environment.  It has a single
 mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment within
 them.  Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter that tells how items
 in that row should be formatted.

 o c - for centred

 o l - for flushleft

 o r - for flushright

 Column entries must be separated by an &.  Column entries may include other
 LaTeX commands.  Each row of the array must be terminated with the string \\.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.2. center ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{center}
                       Text on line 1 \\
                       Text on line 2 \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{center}

 The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines
 that are centred within the left and right margins on the current page.  Each
 line must be terminated with the string \\.

 \centering


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.2.1. \centering ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 This declaration corresponds to the center environment.  This declaration can
 be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox.  The text of a
 figure or table can be centred on the page by putting a \centering command at
 the beginning of the figure or table environment.

 Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does not start a new
 paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units.  To affect a
 paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
 line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
 unit.

 Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does not start a new
 paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units.  To affect a
 paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
 line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
 unit.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.3. description ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{description}
                       \item [label] First item
                       \item [label] Second item
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{description}

 The description environment is used to make labelled lists.  The label is bold
 face and flushed right.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.4. enumerate ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{enumerate}
                       \item First item
                       \item Second item
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{enumerate}

 The enumerate environment produces a numbered list.  Enumerations can be
 nested within one another, up to four levels deep.  They can also be nested
 within other paragraph-making environments.

 Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command. There must be at
 least one \item command within the environment.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.5. eqnarray ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{eqnarray}
                       math formula 1 \\
                       math formula 2 \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{eqnarray}

 The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of equations or
 inequalities.  It is very much like a three-column array environment, with
 consecutive rows separated by \\ and consecutive items within a row separated
 by an &.  An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
 \nonumber command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.6. equation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{equation}
                       math formula
                       \end{equation}

 The equation environment centres your equation on the page and places the
 equation number in the right margin.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.7. figure ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{figure}[placement]
                       body of the figure
                       \caption{figure title}
                       \end{figure}

 Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually
 "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Figures will not be
 split between two pages.

 The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try to place
 your figure.  There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float:

  1. h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure environment
     appears.

  2. t (Top) - at the top of a text page.

  3. b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.

  4. p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page containing
     no text, only floats.

 The standard report and article styles use the default placement tbp.

 The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc. you
 wish.  The \caption command allows you to title your figure.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.8. flushleft ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{flushleft}
                       Text on line 1 \\
                       Text on line 2 \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{flushleft}

 The flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines
 that are flushed left, to the left-hand margin. Each line must be terminated
 with the string \\.

 \raggedright


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.8.1. \raggedright ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment.  This declaration
 can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox.

 Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command does not start a
 new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units.  To affect
 a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
 line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
 unit.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.9. flushright ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{flushright}
                       Text on line 1 \\
                       Text on line 2 \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{flushright}

 The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
 lines that are flushed right, to the right-hand margin. Each line must be
 terminated with the string \\.

 \raggedleft


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.9.1. \raggedleft ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment.  This declaration
 can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox.

 Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command does not start a
 new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units.  To affect
 a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
 line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
 unit.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.10. itemize ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{itemize}
                       \item First item
                       \item Second item
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{itemize}

 The itemize environment produces a "bulleted" list.  Itemizations can be
 nested within one another, up to four levels deep.  They can also be nested
 within other paragraph-making environments.

 Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command. There must be at
 least one \item command within the environment.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.11. list ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{list}{label}{spacing}
                       \item First item
                       \item Second item
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{list}

 The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled. This argument is
 a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label.  This argument
 can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.

 The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for
 the list.  This argument will most often be null, i.e., {}.  This will select
 all default spacing which should suffice for most cases.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.12. minipage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{minipage}[position]{width}
                       text
                       \end{minipage}

 The minipage environment is similar to a \parbox command. It takes the same
 optional position argument and mandatory width argument.  You may use other
 paragraph-making environments inside a minipage.

 Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is particularly
 useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A \footnote or
 \footnotetext command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead
 of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the mpfootnote counter instead of
 the ordinary footnote counter.

 NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they
 may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13. picture ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
                       .
                       picture commands
                       .
                       \end{picture}

 The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture
 you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles.  You tell LaTeX where to
 put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates.  A coordinate is a
 number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign - a number like 5, 2.3
 or -3.1416.  A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length
 \unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm, then the coordinate 2.54
 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters.  You can change the value of
 \unitlength anywhere you want, using the \setlength command, but strange
 things will happen if you try changing it inside the picture environment.

 A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying the point
 with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5. Coordinates are specified in the
 usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left
 corner of the picture.  Note that when a position appears as an argument, it
 is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.

 The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a position.  It
 specifies the size of the picture.  The environment produces a rectangular box
 with width and height determined by this argument's x- and y-coordinates.

 The picture environment also has an optional position argument, following the
 size argument, that can change the origin.  (Unlike ordinary optional
 arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional
 argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the
 picture (thereby determining the origin).  For example, if \unitlength has
 been set to 1mm, the command┬╖┬╖┬╖

                        \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
 ┬╖┬╖┬╖produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters,
 whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is
 therefore the point (110,220).  When you first draw a picture, you will omit
 the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner.  If you
 then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you just add the
 appropriate optional argument.

 The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the
 picture.  This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX
 will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the
 page.  The picture's nominal size is used by TeX in determining how much room
 to leave for it.

 Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put command. The
 command┬╖┬╖┬╖

                        \put (11.3,-.3){┬╖┬╖┬╖}
 ┬╖┬╖┬╖puts the object specified by ┬╖┬╖┬╖ in the picture, with its reference point
 at coordinates (11.3,-.3).  The reference points for various objects will be
 described below.

 The \put command creates an LR box.  You can put anything in the text argument
 of the \put command that you'd put into the argument of an \mbox and related
 commands.  When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner
 of the box.

 \circle
 \dashbox
 \frame
 \framebox (picture)
 \line
 \linethickness
 \makebox (picture)
 \multiput
 \oval
 \put
 \shortstack
 \vector


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.1. \circle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \circle[*]{diameter}

 The \circle command produces a circle of the specified diameter. If the *-form
 of the command is used, LaTeX draws a solid circle.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.2. \dashbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \dashbox{dash_length}(width,height){┬╖┬╖┬╖}

 The \dashbox has an extra argument which specifies the width of each dash.  A
 dashed box looks best when the width and height are multiples of the
 dash_length.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.3. \frame ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \frame{┬╖┬╖┬╖}

 The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around the object specified in the
 argument.  The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame.  No
 extra space is put between the frame and the object.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.4. \framebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \framebox(width,height)[position]{┬╖┬╖┬╖}

 The \framebox command is analogous to the \makebox command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.5. \line ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \line(x slope,y slope){length}

 The \line command draws a line of the specified length and slope.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.6. \linethickness ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \linethickness{dimension}

 Declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture
 environment to be dimension, which must be a positive length. It does not
 affect the thickness of slanted lines and circles, or the quarter circles
 drawn by \oval to form the corners of an oval.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.7. \makebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \makebox(width,height)[position]{┬╖┬╖┬╖}

 The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to the normal
 \makebox command except that you must specify a width and height in multiples
 of \unitlength.

 The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that your text
 appears in.  You may select up to two of the following:

 o t - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle

 o b - Moves the item to the bottom

 o l - Moves the item to the left

 o r - Moves the item to the right


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.8. \multiput ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \multiput(x coord,y coord)(delta x,delta y){number of copies}{object}

 The \multiput command can be used when you are putting the same object in a
 regular pattern across a picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.9. \oval ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \oval(width,height)[portion]

 The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.  The optional
 argument, [portion], allows you to select part of the oval.

 o t - Selects the top portion

 o b - Selects the bottom portion

 o r - Selects the right portion

 o l - Selects the left portion


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.10. \put ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \put(x coord,y coord){ ┬╖┬╖┬╖  }

 The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory argument at the
 given coordinates.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.11. \shortstack ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \shortstack[position]{┬╖┬╖┬╖  \\ ┬╖┬╖┬╖  \\ ┬╖┬╖┬╖}

 The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects.  The valid positions are:

 o r - Moves the objects to the right of the stack

 o l - Moves the objects to the left of the stack

 o c - Moves the objects to the center of the stack (default)


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.13.12. \vector ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \vector(x slope,y slope){length}

 The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and
 slope.  The x and y values must lie between -4 and +4, inclusive.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.14. quotation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{quotation}
                       text
                       \end{quotation}

 The margins of the quotation environment are indented on the left and the
 right.  The text is justified at both margins and there is paragraph
 indentation.  Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.15. quote ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{quote}
                       text
                       \end{quote}

 The margins of the quote environment are indented on the left and the right.
 The text is justified at both margins.  Leaving a blank line between text
 produces a new paragraph.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.16. tabbing ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{tabbing}
                       text \= more text \= still more text \= last text \\
                       second row \>  \> more \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{tabbing}

 The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by
 setting tab stops and tabbing to them much the way you do with an ordinary
 typewriter.

 \=
 \>
 \<
 \+
 \- (tabbing)
 \'
 \`
 \kill


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.16.1. \= ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \= command sets the tab stops.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.16.2. \> ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \> command causes LaTeX to advance to the next tab stop.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.16.3. \< ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \< command allows you to put something to the left of the local margin
 without changing the margin.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.16.4. \+ ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \+ command moves the left margin of the next and all the following
 commands one tab stop to the right.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.16.5. \- ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \- command moves the left margin of the next and all the following
 commands one tab stop to the left.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.16.6. \' ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \' command moves everything that you have typed so far in the current
 column, everything starting from the most recent \>, \<, \', \\, or \kill
 command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current
 column's tab stop.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.16.7. \` ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \` command allows you to put text flushed right against any tab stop,
 including tab stop 0.  However, it can't move text to the right of the last
 column because there's no tab stop there.  The \` command moves all the text
 that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing} command that ends the line, to
 the right margin of the tabbing environment.  There must be no \> or \'
 command between the \` and the command that ends the line.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.16.8. \kill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \kill command allows you to set tab stops without producing text.  It
 works just like the \\ except that it throws away the current line instead of
 producing output for it.  The effect of any \=, \+ or \- commands in that line
 remain in effect.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.17. table ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{table}[placement]
                       body of the table
                       \caption{table title}
                       \end{table}

 Tables  are objects  that  are not part  of the normal  text,  and are usually
 "floated"  to a convenient  place,  like  the top  of a page. Tables will not
 be split between two pages.

 The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try to place
 your table.  There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float:

  1. h (Here) - at the position in the text where the table environment
     appears.

  2. t (Top) - at the top of a text page.

  3. b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page.

  4. p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page containing
     no text, only floats.

 The standard report and article styles use the default placement tbp.

 The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc., you
 wish.  The \caption command allows you to title your table.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.18. tabular ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
                       column 1 entry & column 2 entry ┬╖┬╖┬╖ & column n entry \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{tabular}
                              or
                       \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
                       column 1 entry & column 2 entry ┬╖┬╖┬╖ & column n entry \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{tabular*}

 These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of items,
 aligned vertically in columns.  The mandatory and optional arguments consist
 of:

 width     Specifies the width of the tabular* environment.  There must be
           rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the
           specified width.

 pos       Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the center
           of the environment.

               1. t - align on top row

               2. b - align on bottom row

 cols      Specifies the column formatting.  It consists of a sequence of the
           following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and
           intercolumn material.

               1. l - A column of left-aligned items.

               2. r - A column of right-aligned items.

               3. c - A column of centred items.

               4. | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the
                  environment.

               5. @{text} - This inserts text in every row.  An @-expression
                  suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between
                  columns; any desired space between the inserted text and the
                  adjacent items must be included in text.  An \extracolsep{wd}
                  command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width wd
                  to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until
                  countermanded by another \extracolsep command.  Unlike
                  ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not
                  suppressed by an @-expression.  An \extracolsep command can
                  be used only in an @-expression in the cols argument.

               6. p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox
                  of width wd, as if it were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd}
                  command.  However, a \\ may not appear in the item, except in
                  the following situations:

                   . inside an environment like minipage, array, or tabular.

                   . inside an explicit \parbox.

                   . in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or
                     \raggedleft declaration.  The latter declarations must
                     appear inside braces or an environment when used in a
                     p-column element.

               7. *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is
                  any positive integer and cols is any list of
                  column-specifiers, which may contain another *-expression.


 \cline
 \hline
 \multicolumn
 \vline


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.18.1. \cline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \cline{i-j}

 The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns specified,
 beginning in column i and ending in column j, which are identified in the
 mandatory argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.18.2. \hline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \hline command will draw a horizontal line the width of the table.  It's
 most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of
 the table.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.18.3. \multicolumn ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}

 The \multicolumn is used to make an entry that spans several columns.  The
 first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the number of columns to span.  The
 second mandatory argument, pos, specifies the formatting of the entry; c for
 centred, l for flushleft, r for flushright.  The third mandatory argument,
 text, specifies what text is to make up the entry.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.18.4. \vline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full height and
 depth of its row.  An \hfill command can be used to move the line to the edge
 of the column.  It can also be used in an @-expression.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.19. thebibliography ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
                       \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{thebibliography}

 The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or reference list.  In
 the article style, this reference list is labelled "References"; in the report
 style, it is labelled "Bibliography".

 o widest-label: Text that, when printed, is approximately as wide as the
   widest item label produces by the \bibitem commands.

 \bibitem
 \cite
 \nocite


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.19.1. \bibitem ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \bibitem[label]{cite_key}

 The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by label. If the label
 argument is missing, a number is generated as the label, using the enumi
 counter.  The cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation
 symbols not containing a comma.  This command writes an entry on the '.aux'
 file containing cite_key and the item's label.  When this '.aux' file is read
 by the \begin{document} command, the item's label is associated with cite_key,
 causing the reference to cite_key by a \cite command to produce the associated
 label.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.19.2. \cite ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \cite[text]{key_list}

 The key_list argument is a list of citation keys.  This command generates an
 in-text citation to the references associated with the keys in key_list by
 entries on the '.aux' file read by the \begin{document} command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.19.3. \nocite ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \nocite{key_list}

 The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, which is a list of
 one or more citation keys, on the '.aux' file.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.20. theorem ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{theorem}
                       theorem text
                       \end{theorem}

 The theorem environment produces "Theorem x" in boldface followed by your
 theorem text.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.21. titlepage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{titlepage}
                       text
                       \end{titlepage}

 The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e.  a page with no printed
 page number or heading.  It also causes the following page to be numbered page
 one.  Formatting the title page is left to you.  The \today command comes in
 handy for title pages.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.22. verbatim ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{verbatim}
                       text
                       \end{verbatim}

 The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment that gets LaTeX to
 print exactly what you type in.  It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with
 carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a
 typewriter.

 \verb


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.22.1. \verb ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \verb char literal_text char \verb*char literal_text char

 Typesets literal_text exactly as typed, including special characters and
 spaces, using a typewriter (\tt) type style. There may be no space between
 \verb or \verb* and char (space is shown here only for clarity).  The *-form
 differs only in that spaces are printed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.5.23. verse ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{verse}
                       text
                       \end{verse}

 The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses
 for it.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6. Footnotes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways.  They can be produced with one
 command, the \footnote command.  They can also be produced with two commands,
 the \footnotemark and the \footnotetext commands.  See the specific command
 for information on why you would use one over the other.

 \footnote
 \footnotemark
 \footnotetext


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.1. \footnote ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \footnote[number]{text}

 The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text at the bottom of the
 current page.  The optional argument, number, is used to change the default
 footnote number.  This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.2. \footnotemark ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \footnotemark command puts the footnote number in the text.  This command
 can be used in inner paragraph mode.  The text of the footnote is supplied by
 the \footnotetext command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.6.3. \footnotetext ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \footnotetext[number]{text}

 The \footnotetext command produces the text to be placed at the bottom of the
 page.  This command can come anywhere after the \footnotemark command.  The
 \footnotetext command must appear in outer paragraph mode.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.7. Lengths ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 A length is a measure of distance.  Many LaTeX commands take a length as an
 argument.

 \newlength
 \setlength
 \addtolength
 \settowidth


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.7.1. \newlength ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newlength{\gnat}

 The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument, \gnat, as a length
 command with a value of 0in.  An error occurs if a \gnat command already
 exists.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.7.2. \setlength ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \setlength{\gnat}{length}

 The \setlength command is used to set the value of a length command.  The
 length argument can be expressed in any terms of length LaTeX understands,
 i.e., inches (in), millimeters (mm), points (pt), etc.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.7.3. \addtolength ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addtolength{\gnat}{length}

 The \addtolength command increments a "length command" by the amount specified
 in the length argument.  It can be a negative amount.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.7.4. \settowidth ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \settowidth{\gnat}{text}

 The \settowidth command sets the value of a length command equal to the width
 of the text argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8. Letters ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 You can use LaTeX to typeset letters, both personal and business.  The letter
 document style is designed to make a number of letters at once, although you
 can make just one if you so desire.

 Your '.tex' source file has the same minimum commands as the other document
 styles, i.e., you must have the following commands as a minimum:

                       \documentstyle{letter}
                       \begin{document}
                       ┬╖┬╖┬╖ letters ┬╖┬╖┬╖
                       \end{document}

 Each letter is a letter environment, whose argument is the name and address of
 the recipient.  For example, you might have:

                       \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
                         \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
                        ┬╖┬╖┬╖
                       \end{letter}

 The letter itself begins with the \opening command.  The text of the letter
 follows.  It is typed as ordinary LaTeX input.  Commands that make no sense in
 a letter, like \chapter, don't work.  The letter closes with a \closing
 command.

 After the closing, you can have additional material.  The \cc command produces
 the usual "cc: ┬╖┬╖┬╖".  There's also a similar \encl command for a list of
 enclosures.

 \opening
 \closing
 Declarations


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.1. \opening ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \opening{text}

 The letter begins with the \opening command.  The mandatory argument, text, is
 whatever text you wish to start your letter, i.e.,

                       \opening{Dear Joe,}


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.2. \closing ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \closing{text}

 The letter closes with a \closing command, i.e.,

                       \closing{Best Regards,}


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.3. Declarations ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The following commands are declarations which take a single argument.

 \address
 \signature
 \location
 \telephone


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.4. \address ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \address{Return address}

 The return address, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope.
 Separate lines of the address should be separated by \\ commands. If you do
 not make an \address declaration, then the letter will be formatted for
 copying onto your organisation's standard letterhead. (See Overview, for
 details on your local implementation).  If you give an \address declaration,
 then the letter will be formatted as a personal letter.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.5. \signature ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \signature{Your name}

 Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the space
 for your signature.  Items that should go on separate lines should be
 separated by \\ commands.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.6. \location ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \location{address}

 This modifies your organisation's standard address.  This only appears if the
 firstpage pagestyle is selected.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.8.7. \telephone ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \telephone{number}

 This is your telephone number.  This only appears if the firstpage pagestyle
 is selected.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9. Line & Page Breaking ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate your
 input file into a string of glyphs and spaces.  To produce a printed document,
 this string must be broken into lines, and these lines must be broken into
 pages.  In some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the \\
 command, but LaTeX usually does it for you.

 \\
 \- (hyphenation)
 \cleardoublepage
 \clearpage
 \hyphenation
 \linebreak
 \newline
 \newpage
 \nolinebreak
 \nopagebreak
 \pagebreak


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.1. \\ ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \\[*][extra-space]

 The \\ command tells LaTeX to start a new line.  It has an optional argument,
 extra-space, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to be inserted
 before the next line.  This can be a negative amount.

 The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command except that it tells
 LaTeX not to start a new page after the line.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.2. \- ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \- command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point.
 LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find all correct
 hyphenation points.  The \- command is used for the exceptional cases.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.3. \cleardoublepage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all figures and
 tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided
 printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page,
 producing a blank page if necessary.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.4. \clearpage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables
 that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.5. \hyphenation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \hyphenation{words}

 The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points, where words is a
 list of words, separated by spaces, in which each hyphenation point is
 indicated by a - character.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.6. \linebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \linebreak[number]

 The \linebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current line at the point of
 the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
 \linebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
 from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

 The \linebreak command causes LaTeX to stretch the line so it extends to the
 right margin.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.7. \newline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \newline command breaks the line right where it is.  The \newline command
 can be used only in paragraph mode.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.8. \newpage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \newpage command ends the current page.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.9. \nolinebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \nolinebreak[number]

 The \nolinebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current line at the
 point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
 \nolinebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
 from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.10. \nopagebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \nopagebreak[number]

 The \nopagebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current page at the
 point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
 \nopagebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
 from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

 The \nopagebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current page at the
 point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
 \nopagebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
 from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.9.11. \pagebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \pagebreak[number]

 The \pagebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current page at the point of
 the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
 \pagebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
 from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10. Making Paragraphs ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines -- lines not
 containing even an %.  A blank line should not appear where a new paragraph
 cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of a sectioning
 command.

 \indent
 \noindent
 \par


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.1. \indent ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \indent

 This produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the paragraph
 indentation.  It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise
 be suppressed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.2. \noindent ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \noindent

 When used at the beginning of the paragraph, it suppresses the paragraph
 indentation.  It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.10.3. \par ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Equivalent to a blank line; often used to make command or environment
 definitions easier to read.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.11. Math Formulae ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode:

 math      For Formulae that appear right in the text.

 displaymathFor Formulae that appear on their own line.

 equation  The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an
           equation number in the right margin.

 The math environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the
 displaymath and equation environments can be used only in paragraph mode.  The
 math and displaymath environments are used so often that they have the
 following short forms:

                        \(┬╖┬╖┬╖\)   instead of   \begin{math}┬╖┬╖┬╖\end{math}
                        \[┬╖┬╖┬╖\]   instead of   \begin{displaymath}┬╖┬╖┬╖\end{displaymath}

 In fact, the math environment is so common that it has an even shorter form:

                        $ ┬╖┬╖┬╖ $   instead of   \(┬╖┬╖┬╖\)

 Subscripts & Superscripts
 Math Symbols
 Spacing in Math Mode
 Math Miscellany


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.11.1. Subscripts & Superscripts ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type _{exp}.  To
 get exp to appear as a superscript, you type ^{exp}. LaTeX handles
 superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way.  It even
 does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.11.2. Math Symbols ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need. The
 commands for generating them can be used only in math mode.  For example, if
 you include $\pi$ in your source, you will get the symbol у in your output.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.11.3. Spacing in Math Mode ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 In a math environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces you type and puts in the
 spacing that it thinks is best.  LaTeX formats mathematics the way it's done
 in mathematics texts.  If you want different spacing, LaTeX provides the
 following four commands for use in math mode: In a math environment, LaTeX
 ignores the spaces you type and puts in the spacing that it thinks is best.
 LaTeX formats mathematics the way it's done in mathematics texts.  If you want
 different spacing, LaTeX provides the following four commands for use in math
 mode:

  1. \; - a thick space

  2. \: - a medium space

  3. \, - a thin space

  4. \! - a negative thin space


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.11.4. Math Miscellany ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \cdots    The \cdots command produces a horizontal ellipsis where the dots are
           raised to the center of the line.

 \ddots    The \ddots command produces a diagonal ellipsis.

 \frac     \frac{num}{den} The \frac command produces the fraction num divided
           by den.

 \ldots    The \ldots command produces an ellipsis.  This command works in any
           mode, not just math mode.

           eg.

 \overbrace\overbrace{text} The \overbrace command generates a brace over text.

 \overline \overline{text} The \overline command causes the argument text to be
           overlined.

 \sqrt     \sqrt[root]{arg} The \sqrt command produces the square root of its
           argument.  The optional argument, root, determines what root to
           produce, i.e., the cube root of x+y would be typed as
           $\sqrt[3]{x+y}$.

 \underbrace\underbrace{text} The \underbrace command generates text with a
           brace underneath.

 \underline\underline{text} The \underline command causes the argument text to
           be underlined. This command can also be used in paragraph and LR
           modes.

 \vdots    The \vdots command produces a vertical ellipsis.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.12. Modes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes:

 o Paragraph mode

 o Math mode

 o Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short

 LaTeX changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a different
 level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. Mode changes occur
 only when entering or leaving an environment, or when LaTeX is processing the
 argument of certain text-producing commands.

 "Paragraph mode" is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when processing
 ordinary text.  In that mode, LaTeX breaks your text into lines and breaks the
 lines into pages.  LaTeX is in "math mode" when it's generating a mathematical
 formula.  In "LR mode", as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that
 it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them.  However, unlike
 paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new
 line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words into an \mbox, LaTeX would
 keep typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and then
 complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line.

 LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an \mbox command.  You
 can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for example, you can
 make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. There are also several
 text-producing commands and environments for making a box that put LaTeX in
 paragraph mode.  The box make by one of these commands or environments will be
 called a parbox.  When LaTeX is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is
 said to be in "inner paragraph mode".  Its normal paragraph mode, which it
 starts out in, is called "outer paragraph mode".


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13. Page Styles ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \documentstyle command determines the size and position of the page's head
 and foot.  The page style determines what goes in them.

 \maketitle
 \pagenumbering
 \pagestyle
 \thispagestyle


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.1. \maketitle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \maketitle

 The \maketitle command generates a title on a separate title page - except in
 the article style, where the title normally goes at the top of the first page.
 Information used to produce the title is obtained from the following
 declarations:

 \author
 \date
 \thanks
 \title


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.2. \author ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \author{names}

 The \author command declares the author(s), where names is a list of authors
 separated by \and commands.  Use \\ to separate lines within a single author's
 entry -- for example, to give the author's institution or address.

 NOTE: The milstd and book-form styles have re-defined the \maketitle command.
 The \title declaration is the only command of those shown below that has any
 meaning.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.3. \date ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \date{text}

 The \date command declares text to be the document's date.  With no \date
 command, the current date is used.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.4. \thanks ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \thanks{text}

 The \thanks command produces a footnote to the title.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.5. \title ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \title{text}

 The \title command declares text to be the title.  Use \\ to tell LaTeX where
 to start a new line in a long title.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.6. \pagenumbering ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \pagenumbering{num_style}

 Specifies the style of page numbers.  Possible values of num_style are:

 arabic    Arabic numerals

 roman     Lowercase roman numerals

 Roman     Uppercase roman numerals

 alph      Lowercase letters

 Alph      Uppercase letters


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.7. \pagestyle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \pagestyle{option}

 The \pagestyle command changes the style from the current page on throughout
 the remainder of your document.

 The valid options are:

 plain     Just a plain page number.

 empty     Produces empty heads and feet - no page numbers.

 headings  Puts running headings on each page.  The document style specifies
           what goes in the headings.

 myheadingsYou specify what is to go in the heading with the \markboth or the
           \markright commands.

 \mark


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.8. \mark ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                      \markboth{left head}{right head}
                      \markright{right head}

 The \markboth and \markright commands are used in conjunction with the page
 style myheadings for setting either both or just the right heading.  In
 addition to their use with the myheadings page style, you can use them to
 override the normal headings in the headings style, since LaTeX uses these
 same commands to generate those heads.  You should note that a "left-hand
 heading" is generated by the last \markboth command before the end of the
 page, while a "right-hand heading" is generated by the first \markboth or
 \markright that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one
 before the page.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.13.9. \thispagestyle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \thispagestyle{option}

 The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the \pagestyle command
 except that it changes the style for the current page only.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.14. Sectioning ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units.

 o \part

 o \chapter (report style only)

 o \section

 o \subsection

 o \subsubsection

 o \paragraph

 o \subparagraph

 o \subsubparagraph (milstd and book-form styles only)

 o \subsubsubparagraph (milstd and book-form styles only)

 All sectioning commands take the same general form, i.e.,

 \chapter[optional]{title}

 In addition to providing the heading in the text, the mandatory argument of
 the sectioning command can appear in two other places:

  1. The table of contents

  2. The running head at the top of the page

 You may not want the same thing to appear in these other two places as appears
 in the text heading.  To handle this situation, the sectioning commands have
 an optional argument that provides the text for these other two purposes.

 The "sectioning commands" have *-forms that print a title, but do not include
 a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents.  For example, the
 *-form of the \subsection command could look like:

 \subsection*{Example subsection}

 \appendix


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.14.1. \appendix ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \appendix

 The \appendix command changes the way sectional units are numbered.  The
 \appendix command generates no text and does not affect the numbering or
 parts.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15. Spaces & Boxes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addvspace
 \bigskip
 \dotfill
 \fbox
 \framebox
 \hfill
 \hrulefill
 \hspace
 \makebox
 \mbox
 \medskip
 \newsavebox
 \parbox
 \raisebox
 \rule
 \savebox
 \smallskip
 \usebox
 \vfill
 \vspace


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.1. \addvspace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addvspace{length}

 The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height length.
 However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the
 output by a previous \addvspace command, then this command will not add more
 space than needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal
 to length.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.2. \bigskip ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \bigskip command is equivalent to \vspace{bigskipamount} where
 bigskipamount is determined by the document style.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.3. \dotfill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \dotfill command produces a "rubber length" that produces dots instead of
 just spaces.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.4. \fbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \fbox{text}

 The \fbox command is exactly the same as the \mbox command, except that it
 puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.5. \framebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \framebox[width][position]{text}

 The \framebox command is exactly the same as the \makebox command, except that
 it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates.

 The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule, and leaves a
 space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents of the box.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.6. \hfill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \hfill fill command produces a "rubber length" which can stretch or shrink
 horizontally.  It will be filled with spaces.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.7. \hrulespace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \hrulefill fill command produces a "rubber length" which can stretch or
 shrink horizontally.  It will be filled with a horizontal rule.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.8. \hspace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \hspace[*]{length}

 The \hspace command adds horizontal space.  The length of the space can be
 expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., points, inches, etc.  You
 can add negative as well as positive space with an \hspace command.  Adding
 negative space is like backspacing.

 LaTeX removes horizontal space that comes at the end of a line.  If you don't
 want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * argument.  Then the
 space is never removed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.9. \makebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \makebox[width][position]{text}

 The \makebox command creates a box to contain the text specified.  The width
 of the box is specified by the optional width argument.  The position of the
 text within the box is determined by the optional position argument.

 o c - centered (default)

 o l - flushleft

 o r - flushright


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.10. \mbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \mbox{text}

 The \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by
 its argument.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.11. \medskip ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \medskip command is equivalent to \vspace{medskipamount} where
 medskipamount is determined by the document style.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.12. \newsavebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newsavebox{cmd}

 Declares cmd, which must be a command name that is not already defined, to be
 a bin for saving boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.13. \parbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \parbox[position]{width}{text}

 A parbox is a box whose contents are created in paragraph mode.  The \parbox
 has two mandatory arguments:

 width     specifies the width of the parbox; and

 text      the text that goes inside the parbox.

 LaTeX will position a parbox so its center lines up with the center of the
 text line.  An optional first argument, position, allows you to line up either
 the top or bottom line in the parbox.

 A \parbox command is used for a parbox containing a small piece of text, with
 nothing fancy inside.  In particular, you shouldn't use any of the
 paragraph-making environments inside a \parbox argument.  For larger pieces of
 text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use
 a minipage environment.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.14. \raisebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \raisebox{distance}[extend-above][extend-below]{text}

 The \raisebox command is used to raise or lower text.  The first mandatory
 argument specifies how high the text is to be raised (or lowered if it is a
 negative amount).  The text itself is processed in LR mode.

 Sometimes it's useful to make LaTeX think something has a different size than
 it really does - or a different size than LaTeX would normally think it has.
 The \raisebox command lets you tell LaTeX how tall it is.

 The first optional argument, extend-above, makes LaTeX think that the text
 extends above the line by the amount specified.  The second optional argument,
 extend-below, makes LaTeX think that the text extends below the line by the
 amount specified.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.15. \rule ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \rule[raise-height]{width}{thickness}

 The \rule command is used to produce horizontal lines.  The arguments are
 defined as follows:

 raise-height specifies how high to raise the rule (optional)

 width     specifies the length of the rule (mandatory)

 thickness specifies the thickness of the rule (mandatory)


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.16. \savebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \sbox{cmd}[text]
                       \savebox{cmd}[width][pos]{text}

 These commands typeset text in a box just as for \mbox or \makebox.  However,
 instead of printing the resulting box, they save it in bin cmd, which must
 have been declared with \newsavebox.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.17. \smallskip ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \smallskip

 The \smallskip command is equivalent to \vspace{smallskipamount} where
 smallskipamount is determined by the document style.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.18. \usebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \usebox{cmd}

 Prints the box most recently saved in bin cmd by a \savebox command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.19. \vfill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length which can stretch or shrink
 vertically.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.15.20. \vspace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \vspace[*]{length}

 The \vspace command adds vertical space.  The length of the space can be
 expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., points, inches, etc.  You
 can add negative as well as positive space with an \vspace command.

 LaTeX removes vertical space that comes at the end of a page.  If you don't
 want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * argument.  Then the
 space is never removed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.16. Special Characters ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called "special
 printing characters", or simply "special characters".

                                   # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }
 Whenever you put one of these special characters into your file, you are doing
 something special.  If you simply want the character to be printed just as any
 other letter, include a \ in front of the character. For example, \$ will
 produce $ in your output.

 The exception to the rule is the \ itself because \\ has its own special
 meaning.  A \ is produced by typing $\backslash$ in your file.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17. Splitting the Input ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 A large document requires a lot of input.  Rather than putting the whole input
 in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into several smaller
 ones.  Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is one that is the
 root file; it is the one whose name you type when you run LaTeX.

 \include
 \includeonly


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.1. \include ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \include{file}

 The \include command is used in conjunction with the \includeonly command for
 selective inclusion of files.  The file argument is the first name of a file,
 denoting 'file.tex'.  If file is one the file names in the file list of the
 \includeonly command or if there is no \includeonly command, the \include
 command is equivalent to

                      \clearpage
 except that if the file 'file.tex' does not exist, then a warning message
 rather than an error is produced.  If the file is not in the file list, the
 \include command is equivalent to \clearpage.

 The \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file read by
 another \include command.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.2. \includeonly ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \includeonly{file_list}

 The \includeonly command controls which files will be read in by an \include
 command.  It can only appear in the preamble.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.17.3. \input ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \input file

 The \input command causes the indicated file to be read and processed, exactly
 as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at that point.  The
 file name may be a complete file name with extension or just a first name, in
 which case the file 'file.tex' is used.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.18. Starting & Ending ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Your input file must contain the following commands as a minimum┬╖┬╖┬╖

                       \documentstyle{style}
                       \begin{document}
                        ┬╖┬╖┬╖ your text goes here ┬╖┬╖┬╖
                       \end{document}
 ┬╖┬╖┬╖where the style selected is one the valid styles for LaTeX. See Document
 Styles, and also see Overview, for details of the various document styles
 available locally.

 You may include other LaTeX commands between the \documentstyle and the
 \begin{document} commands.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.19. Table of Contents ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 A table of contents is produced with the \tableofcontents command. You put the
 command right where you want the table of contents to go; LaTeX does the rest
 for you.  It produces a heading, but it does not automatically start a new
 page.  If you want a new page after the table of contents, include a \newpage
 command after the \tableofcontents command.

 There are similar commands \listoffigures and \listoftables for producing a
 list of figures and a list of tables, respectively.  Everything works exactly
 the same as for the table of contents.

 NOTE: If you want any of these  items  to be generated,  you cannot have the
 \nofiles command in your document.

 \addcontentsline
 \addtocontents


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.19.1. \addcontentsline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addcontentsline{file}{sec_unit}{entry}

 The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified list or table
 where┬╖┬╖┬╖

 o file is the extension of the file on which information is to be written: toc
   (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or lot (list of tables).

 o sec_unit controls the formatting of the entry.  It should be one of the
   following, depending upon the value of the file argument:

    toc       the name of the sectional unit, such as part or subsection.

    lof       figure

    lot       table

 o entry is the text of the entry.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.19.2. \addtocontents ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addtocontents{file}{text}

 The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands) directly to the
 file that generates the table of contents or list of figures or tables.

 file       is the extension of the file on which information is to be written:
           toc (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or lot (list of
           tables).

 text      is the information to be written.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.20. Terminal Input/Output ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \typeout
 \typein


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.20.1. \typeout ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \typeout{msg}

 Prints msg on the terminal and in the log file.  Commands in msg that are
 defined with \newcommand or \renewcommand are replaced by their definitions
 before being printed.

 LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and
 ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg.  A \space command in msg
 causes a single space to be printed.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.20.2. \typein ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \typein[cmd]{msg}

 Prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for you to type a
 line of input, ending with return.  If the cmd argument is missing, the typed
 input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of
 the \typein command.  If the cmd argument is present, it must be a command
 name.  This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.21. Typefaces ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The typeface is specified by giving the "size" and "style".  A typeface is
 also called a "font".

 Styles
 Sizes


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.21.1. \Styles ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.

 The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.

 \rm       Roman.

 \it       Italics.

 \em       Emphasis (toggles between \it and \rm).

 \bf       Boldface.

 \sl       Slanted.

 \sf       Sans serif.

 \sc       Small caps.

 \tt       Typewriter.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 4.21.2. Sizes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The following type size commands are supported by LaTeX.

 \tiny

  \scriptsize

  \footnotesize

  \small

 \normalsize(default)

  \large

 \Large    (capital "l")

 \LARGE    (all caps)

  \huge

 \Huge     (capital "h")


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 5. Parameters ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX uses
 '.tex' as a default file extension.  If you omit the input file entirely, TeX
 accepts input from the terminal.  You specify command options by supplying a
 string as a parameter to the command. eg.

 latex "\scrollmode

 ┬╖┬╖┬╖will process 'foo.tex' without pausing after every error.

 Output files are always created in the current directory. When you fail to
 specify an input file name, TeX bases the output names on the file
 specification associated with the logical name TEX_OUTPUT, typically
 texput.log.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6. Alphabetical List of Commands ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 _{exp} (subscript)
 ^{exp} (superscript)
 \\
 \- (hyphenation)
 \;
 \COLON
 \COMMA
 \!
 \=
 \>
 \<
 \+
 \- (tabbing)
 \A
 \`
 \addcontentsline
 \addtocontents
 \addtocounter
 \address
 \addtolength
 \addvspace
 \alph
 \appendix
 \arabic
 \array
 \author
 \bf
 \bibitem
 \bigskip
 \cdots
 center
 \centering
 \circle
 \cite
 \cleardoublepage
 \clearpage
 \cline
 \closing
 \dashbox
 \date
 \ddots
 description
 \dotfill
 \em
 enumerate
 eqnarray
 equation
 figure
 \fbox
 \flushbottom
 flushleft
 flushright
 \fnsymbol
 \footnote
 \footnotemark
 \footnotesize
 \footnotetext
 \frac
 \frame
 \framebox
 \hfill
 \hline
 \hrulefill
 \hspace
 \huge
 \Huge (capital "h")
 \hyphenation
 \include
 \includeonly
 \indent
 \it
 itemize
 \kill
 \label
 \large
 \Large (capital "l")
 \LARGE (all caps)
 \ldots
 \line
 \linebreak
 \linethickness
 list
 \location
 \makebox
 \maketitle
 \mark
 \mbox
 \medskip
 minipage
 \multicolumn
 \multiput
 \newcommand
 \newcounter
 \newenvironment
 \newfont
 \newlength
 \newline
 \newpage
 \newsavebox
 \newtheorem
 \nocite
 \noindent
 \nolinebreak
 \normalsize
 \nopagebreak
 \onecolumn
 \opening
 \oval
 \overbrace
 \overline
 \pagebreak
 \pagenumbering
 \pageref
 \pagestyle
 \par
 \parbox
 picture
 \put
 quotation
 quote
 \raggedbottom
 \raggedleft
 \raggedright
 \raisebox
 \ref
 \rm
 \roman
 \rule
 \savebox
 \sc
 \scriptsize
 \setcounter
 \setlength
 \settowidth
 \sf
 \shortstack
 \signature
 \sl
 \small
 \smallskip
 \sqrt
 tabbing
 table
 tabular
 \telephone
 \thanks
 thebibliography
 theorem
 \thispagestyle
 \tiny
 \title
 titlepage
 \tt
 \twocolumn
 \typeout
 \typein
 \underbrace
 \underline
 \usebox
 \usecounter
 \value
 \vdots
 \vector
 \verb
 verbatim
 verse
 \vfill
 \vline
 \vspace


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.1. _{exp} (subscript) ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type _{exp}.  Use
 in math mode.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Subscripts & Superscripts.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.2. ^{exp} (superscript) ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 To get an expression exp to appear as a superscript, you just type ^{exp}.
 Use in math mode.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Subscripts & Superscripts.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.3. \\ ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \\[*][extra-space]

 The \\ command tells LaTeX to start a new line.  It has an optional argument,
 extra-space, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to be inserted
 before the next line.  This can be a negative amount.

 The \\* command is the same as the ordinary \\ command except that it tells
 LaTeX not to start a new page after the line.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.4. \- ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \- command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point.
 LaTeX is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find all correct
 hyphenation points.  The \- command is used for the exceptional cases.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.5. \; ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Include a thick space in math mode.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Spacing In Math Mode.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.6. \: ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Include a medium space in math mode.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Spacing In Math Mode.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.7. \, ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Include a thin space in math mode.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Spacing In Math Mode.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.8. \! ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Include a negative thin space in math mode.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Spacing In Math Mode.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.9. \= ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \= command sets the tab stops.

 See Environments.

 See tabbing.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.10. \> ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \> command causes LaTeX to advance to the next tab stop.

 See Environments.

 See tabbing.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.11. \< ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \< command allows you to put something to the left of the local margin
 without changing the margin.

 See Environments.

 See tabbing.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.12. \+ ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \+ command moves the left margin of the next and all the following
 commands one tab stop to the right.

 See Environments.

 See tabbing.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.13. \- ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \- command moves the left margin of the next and all the following
 commands one tab stop to the left.

 See Environments.

 See tabbing.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.14. \' ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \' command moves everything that you have typed so far in the current
 column, everything starting from the most recent \>, \<, \', \\, or \kill
 command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current
 column's tab stop.

 See Environments.

 See tabbing.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.15. \` ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \` command allows you to put text flushed right against any tab stop,
 including tab stop 0.  However, it can't move text to the right of the last
 column because there's no tab stop there.  The \` command moves all the text
 that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing} command that ends the line, to
 the right margin of the tabbing environment.  There must be no \> or \'
 command between the \` and the command that ends the line.

 See Environments.

 See tabbing.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.16. \addcontentsline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addcontentsline{file}{sec_unit}{entry}

 The \addcontentsline command adds an entry to the specified list or table
 where┬╖┬╖┬╖

 o file is the extension of the file on which information is to be written: toc
   (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or lot (list of tables).

 o sec_unit controls the formatting of the entry.  It should be one of the
   following, depending upon the value of the file argument:

     1. toc - the name of the sectional unit, such as part or subsection.

     2. lof - figure

     3. lot - table

 o entry is the text of the entry.

 See Table Of Contents.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.17. \addtocontents ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addtocontents{file}{text}

 The \addtocontents command adds text (or formatting commands) directly to the
 file that generates the table of contents or list of figures or tables.

 o file is the extension of the file on which information is to be written: toc
   (table of contents), lof (list of figures), or lot (list of tables).

 o text is the information to be written.

 See Table Of Contents.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.18. \addtocounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addtocounter{counter}{value}

 The \addtocounter command increments the counter by the amount specified by
 the value argument.  The value argument can be negative.

 See Counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.19. \address ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \address{Return address}

 The return address, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope.
 Separate lines of the address should be separated by \\ commands. If you do
 not make an \address declaration, then the letter will be formatted for
 copying onto your organisation's standard letterhead. If you give an \address
 declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a personal letter.

 See Letters.

 See Declarations.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.20. \addtolength ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addtolength{\gnat}{length}

 The \addtolength command increments a length command by the amount specified
 in the length argument.  It can be a negative amount.

 See Lengths.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.21. \addvspace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \addvspace{length}

 The \addvspace command normally adds a vertical space of height length.
 However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the
 output by a previous \addvspace command, then this command will not add more
 space than needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal
 to length.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.22. \alph ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \alph{counter}

 This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in alphabetic
 characters.  The \alph command causes lower case alphabetic characters, i.e.,
 a, b, c┬╖┬╖┬╖  while the \Alph command causes upper case alphabetic characters,
 i.e., A, B, C┬╖┬╖┬╖

 See Counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.23. \appendix ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \appendix

 The \appendix command changes the way sectional units are numbered.  The
 \appendix command generates no text and does not affect the numbering or
 parts.

 See Sectioning.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.24. \arabic ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \arabic{counter}

 The \arabic command causes the value of the counter to be printed in arabic
 numbers, i.e., 3.

 See Counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.25. \array ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{array}{col1col2┬╖┬╖┬╖coln}
                       column 1 entry & column 2 entry ┬╖┬╖┬╖ & column n entry \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{array}

 Math arrays are produced with the array environment.  It has a single
 mandatory argument describing the number of columns and the alignment within
 them.  Each column, coln, is specified by a single letter that tells how items
 in that row should be formatted.

 o c for centered

 o l for flushleft

 o r for flushright

 Column entries must be separated by an &.  Column entries may include other
 LaTeX commands.  Each row of the array must be terminated with the string \\.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.26. \author ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \author{names}

 The \author command declares the author(s), where names is a list of authors
 separated by \and commands.  Use \\ to separate lines within a single author's
 entry -- for example, to give the author's institution or address.

 NOTE: The milstd and book-form styles have re-defined the \maketitle command.
 The \title declaration is the only command of those shown below that has any
 meaning.

 See Page Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.27. \bf ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Boldface typeface.

 See Typefaces.

 See Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.28. \bibitem ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \bibitem[label]{cite_key}

 The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by label. If the label
 argument is missing, a number is generated as the label, using the enumi
 counter.  The cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation
 symbols not containing a comma.  This command writes an entry on the 'aux'
 file containing cite_key and the item's label.  When this 'aux' file is read
 by the \begin{document} command, the item's label is associated with cite_key,
 causing the reference to cite_key by a \cite command to produce the associated
 label.

 See Environments.

 See thebibliography.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.29. \bigskip ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \bigskip command is equivalent to \vspace{bigskipamount} where
 bigskipamount is determined by the document style.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.30. \cdots ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \cdots command produces a horizontal ellipsis where the dots are raised to
 the center of the line.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.31. center ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{center}
                       Text on line 1 \\
                       Text on line 2 \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{center}

 The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines
 that are centered within the left and right margins on the current page.  Each
 line must be terminated with a \\.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.32. \centering ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 This declaration corresponds to the center environment.  This declaration can
 be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox.  The text of a
 figure or table can be centered on the page by putting a \centering command at
 the beginning of the figure or table environment.

 Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does not start a new
 paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units. To affect a
 paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
 line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
 unit.

 See Environments.

 See center.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.33. \circle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \circle[*]{diameter}

 The \circle command produces a circle of the specified diameter.  If the
 *-form of the command is used, LaTeX draws a solid circle.

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.34. \cite ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \cite[text]{key_list}

 The key_list argument is a list of citation keys.  This command generates an
 in-text citation to the references associated with the keys in key_list by
 entries on the 'aux' file read by the \begin{document} command.

 See Environments.

 See thebibliography.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.35. \cleardoublepage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \cleardoublepage command ends the current page and causes all figures and
 tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided
 printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page,
 producing a blank page if necessary.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.36. \clearpage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \clearpage command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables
 that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.37. \cline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \cline{i-j}

 The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns specified,
 beginning in column i and ending in column j, which are identified in the
 mandatory argument.

 See Environments.

 See tabular.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.38. \closing ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \closing{text}

 The letter closes with a \closing command, i.e.,

                       \closing{Best Regards,}

 See Letters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.39. \dashbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \dashbox{dash length}(width,height){ ┬╖┬╖┬╖ }

 The \dashbox has an extra argument which specifies the width of each dash.  A
 dashed box looks best when the width and height are multiples of the dash
 length.

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.40. \date ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \date{text}

 The \date command declares text to be the document's date.  With no \date
 command, the current date is used.

 See Page Styles


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.41. \ddots ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \ddots command produces a diagonal ellipsis.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.42. description ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{description}
                       \item [label] First item
                       \item [label] Second item
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{description}

 The description environment is used to make labelled lists.  The label is bold
 face and flushed right.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.43. \dotfill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \dotfill  command  produces  a rubber  length  that produces  dots instead
 of just spaces.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.44. \em ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Emphasis (toggles between \it and \rm).

 See Typefaces.

 See Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.45. enumerate ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{enumerate}
                       \item First item
                       \item Second item
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{enumerate}

 The enumerate environment produces a numbered list.  Enumerations  can be
 nested within one another,  up to four levels deep.  They can also be nested
 within other paragraph-making environments.

 Each item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command. There must be at
 least one \item command within the environment.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.46. eqnarray ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{eqnarray}
                       math formula 1 \\
                       math formula 2 \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{eqnarray}

 The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of equations or
 inequalities.  It is very much like a three-column array environment, with
 consecutive rows separated by \\ and consecutive items within a row separated
 by an &.  An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a
 \nonumber command.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.47. equation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{equation}
                       math formula
                       \end{equation}

 The equation environment centers your equation on the page and places the
 equation number in the right margin.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.48. figure ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{figure}[placement]
                       body of the figure
                       \caption{figure title}
                       \end{figure}

 Figures  are objects  that are not part  of the normal  text,  and are usually
 "floated"  to a convenient  place,  like  the top  of a page. Figures will not
 be split between two pages.

 The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try to place
 your figure.  There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float:

  1. h: Here - at the position in the text where the figure environment
     appears.

  2. t: Top - at the top of a text page.

  3. b: Bottom - at the bottom of a text page.

  4. p: Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page containing
     no text, only floats.

 The standard report and article styles use the default placement tbp.

 The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc., you
 wish.  The \caption command allows you to title your figure.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.49. \fbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \fbox{text}

 The \fbox command is exactly the same as the \mbox command, except that it
 puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.50. \flushbottom ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \flushbottom  declaration  makes  all text pages  the same height, adding
 extra vertical space when necessary to fill out the page.

 See Document Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.51. flushleft ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{flushleft}
                       Text on line 1 \\
                       Text on line 2 \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{flushleft}

 The flushleft environment  allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
 lines  that are flushed  left to the left-hand  margin.  Each line must be
 terminated with a \\.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.52. flushright ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{flushright}
                       Text on line 1 \\
                       Text on line 2 \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{flushright}

 The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of
 lines that are flushed  right to the right-hand  margin.  Each line must be
 terminated with a \\.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.53. \fnsymbol ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \fnsymbol{counter}

 The \fnsymbol command causes the value of the counter to be printed in a
 specific  sequence  of nine symbols  that can be used  for numbering
 footnotes.

 See Counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.54. \footnote ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \footnote[number]{text}

 The \footnote command places the numbered footnote text at the bottom of the
 current page.  The optional argument, number, is used to change the default
 footnote number.  This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode.

 See Footnotes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.55. \footnotemark ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \footnotemark  command puts the footnote number in the text.  This command
 can be used in inner paragraph mode.  The text of the footnote is supplied by
 the \footnotetext command.

 See Footnotes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.56. \footnotesize ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Third smallest of 10 typefaces available.  This is the default size for
 footnotes.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.57. \footnotetext ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \footnotetext [number] {text}

 The \footnotetext command produces the text to be placed at the bottom of the
 page.  This command can come anywhere after the \footnotemark command.  The
 \footnotetext command must appear in outer paragraph mode.

 The optional argument, number, is used to change the default footnote number.

 See Footnotes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.58. \frac ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \frac{num}{den}

 The \frac command produces the fraction num divided by den.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.59. \frame ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \frame{ ┬╖┬╖┬╖  }

 The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around the object specified in the
 argument.  The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame.  No
 extra space is put between the frame and the object.

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.60. \framebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \framebox[width][position]{text}

 The framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule, and leaves a
 space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents of the box.

 See Spaces & Boxes.

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.61. \hfill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \hfill fill command produces a rubber length which can stretch or shrink
 horizontally.  It will be filled with spaces.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.62. \hline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \hline command will draw a horizontal line the width of the table.  It's
 most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of
 the table.

 See Environments.

 See tabular.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.63. \hrulefill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \hrulefill fill command produces a rubber length which can stretch or
 shrink horizontally.  It will be filled with a horizontal rule.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.64. \hspace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \hspace[*]{length}

 The \hspace command adds horizontal space.  The length of the space can be
 expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., points, inches, etc.  You
 can add negative as well as positive space with an \hspace command.  Adding
 negative space is like backspacing.

 LaTeX removes horizontal space that comes at the end of a line.  If you don't
 want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * argument.  Then the
 space is never removed.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.65. \huge ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Second largest of 10 typefaces available.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.66. \Huge ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Largest of 10 typefaces available.  All fonts may not be available in this
 size.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.67. \hyphenation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \hyphenation{words}

 The \hyphenation command declares allowed hyphenation points, where words is a
 list of words, separated by spaces, in which each hyphenation point is
 indicated by a - character.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.68. \include ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \include{file}

 The \include  command  is used  in conjunction  with  the \includeonly command
 for selective  inclusion  of files.  The file argument  is the first  name of
 a file,  denoting  'file.tex'.  If file  is one the file names in the file
 list of the \includeonly  command  or if there is no \includeonly command, the
 \include command is equivalent to

 \clearpage

 except that if the file 'file.tex' does not exist, then a warning message
 rather than an error is produced.  If the file is not in the file list, the
 \include command is equivalent to \clearpage.

 The \include command may not appear in the preamble or in a file read by
 another \include command.

 See Splitting The Input.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.69. \includeonly ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \includeonly{file_list}

 The \includeonly command controls which files will be read in by an \include
 command.  It can only appear in the preamble.

 See Splitting The Input.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.70. \indent ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 This produces  a horizontal  space whose width equals the width of the
 paragraph indentation.  It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would
 otherwise be suppressed.

 See Making Paragraphs.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.71. \input ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \input file

 The \input command causes the indicated file to be read and processed, exactly
 as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at that point.  The
 file name may be a complete file name with extension or just a first name, in
 which case the file 'file.tex' is used.

 See Splitting The Input.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.72. \it ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Italics typeface.

 See Typefaces.

 See Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.73. itemize ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{itemize}
                       \item First item
                       \item Second item
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{itemize}

 The itemize environment produces a bulleted list.  Itemizations can be nested
 within one another,  up to four levels deep.  They can also be nested within
 other paragraph-making environments.

 Each item of an itemized list begins with an \item command.  There must be at
 least one \item command within the environment.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.74. \kill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \kill command allows you to set tab stops without producing text.  It
 works just like the \\ except that it throws away the current line instead of
 producing output for it.  The effect of any \=, \+ or \- commands in that line
 remain in effect.

 See Environments.

 See tabbing.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.75. \label ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \label{key}

 A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to the key the number of
 the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment
 assigns that number to the key.

 A key con consist of any sequence  of letters,  digits, or punctuation
 characters.  Upper and lowercase letters are different.

 See Cross References.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.76. \large ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Slightly larger than default typeface size.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.77. \Large ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Fourth largest of typefaces available.  Is generally the default for titles.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.78. \LARGE ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Third largest of typefaces available.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.79. \ldots ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \ldots command produces an ellipsis.  This command works in any mode, not
 just math mode.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.80. \line ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \line(x slope,y slope){length}

 The \line command draws a line of the specified length and slope.

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.81. \linebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \linebreak[number]

 The \linebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current line at the point of
 the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
 \linebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
 from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

 The \linebreak  command causes LaTeX to stretch the line so it extends to the
 right margin.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.82. \linethickness ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \linethickness{dimension}

 Declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture
 environment to be dimension, which must be a positive length.  It does not
 affect the thickness of slanted lines and circles, or the quarter circles
 drawn by \oval to form the corners of an oval.

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.83. list ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{list}{label}{spacing}
                       \item First item
                       \item Second item
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{list}

 The {label} argument specifies how items should be labelled. This argument is
 a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label.  This argument
 can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.

 The {spacing} argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for
 the list.  This argument will most often be null, i.e. {}.  This will select
 all default spacing which should suffice for most cases.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.84. \location ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \location{address}

 This modifies your organisation's standard address.  This only appears if the
 firstpage pagestyle is selected.

 See Letters.

 See Declarations.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.85. \makebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \makebox[width][position]{text}

 The \makebox command creates a box to contain the text specified. The width of
 the box is specified by the optional width argument. The position of the text
 within the box is determined by the optional position argument.

 o c - for centred

 o l - for flushleft

 o r - for flushright

 See Spaces & Boxes.

 \makebox(width,height)[position]{ ┬╖┬╖┬╖ }

 The \makebox  command for the picture  environment  is similar  to the normal
 \makebox  command  except  that you must specify  a width  and height in
 multiples of \unitlength.

 The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that your text
 appears in.  You may select up to two of the following:

 o t - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle

 o b - Moves the item to the bottom

 o l - Moves the item to the left

 o r - Moves the item to the right

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.86. \maketitle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \maketitle

 The \maketitle  command generates  a title on a separate  title page - except
 in the article style, where the title normally  goes at the top of the first
 page.  Information  used to produce the title is obtained using various other
 commands.

 See Page Styles for the commands to give the information.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.87. \mark ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \markboth{left head}{right head}
                       \markright{right head}

 The \markboth and \markright commands are used in conjunction with the page
 style myheadings for setting either both or just the right heading.  In
 addition to their use with the myheadings page style, you can use them to
 override the normal headings in the headings style, since LaTeX uses these
 same commands to generate those heads.  You should note that a left-hand
 heading is generated by the last \markboth command before the end of the page,
 while a right-hand heading is generated by the first \markboth or \markright
 that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before the
 page.

 See Page Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.88. \mbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \mbox{text}

 The \mbox command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by
 its argument.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.89. \medskip ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \medskip command is equivalent to \vspace{medskipamount} where
 medskipamount is determined by the document style.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.90. minipage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{minipage}[position]{width}
                       text
                       \end{minipage}

 The minipage  environment  is similar to a \parbox command.  It takes the same
 optional position argument and mandatory width argument.  You may use other
 paragraph-making environments inside a minipage.

 Footnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is particularly
 useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables.  A \footnote or
 \footnotetext command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead
 of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the mpfootnote counter instead of
 the ordinary footnote counter.

 NOTE: Don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they
 may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.91. \multicolumn ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}

 The \multicolumn is used to make an entry that spans several columns.  The
 first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the number of columns to span.  The
 second mandatory argument, pos, specifies the formatting of the entry; c for
 centered, l for flushleft, r for flushright.  The third mandatory argument,
 text, specifies what text is to make up the entry.

 See Environments.

 See tabular.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.92. \multiput ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \multiput(x coord,y coord)(delta x,delta y){number of copies}{object}

 The \multiput command can be used when you are putting the same object in a
 regular pattern across a picture.

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.93. \newcommand ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \newcommand{cmd}[args]{def}
                       \renewcommand{cmd}[args]{def}

 These commands define (or redefine) a command.

 cmd       A command name beginning with a \.  For \newcommand it must not be
           already defined and must not begin with \end; for \renewcommand it
           must already be defined.

 args      An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the
           command being defined.  The default is for the command to have no
           arguments.

 def       The text to be substituted for every occurrence of cmd; a parameter
           of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of the nth argument
           when this substitution takes place.

 See Definitions.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.94. \newcounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newcounter{foo}[counter]

 The \newcounter command defines a new counter named foo. The optional argument
 [counter] causes the counter foo to be reset whenever the counter named in the
 optional argument is incremented.

 See Counters. See Definitions.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.95. \newenvironment ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \newenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}
                       \renewenvironment{nam}[args]{begdef}{enddef}

 These commands define or redefine an environment.

 nam       The name of the environment.  For \newenvironment there must be no
           currently defined environment by that name, and the command \nam
           must be undefined.  For \renewenvironment the environment must
           already be defined.

 args      An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the
           newly-defined environment.  The default is no arguments.

 begdef    The text substituted for every occurrence of \begin{name}; a
           parameter of the form #n in cmd is replaced by the text of the nth
           argument when this substitution takes place.

 enddef    The text substituted for every occurrence of \end{nam}.  It may not
           contain any argument parameters.

 See Definitions.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.96. \newfont ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newfont{cmd}{font_name}

 Defines the command name cmd, which must not be currently defined, to be a
 declaration that selects the font named font_name to be the current font.

 See Definitions.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.97. \newlength ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newlength{\gnat}

 The \newlength command defines the mandatory argument, \gnat, as a length
 command with a value of 0in.  An error occurs if a \gnat command already
 exists.

 See Lengths.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.98. \newline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \newline command breaks the line right where it is.  The \newline command
 can be used only in paragraph mode.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.99. \newpage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \newpage command ends the current page.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.100. \newsavebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \newsavebox{cmd}

 Declares  cmd,  which  must  be a command  name  that  is not  already
 defined, to be a bin for saving boxes.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.101. \newtheorem ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \newtheorem{env_name}{caption}[within]
                       \newtheorem{env_name}[numbered_like]{caption}

 This command defines a theorem-like environment.

 env_name  The name of the environment -- a string of letters.  Must not be the
           name of an existing environment or counter.

 caption   The text printed at the beginning of the environment, right before
           the number.

 within    The name of an already defined counter, usually of a sectional unit.
           Provides a means of resetting the new theorem counter within the
           sectional unit.

 numbered_likeThe name of an already defined theorem-like environment.

 The \newtheorem command may have at most one optional argument.

 See Definitions.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.102. \nocite ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \nocite{key_list}

 The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, which is a list of
 one or more citation keys, on the 'aux' file.

 See Environments.

 See thebibliography.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.103. \noindent ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 When  used  at the  beginning  of the  paragraph,  it  suppresses  the
 paragraph indentation.  It has no effect when used in the middle of a
 paragraph.

 See Making Paragraphs.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.104. \nolinebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \nolinebreak[number]

 The \nolinebreak command prevents LaTeX from breaking the current line at the
 point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
 \nolinebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
 from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.105. \normalsize ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The size of \normalsize is defined by as 10pt unless the 11pt or 12pt document
 style option is used.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.106. \nopagebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \nopagebreak[number]

 The \nopagebreak command prevents LaTeX form breaking the current page at the
 point of the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
 \nopagebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
 from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.107. \onecolumn ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces single-column
 output.

 See Document Styles


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.108. \opening ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \opening{text}

 The letter begins with the \opening command.  The mandatory argument, text, is
 what ever text you wish to start your letter, i.e.,

 \opening{Dear John,}

 See Letters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.109. \oval ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \oval(width,height)[portion]

 The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.  The optional
 argument, [portion], allows you to select part of the oval.

 o t - Selects the top portion

 o b - Selects the bottom portion

 o r - Selects the right portion

 o l - Selects the left portion

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.110. \overbrace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \overbrace{text}

 The \overbrace command generates a brace over text.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.111. \overline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \overline{text}

 The \overline command causes the argument text to be overlined.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.112. \pagebreak ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \pagebreak[number]

 The \pagebreak command tells LaTeX to break the current page at the point of
 the command.  With the optional argument, number, you can convert the
 \pagebreak command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number
 from 0 to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

 See Line & Page Breaking.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.113. \pagenumbering ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \pagenumbering{num_style}

 Specifies the style of page numbers.  Possible values of num_style are:

 o arabic - Arabic numerals

 o roman - Lowercase roman numerals

 o Roman - Uppercase roman numerals

 o alph - Lowercase letters

 o Alph - Uppercase letters

 See Page Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.114. \pageref ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \pageref{key}

 The \pageref command produces the page number of the place in the text where
 the corresponding \label command appears.

 See Cross References.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.115. \pagestyle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \pagestyle{option}

 The \pagestyle  command  changes  the style  from the current  page on
 throughout the remainder of your document.

 The valid options are:

 o plain - Just a plain page number.

 o empty - Produces empty heads and feet - no page numbers.

 o headings - Puts running headings on each page.  The document style specifies
   what goes in the headings.

 o myheadings - You specify what is to go in the heading with the \markboth or
   the \markright commands.

 See Page Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.116. \par ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Equivalent  to a blank line; often used to make command or environment
 definitions easier to read.

 See Making Paragraphs.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.117. \parbox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \parbox[position]{width}{text}

 A parbox is a box whose contents  are created in paragraph  mode.  The \parbox
 has two mandatory arguments:

 o width - specifies the width of the parbox, and

 o text - the text that goes inside the parbox.

 LaTeX will position a parbox so its center lines up with the center of the
 text line.  An optional first argument, position, allows you to line up either
 the top or bottom line in the parbox.

 A \parbox command is used for a parbox containing a small piece of text, with
 nothing fancy inside.  In particular, you shouldn't use any of the
 paragraph-making environments inside a \parbox argument.  For larger pieces of
 text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use
 a minipage environment.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.118. picture ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
                       .
                       picture commands
                       .
                       \end{picture}

 The picture environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture
 you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles.  You tell LaTeX where to
 put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates.  A coordinate is a
 number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign - a number like 5, 2.3
 or -3.1416.  A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length
 \unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm, then the coordinate 2.54
 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters.  You can change the value of
 \unitlength anywhere you want, using the \setlength command, but strange
 things will happen if you try changing it inside the picture environment.

 A position is a pair of coordinates,  such as (2.4,-5), specifying the point
 with x-coordinate  2.4 and y-coordinate  -5.  Coordinates  are specified  in
 the  usual  way  with  respect  to an origin,  which  is normally  at the
 lower-left  corner of the picture.  Note that when a position  appears as an
 argument,  it is not enclosed  in braces;  the parentheses serve to delimit
 the argument.

 The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a position. It
 specifies the size of the picture.  The environment produces a rectangular box
 with width and height determined by this argument's x and y coordinates.

 The picture environment also has an optional position argument, following the
 size argument, that can change the origin.  (Unlike ordinary optional
 arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional
 argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the
 picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength has been
 set to 1mm, the command

                       \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
 produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose
 lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is
 therefore the point (110,220).  When you first draw a picture, you will omit
 the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner.  If you
 then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you just add the
 appropriate optional argument.

 The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the
 picture.  This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; LaTeX
 will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the
 page.  The picture's nominal size is used by TeX in determining how much room
 to leave for it.

 Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put command. The command

                       \put (11.3,-.3){ ┬╖┬╖┬╖ }
 puts the object specified by "┬╖┬╖┬╖" in the picture, with its reference point at
 coordinates (11.3,-.3).  The reference points for various objects will be
 described below.

 The \put command creates an LR box.  You can put anything in the text argument
 of the \put command that you'd put into the argument of an \mbox and related
 commands.  When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner
 of the box.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.119. \put ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \put(x coord,y coord){ ┬╖┬╖┬╖ }

 The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory argument at the
 given coordinates.

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.120. quotation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{quotation}
                       text
                       \end{quotation}

 The margins of the quotation environment are indented on the left and the
 right.  The text is justified at both margins and there is paragraph
 indentation.  Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.121. quote ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{quote}
                       text
                       \end{quote}

 The margins of the quote environment  are indented on the left and the right.
 The text is justified  at both margins.  Leaving a blank line between text
 produces a new paragraph.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.122. \raggedbottom ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the height of the text on that
 page.  No extra vertical space is added.

 See Document Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.123. \raggedleft ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 This declaration corresponds to the flushright environment.  This declaration
 can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox.

 Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command does not start a
 new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units.  To affect
 a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
 line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
 unit.

 See Environments.

 See flushright.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.124. \raggedright ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 This declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment.  This declaration
 can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox.

 Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command does not start a
 new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX formats paragraph units.  To affect
 a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank
 line or \end command (of an environment like quote) that ends the paragraph
 unit.

 See Environments.

 See flushleft.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.125. \raisebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \raisebox{distance}[extend-above][extend-below]{text}

 The \raisebox command is used to raise or lower text.  The first mandatory
 argument specifies how high the text is to be raised (or lowered if it is a
 negative amount).  The text itself is processed in LR mode.

 Sometimes it's useful to make LaTeX think something has a different size than
 it really does - or a different size than LaTeX would normally think it has.
 The \raisebox command lets you tell LaTeX how tall it is.

 The first optional argument, extend-above, makes LaTeX think that the text
 extends above the line by the amount specified.  The second optional argument,
 extend-below, makes LaTeX think that the text extends below the line by the
 amount specified.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.126. \ref ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \ref{key}

 The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation number,
 ┬╖┬╖┬╖ of the corresponding \label command.

 See Cross References.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.127. \rm ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Roman typeface (default).

 See Typefaces.

 See Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.128. \roman ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \roman{counter}

 This command causes the value of the counter to be printed in roman numerals.
 The \roman command causes lower case roman numerals, i.e., i, ii, iii┬╖┬╖┬╖,
 while the \Roman command causes upper case roman numerals, i.e., I, II, III┬╖┬╖┬╖

 See Counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.129. \rule ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \rule[raise-height]{width}{thickness}

 The \rule command is used to produce horizontal lines.  The arguments are
 defined as follows.

 o raise-height - specifies how high to raise the rule (optional)

 o width - specifies the length of the rule (mandatory)

 o thickness - specifies the thickness of the rule (mandatory)

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.130. \savebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \sbox{cmd}[text]
                       \savebox{cmd}[width][pos]{text}

 These commands typeset text in a box just as for \mbox or \makebox.  However,
 instead of printing the resulting box, they save it in bin cmd, which must
 have been declared with \newsavebox.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.131. \sc ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Small caps typeface.

 See Typefaces.

 See Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.132. \scriptsize ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Second smallest of 10 typefaces available.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.133. \setcounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \setcounter{counter}{value}

 The \setcounter command sets the value of the counter to that specified by the
 value argument.

 See Counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.134. \setlength ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \setlength{\gnat}{length}

 The \setlength command is used to set the value of a length command.  The
 length argument can be expressed in any terms of length LaTeX understands,
 i.e., inches (in), millimeters (mm), points (pt), etc.

 See Lengths.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.135. \settowidth ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \settowidth{\gnat}{text}

 The \settowidth command sets the value of a length command equal to the width
 of the text argument.

 See Lengths.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.136. \sf ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Sans serif typeface.

 See Typefaces.

 See Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.137. \shortstack ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \shortstack[position]{┬╖┬╖┬╖  \\ ┬╖┬╖┬╖  \\ ┬╖┬╖┬╖}

 The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects.  The valid positions are:

 o r - Moves the objects to the right of the stack

 o l - Moves the objects to the left of the stack

 o c - Moves the objects to the center of the stack (default)

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.138. \signature ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \signature{Your name}

 Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the space
 for your signature.  Items that should go on separate lines should be
 separated by \\ commands.

 See Letters.

 See Declarations.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.139. \sl ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Slanted typeface.

 See Typefaces.

 See Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.140. \small ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Slightly smaller than default typeface size.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.141. \smallskip ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \smallskip

 The \smallskip command is equivalent to \vspace{smallskipamount} where
 smallskipamount is determined by the document style.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.142. \sqrt ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \sqrt[root]{arg}

 The \sqrt command produces the square root of its argument.  The optional
 argument, root, determines what root to produce, i.e. the cube root of x+y
 would be typed as $\sqrt[3]{x+y}$.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.143. tabbing ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{tabbing}
                       text \= more text \= still more text \= last text \\
                       second row \>  \> more \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{tabbing}

 The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by
 setting tab stops and tabbing to them much the way you do with an ordinary
 typewriter.

 See Environments.

 See tabbing.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.144. table ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{table}[placement]
                       body of the table
                       \caption{table title}
                       \end{table}

 Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually
 "floated" to a convenient place, like the top of a page.  Tables will not be
 split between two pages.

 The optional argument [placement] determines where LaTeX will try to place
 your table.  There are four places where LaTeX can possibly put a float:

 o h : Here - at the position in the text where the table environment appears.

 o t : Top - at the top of a text page.

 o b : Bottom - at the bottom of a text page.

 o p : Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page containing no
   text, only floats.

 The standard report and article styles use the default placement [tbp].

 The body of the table is made up of whatever text, LaTeX commands, etc., you
 wish.  The \caption command allows you to title your table.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.145. tabular ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
                       column 1 entry & column 2 entry ┬╖┬╖┬╖ & column n entry \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{tabular}
 or┬╖┬╖┬╖

                       \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
                       column 1 entry & column 2 entry ┬╖┬╖┬╖ & column n entry \\
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{tabular*}

 These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of
 items,aligned vertically in columns.  The mandatory and optional arguments
 consist of:

 width     Specifies the width of the tabular* environment.  There must be
           rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the
           specified width.

 pos       Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the center
           of the environment.

               1. t - align on top row

               2. b - align on bottom row

 cols      Specifies the column formatting.  It consists of a sequence of the
           following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and
           intercolumn material.

               1. l - A column of left-aligned items.

               2. r - A column of right-aligned items.

               3. c - A column of centred items.

               4. | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the
                  environment.

               5. @{text} - This inserts text in every row.  An @-expression
                  suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between
                  columns; any desired space between the inserted text and the
                  adjacent items must be included in text.  An \extracolsep{wd}
                  command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width wd
                  to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until
                  countermanded by another \extracolsep command.  Unlike
                  ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not
                  suppressed by an @-expression.  An \extracolsep command can
                  be used only in an @-expression in the cols argument.

               6. p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox
                  of width wd, as if it were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd}
                  command.  However, a \\ may not appear in the item, except in
                  the following situations: (i) inside an environment like
                  minipage, array, or tabular, (ii) inside an explicit \parbox,
                  or (iii) in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or
                  \raggedleft declaration.  The latter declarations must appear
                  inside braces or an environment when used in a p-column
                  element.

               7. *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is
                  any positive integer and cols is any list of
                  column-specifiers, which may contain another
                  *-expression.


 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.146. \telephone ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \telephone{number}

 This is your telephone number.  This only appears if the firstpage pagestyle
 is selected.

 See Letters.

 See Declarations.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.147. \thanks ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \thanks{text}

 The \thanks command produces a footnote to the title.

 See Page Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.148. thebibliography ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
                       \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
                       .
                       .
                       .
                       \end{thebibliography}

 The thebibliography  environment produces a bibliography  or reference list.
 In  the  article  style,  this  reference  list  is  labelled "References"; in
 the report style, it is labelled "Bibliography".

 o widest-label - Text that, when printed, is approximately as wide as the
   widest item label produces by the \bibitem commands.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.149. theorem ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{theorem}
                       theorem text
                       \end{theorem}

 The theorem environment produces "Theorem x" in boldface followed by your
 theorem text.

 See Environments


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.150. \thispagestyle ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \thispagestyle{option}

 The \thispagestyle command works in the same manner as the \pagestyle command
 except that it changes the style for the current page only.

 See Page Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.151. \tiny ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Smallest of 10 typefaces available.  All fonts may not be available in this
 size.

 See Typefaces.

 See Sizes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.152. \title ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \title{text}

 The \title command declares text to be the title.  Use \\ to tell LaTeX where
 to start a new line in a long title.

 See Page Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.153. titlepage ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{titlepage}
                       text
                       \end{titlepage}

 The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with no printed
 page number or heading.  It also causes the following page to be numbered page
 one.  Formatting the title page is left to you.  The \today command comes in
 handy for title pages.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.154. \tt ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Typewriter typeface.

 See Typefaces.

 See Styles.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.155. \twocolumn ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output.

 See Document Styles


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.156. \typeout ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \typeout{msg}

 Prints msg on the terminal and in the 'log' file.  Commands in msg that are
 defined with \newcommand or \renewcommand are replaced by their definitions
 before being printed.

 LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and
 ignoring spaces after a command name apply to msg.  A \space command in msg
 causes a single space to be printed.

 See Terminal Input/Output.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.157. \typein ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \typein[cmd]{msg}

 Prints msg on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and wait for you to type a
 line of input, ending with return.  If the cmd argument is missing, the typed
 input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of
 the \typein command.  If the cmd argument is present, it must be a command
 name.  This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.

 See Terminal Input/Output.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.158. \underbrace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \underbrace{text}

 The \underbrace command generates text with a brace underneath.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.159. \underline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \underline{text}

 The \underline command causes the argument text to be underlined. This command
 can also be used in paragraph and LR modes.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.160. \usebox ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \usebox{cmd}

 Prints the box most recently saved in bin cmd by a \savebox command.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.161. \usecounter ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \usecounter{counter}

 The \usecounter command is used in the second argument of the list environment
 to allow the counter specified to be used to number the list items.

 See Counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.162. \value ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \value{counter}

 The \value command produces the value of the counter named in the mandatory
 argument.  It can be used where LaTeX expects an integer or number, such as
 the second argument of a \setcounter or \addtocounter command, or in

                       \hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}

 It is useful for doing arithmetic with counters.

 See Counters.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.163. \vdots ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \vdots command produces a vertical ellipsis.

 See Math Formulae.

 See Math Miscellany.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.164. \vector ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \vector(x slope,y slope){length}

 The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and
 slope.  The x and y values must lie between -4 and +4, inclusive.

 See Environments.

 See picture.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.165. \verb ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \verb char literal_text char
                       \verb*char literal_text char

 Typesets literal_text exactly as typed, including special characters and
 spaces, using a typewriter (\tt) type style. There may be no space between
 \verb or \verb* and char (space is shown here only for clarity).  The *-form
 differs only in that spaces are printed.

 See Environments.

 See verbatim.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.166. verbatim ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{verbatim}
                       text
                       \end{verbatim}

 The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment that gets LaTeX to
 print exactly what you type in.  It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with
 carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a
 typewriter.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.167. verse ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                       \begin{verse}
                       text
                       \end{verse}

 The verse environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses
 for it.

 See Environments.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.168. \vfill ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \vfill fill command produces a rubber length which can stretch or shrink
 vertically.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.169. \vline ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full height and
 depth of its row.  An \hfill command can be used to move the line to the edge
 of the column.  It can also be used in an @-expression.

 See Environments.

 See tabular.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 6.170. \vspace ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 \vspace[*]{length}

 The \vspace command adds vertical space.  The length of the space can be
 expressed in any terms that LaTeX understands, i.e., points, inches, etc.  You
 can add negative as well as positive space with an \vspace command.

 LaTeX removes vertical space that comes at the end of a page.  If you don't
 want LaTeX to remove this space, include the optional * argument.  Then the
 space is never removed.

 See Spaces & Boxes.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 7. Index ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

 Appendix, creating                                \appendix
 Arrays                                            array
 article style                                     Document Styles
 Author, for titlepage                             \author
 Bibliography, creating                            thebibliography
 book style                                        Document Styles
 Centering text                                    center
                                                   \centering
 chapter, Sectioning                               Sectioning
 Characters, special                               Special Characters
 Commands, defining new ones                       \newcommand
 Counters, a list of                               Counters
 Counters, adding to                               \addtocounter
 Counters, creating                                \newcounter
 Counters, setting                                 \setcounter
 Counters, use of                                  \usecounter
                                                   \value
 Creating Letters                                  Letters
 Creating pictures                                 picture
 Cross referencing                                 Cross References
                                                   \label
                                                   \pageref
                                                   \ref
 Date, for titlepage                               \date
 Defining a new command                            \newcommand
 Defining new environments                         \newenvironment
 Defining new fonts                                \newfont
 Defining new theorems                             \newtheorem
 description Environments                          description
 Document Styles                                   Document Styles
 Ending & Starting                                 Starting & Ending
 enumerate Environment                             enumerate
 Environment                                       tabular
                                                   verbatim
 Environments                                      Environments
                                                   description
                                                   enumerate
                                                   eqnarray
                                                   equation
                                                   figure
                                                   flushleft
                                                   \raggedright
                                                   itemize
                                                   list
                                                   minipage
                                                   picture
                                                   quotation
                                                   quote
                                                   tabbing
                                                   table
                                                   thebibliography
                                                   theorem
                                                   titlepage
                                                   verse
 Environments, defining                            \newenvironment
 eqnarray Environment                              eqnarray
 equation Environment                              equation
 figure Environment                                figure
 Flushing a page                                   \cleardoublepage
                                                   \clearpage
 Font Sizes                                        Sizes
 Font Styles                                       \Styles
 Fonts                                             Typefaces
 Fonts, new commands for                           \newfont
 Footnotes, creating                               Footnotes
 Formatting text                                   center
                                                   \centering
 Formulae, maths                                   Math Formulae
 Hyphenation                                       \-
                                                   \hyphenation
 Input file, splitting                             Splitting the Input
 Input/Output                                      Terminal Input/Output
 Inserting figures                                 figure
 itemize Environment                               itemize
 LaTeX overview                                    Overview of LaTeX and Local
                                                   Guide
 Left-to-right mode                                Modes
 Lengths, defining and using                       Lengths
                                                   \newlength
                                                   \setlength
                                                   \addtolength
                                                   \settowidth
 letter style                                      Document Styles
 Letters                                           Letters
                                                   \opening
                                                   \closing
                                                   Declarations
                                                   \address
                                                   \signature
                                                   \location
                                                   \telephone
 Line Breaking                                     Line & Page Breaking
 Line Breaks                                       \linebreak
 list Environment                                  list
 Lists of items                                    enumerate
                                                   itemize
                                                   list
 LR mode                                           Modes
 Making a title page                               titlepage
 Making Paragraphs                                 Making Paragraphs
 Math Formulae                                     Math Formulae
 Math mode                                         Math Formulae
                                                   Subscripts & Superscripts
                                                   Math Symbols
                                                   Math Miscellany
                                                   Modes
 Math mode, spacing                                Spacing in Math Mode
 Maths Miscellany                                  Math Miscellany
 Maths symbols                                     Math Symbols
 minipage Environment                              minipage
 Modes                                             Modes
 Multicolumn text                                  \twocolumn
 New Page                                          \newpage
 Newline                                           \\
                                                   \newline
 Overview of LaTeX                                 Overview of LaTeX and Local
                                                   Guide
 Page Breaking                                     Line & Page Breaking
                                                   \pagebreak
 Page Formatting                                   Line & Page Breaking
 Page styles                                       Page Styles
                                                   \pagenumbering
                                                   \pagestyle
 Page Styles, changing                             \pagestyle
 Pagenumbering                                     \pagenumbering
 Paragraph mode                                    Modes
 paragraph, Sectioning                             Sectioning
 Paragraphs                                        Making Paragraphs
                                                   \indent
                                                   \noindent
                                                   \par
 picture Environment                               picture
 Poetry, an environment for                        verse
 quotation Environment                             quotation
 report style                                      Document Styles
 Sectioning                                        Sectioning
 Sizes of text                                     Sizes
 Spaces & Boxes                                    Spaces & Boxes
                                                   \addvspace
                                                   \bigskip
                                                   \dotfill
                                                   \fbox
                                                   \framebox
                                                   \hfill
                                                   \hrulespace
                                                   \hspace
                                                   \makebox
                                                   \mbox
                                                   \medskip
                                                   \newsavebox
                                                   \parbox
                                                   \raisebox
                                                   \rule
                                                   \savebox
                                                   \smallskip
                                                   \usebox
                                                   \vfill
                                                   \vspace
 Spacing, within Math mode                         Spacing in Math Mode
 Special Characters                                Special Characters
 Splitting the input file                          Splitting the Input
 Starting & Ending                                 Starting & Ending
 Styles of document                                Document Styles
 Styles of text                                    \Styles
 Styles, pages                                     Page Styles
 subparagraph, Sectioning                          Sectioning
 Subscript                                         Subscripts & Superscripts
 subsection, Sectioning                            Sectioning
 subsubparagraph, Sectioning                       Sectioning
 subsubsection, Sectioning                         Sectioning
 subsubsubparagraph, Sectioning                    Sectioning
 Superscript                                       Subscripts & Superscripts
 Symbols                                           Math Symbols
 tabbing Environment                               tabbing
 table Environment                                 table
 Table of Contents, creating                       Table of Contents
 tabular Environment                               tabular
 Terminal Input/Output                             Terminal Input/Output
 Thanks, for titlepage                             \thanks
 thebibliography Environment                       thebibliography
 theorem Environment                               theorem
 Theorems, defining                                \newtheorem
 Title making                                      \maketitle
 Title pages, creating                             titlepage
 Title, for titlepage                              \title
 titlepage Environment                             titlepage
 Typeface Sizes                                    Sizes
 Typeface Styles                                   \Styles
 Typefaces                                         Typefaces
 Using Counters                                    \usecounter
                                                   \value
 Variables, a list of┬╖┬╖┬╖ (see also Counters)       Counters
 verbatim Environment                              verbatim
                                                   \verb
 verse Environment                                 verse
 \maketitle Style                                  \maketitle
 \quote Environment                                quote