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$Unique_ID{bob00484}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{Rwanda
Chapter 5B.   Religion}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{The Director Foreign Area Studies}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{catholic
tutsi
imana
religious
spirits
missionaries
church
country
members
protestant
see
tables
}
$Date{1990}
$Log{See Table 6.*0048401.tab
See Table 7.*0048402.tab
}
Title:       Rwanda
Book:        Area Handbook for Rwanda
Author:      The Director Foreign Area Studies
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date:        1990

Chapter 5B.   Religion

     The Constitution assures freedom of religion, subject to respect for
public order and security. More than 40 percent of the population has been
converted from the traditional tribal beliefs to some form of Christianity.
Adherence to dogma, either traditional or Christian, is flexible. Converts,
especially those in rural areas, generally retain traditional beliefs
simultaneously with their adopted Christian religious practices.

     The traditional belief states that all men and animals possess the same
principal life force, imana, which is manifested in a physical existence. In
animals this invisible soul disappears when the creature dies, but, in humans
it is transformed into abazimu, a spirit of the dead. It eventually eliminates
the personal identity of the human to become an energy force in the spiritual
world. Imana, the term also used to designate the creator god, is the most
powerful force and source of energy, but is least concerned with worldly
activities. Rituals and mediators allay impending disaster that might be
caused by malevolent spirits.

     Missionaries, especially the Missionaries of Africa (White Fathers), the
Catholic religious order, have been active since the late 19th century.
Certain similarities between tribal religion and Christianity account for much
of their success. In addition to proselytizing, the Catholic church has been
instrumental in establishing educational, medical, and social work facilities,
contributing greatly to the development of an elite and leadership class.
Before the revolution the schools instructed mostly Tutsi, but the number of
Hutu students was slowly increasing (see Education, ch. 7). During the
intercaste conflict the missions became places of refuge for Tutsi escapees.
The church introduced and promoted principles of equality, inadvertently
suggesting the abusiveness of the hierarchical system of the Tutsi monarchical
system and thus contributing to its overthrow. Since independence the youth
organizations begun under religious auspices have turned to social and
political activities.

     Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism are practiced by members of the small Asian
community. Approximately 1 percent of the non-Rwandan African population
professes to be Moslem. Non-Christian religions have not actively sought
converts, but their members are influential in urban centers as a result of
their economic and mercantile activities.

High God and Spirits

     Imana is the core of the traditional religion. He and a group of
nondivinatory spirits are accorded specific functions in the invisible world.
Although many spirits are of local origin, the belief in Imana as the external
first cause of all good is universal throughout Rwanda. Imana's names indicate
the roles he performs in relationship to man. Reverential titles include:
Rurema, the creator; Rugaba, the giver; Rwagisba, the enricher; Iya-Mbere,
the eternal; Rugira, always active; and Rugabo, the knowing.

     The saying "Imana Y'i Rwanda," or "Rwanda is Imana's country," indicates
the nation's strong dependency on the being and his role as the uninvolved
protector of the country. His ties to the people are reemphasized by the
proverb "If Imana is walking elsewhere during the day, he will come home at
night to Rwanda." "We have done our best, it is up to him," indicates the
fatalistic attitude and total resignation to his will which pervade the lives
of most Rwandans. His name is used in naming children, as words of comfort,
warnings against complacency, blessing, salutations, and during rites
associated with marriage and death. Oaths take the form of "May Imana give me
a stroke" or "May I be killed by Imana." In instances when a long-desired
child is born, people say to the new mother, "Imana has removed your shame."

     Individuals hold informal ceremonies imploring Imana's blessings. There
is a tradition that before retiring a woman may leave a pitcher of water
for Imana with the hope that he will make her fertile. At times the word
"Imana" is used to flatter the spirit, somewhat contradictory to the belief
that they cannot alter the will of Imana, regardless of the amount of
sacrifice offered to him.

     The departed ancestors form a group of malicious spirits called abazimu.
They bring misfortune, sickness, crop failure, and cattle epidemic because
they envy the living the cherished things they had to leave behind. Their
power, actuated by the male spirits, or grandfathers, extends only over their
own clan. The living members of a family must consult a diviner to discover
the reason for the ancestor's anger. Respect is shown principally by joining a
secret cult group. Hutu placate the hostile ancestral spirits more frequently
than do Tutsi, who manifest an attitude of reverence without fear or
subservience.

Rituals and Cults

     Traditional rituals focus upon the spiritual quality of things and
attempt to influence or manipulate the supernatural force inherent in all
objects. A favorable result is obtained only when rituals are performed
properly by the appropriate practitioner at an auspicious time. Ritual
practices are directed toward calming the lesser spirits who might wish to
cause harm to humans. Most rituals are performed during the main harvesttime,
between July and October, when choice beer can be brewed, but events in the
life cycle of the individual also prompt a desire for special blessings and
ceremonies.

     Ryangombe, a historical culture hero, is the most powerful spirit and
leader of all ancestors (see Historical Setting, ch. 2). He is propitiated by
the babandwa, a politicoreligious fraternity, who perform rituals, chants, and
dances in his honor. They are not a permanent group and meet only once a year
during July, at which time initiation takes place. There are two steps in
membership: that of the initiate, or kwatura, and that of the chief, or
ziingo. During their festival the members of the fraternity paint themselves
and decorate the spirit huts. A member of the group appears as the
personification of the spirit of Ryangombe, carrying his sacred spear. After
a ritual is performed, all members purify themselves at the stream.

     The most recently established cult in the northern and northwestern
areas of Rwanda is dedicated to a female ancestor, Nyabiingi. She protects
and aids those who bring her gifts and offerings. During the 1950s the
society existed as a loosely organized membership and had no initiation
ceremonies.

     A Hutu ritual involves the belief that the smooth, round stones found
in brooks have in them the power of Imana and can bring blessings to the
possessor. Several stones are collected and placed in a small hut, or ndaro,
outside the kraal. They receive daily offerings of meat, milk products, broken
pots, pumpkin shells, and beer. Eventually, they give birth to 20 or 30
additional stones. The technique of multiplication is taken for granted as
supernatural conception demonstrating spiritual fertility.

Magicoreligious Practitioners

     Several magicoreligious practitioners perform specific functions
meeting the spiritual needs of the community. The priests act as mediators
between spirits and men. Their position is hereditary, but occasionally a man
may be seized by the spirit and imbued with the power of mediation. With the
proper offering, the priest will go into a state of religious ecstasy, speak
to the spirits, and utter prophesies and oracles.

     Medical practitioners known as abafumu (singular, umufumu) possess
powers to communicate with the dead and to ward off misfortunes and diseases
caused by the supernatural powers of malevolent spirits. The insignia of
office-a leopard skin, a headdress of cowtail, and a gourd rattle-and
instruction in the various curing techniques are either passed from father to
son or are earned by apprenticeship to a practicing umufumu. Abafumu interpret
dreams, call together the spirits during secret seances, and predict the
future. Some abafumu called ababvubyi, generally members of the Bashara clan,
perform special ceremonies that cause rain. Lucrative benefits come from
rainmaking, but it is a dangerous profession, since failure to cause rain
allows the client to impose a punishment on the ababvubyi. Other practitioners
include the abahenyi, known for their effective curses and incantations; the
umulozi, or bewitchers; and the abashitsi, or catcher of thieves. The bahuzi
discover poisoners and treat persons struck by lightning. As respected members
of the society, the abafumu are paid a fee and may become wealthy and
politically powerful.

Divination, Curing, and Witchcraft

     Divining through ancestral spirits is among the umufumu's arts. Chicken
divining is most common, the fowl providing the medium through which the
practitioner consults the oracle. The patterns of the entrails reveal to the
diviner the fate of the client. At times the umufumu examines the jawbone of a
sheep to determine the course of the future.

     The diviner, usually a member of the Abakono clan, is also an expert
in curing. External application of medication in the form of amulets is a
favorite treatment. Modern medicines, such as pills, may be wrapped in leaves
and strapped to the area of illness. Internal medication is used only if the
patient's condition does not improve after external treatment. It is generally
believed that it is the diviner's power, not the object itself, which will
bring relief. Most rural Rwandans consult the diviner; only if he fails will
they consent to treatment by modern means. Although this practice is changing
somewhat, traditional techniques are still preferred because of the belief in
the spiritual cause of illness.

     In addition to his function as an amulet maker, the diviner has the
ability to identify a person who is operating as a witch and to prevent him or
her harming others by casting spells. Witches, or abarosi, are held
responsible in any disaster, such as an unaccountable death, devastation of
the harvest, epidemic, or sterility. The witches use poisons and practice
"contagious" magic, a technique of using a piece of the victim's body, hair,
or fingernail parings in order to gain power of his soul. When discovered, the
witch is subject to ordeals that establish guilt or innocence. Those found
guilty are beaten or driven into the bush.

Charms and Taboos

     Charms, or amarozi, made of sticks and the hair or horns of animals
are used to ward off evil and to generate supernatural power for their
possessor. Diviners transfer supernatural energy to the material object by
means of magical formulas, and the more powerful the diviner, the more potent
the charms. Most people, even those converted to Christianity, use amulets for
luck in hunting, finding a wife, or curing sick cows. Special amulets are made
for infants to insure their health by protecting them against intestinal
worms, diarrhea, skin irritations, and snakebite.

     It is widely believed that personal well-being depends on the
observance of ritual prohibitions, or imiziro. Some taboos are universally
observed, whereas others, such as self-imposed taboos against drinking milk or
eating particular types of meat, apply only to members of specific clans. Most
Rwandans will refuse to eat chicken and eggs. Major social taboos such as
incest are rarely broken, but minor transgressions are more common. It is
believed that if a woman whistles her husband will die. A woman must not speak
while kneading sorghum dough, nor should she touch any metal. A pregnant woman
should not look upon a Westerner or hear a gunshot, for if she does her child
will suffer. A strongly held taboo states that, if the umbilical cord is lost
during the lifetime of an individual, great harm may occur. Another belief is
that if milk is boiled a cattle herd will die.

Christianity

     Many elements of Christianity were accepted with relative ease because
of the similarity between certain traditional beliefs and Western religious
dogma. Doctrines concerning the existence of a nonmaterial soul a supreme
being, and the life of the spirit after death were held by both systems.
Catholic missionaries, especially the White Fathers were most successful in
obtaining converts.

Catholic Missionary Activity

     Proselytizing began in 1900 at Save in the south-central section of
the country. The White Fathers made contact with and attempted to convert
persons in the court of Mwami Yuhi V Musinga. Mission stations were set up
almost immediately at Gisaka and Zaza, and the first converts were 17 Hutu
and 9 Tutsi. In 1905 the bishop, assisted by the German Commissioner, obtained
permission to set up a mission station in Kabgayi. Initially, the Tutsi were
reluctant to accept Christianity, as they were not favorably disposed toward
the doctrine of brotherhood that was being spread by the missionaries. By
1916, however, the Mwami and many of his court had willingly accepted the
tenets of Catholicism and had been baptized.

     The Belgian Administration encouraged and assisted the missionaries,
for it felt that colonial goals could be more easily realized in a society
embracing Christian social and moral principles. Missionaries provided the
tools that might quicken economic development. Although the Belgians did not
promote Catholicism as a state religion, there was close and continuing
consultation between the political and ecclesiastical authorities as to goals
and methods.

     Before 1922 Rwanda had been a part of the ecclesiastical district of
the Vicarate of Kivu with Burundi, the country adjacent to the south. By the
time it became a separate entity, there were nearly 25,000 Catholics, and
numerous seminaries and convents had already been established. By the
mid-1920s the need for educational facilities was growing, since the Tutsi
were requesting religious instruction. The missionaries, although dedicated
to promoting equality and the brotherhood of mankind, were impressed by the
superior social position of the Tutsi and, although still concerned with
intergroup tensions and prejudices, welcomed Tutsi students into the schools.

     Missionary activity came to a standstill in 1928, when famine plagued the
country. Missionaries set up public health facilities and expanded their
ministry in the direction of public welfare.

     In 1931, as the result of another drive for converts, there was a great
increase in both the number of baptized Catholics and facilities for
ministering to the congregations. When famine again ravaged the country in
1943-44 with diseases that killed as many as 300,000 people, the
missionaries, with the aid of the chiefs, ministered to the people, and
religious instruction was again laid aside for emergency medical assistance.
By 1949, when the disaster was over, plans for educational assistance,
especially secondary schools, were begun. The Marist brothers had set up a
training school at Byimana, and several congregations of sisters, now drawing
many Rwandan girls to the convent, were instructing children in religious
education and in general subjects. Church officials began to improve the
techniques of instruction, upgrading the general education programs and
establishing new parishes at the same time. Attempts to establish so-called
Catholic Action organizations were begun, but most Rwandan Catholics were not
eager to join. Those who became members generally came from the elite Tutsi
stratum of society.

     Throughout its ministry the Catholic church has attempted to ameliorate
the problems of intergroup, Hutu-Tutsi tensions. Before the 1940s it
recognized the disadvantages of the feudal system, but concerned itself
exclusively with spiritual matters, education, and health. Some missionaries
believed that, by using the superior position to the Tutsi who were converting
to Christianity, the spread of the Catholic faith would eventually dissolve
the inequalities of the existing social system. By the late 1950s, however,
the problems created by rival political factions caused the church to condemn
the situation of inequality.

     The church supported the Hutu masses by sponsoring their petitions to the
United Nations, but they offered active support and asylum at mission stations
to the Tutsi fleeing the country. During the time of revolution the church
attempted to reason with the leaders of the rebellion, many of whom had
received much of their education at the Catholic seminaries. Catholic and
Protestant missions were successful in preventing mass reprisals against the
Tutsi, who were vulnerable because of invasion attempts by refugee Tutsi, and
were also instrumental in helping to relocate refugees in other parts of
Rwanda and in neighboring countries (see Historical Setting, ch. 2).

Contemporary Catholic Activity

     Figures published by the Government indicate that in 1967 there were
approximately 1,350,000 baptized Catholics and 400,000 catechumens, or persons
under religious instruction. For administrative purposes the membership was
divided into four dioceses (see table 6). The parishes that compose the
dioceses are administered by over 330 priests, who are assisted by
approximately 180 male and 485 female religious, many of whom are Rwandans.
The Catholic church maintains numerous seminaries and elementary and
secondary schools throughout the country (see Education, ch. 7). The Rwandan
Constitution allows full freedom to the religious institutions and
communities, saying that "... they shall regulate and administer their
affairs autonomously, on the condition that they do not infringe upon the
prerogative of the state nor mix in the political domain."

     Catholic missionary publications report that the Church is assisting the
nation in developing an African group of capable religious and secular
leaders. It has been instrumental in programs dealing with increased
employment, family problems, and community development. Student movements,
which began in Catholic schools, have spread controversial ideas. In 1969 many
seminary-educated Rwandans were in positions of leadership and power.

Protestant Missionary Activity

     Protestant missionary activity began with the work of the Bethel
Missionary Society in 1900. Under the guidance of Reverend Johanssen, a
station was established near Nyanza. The German Lutheran Belfeld Mission was
established in 1907. Between 1908 and 1910 Protestant mission organizations
began to set up churches, schools, and dispensaries, concentrating their
efforts on Rubengera, Remera, and Zaza. By 1921 their work had been expanded,
and Protestant missionaries were traveling and teaching throughout the
territory. The Free Swedish Mission Society began its work in 1936, building
schools and hospitals.

     By 1963 there were six missionary associations working among the 170,645
persons who constituted the Protestant population (see table 7). The major
Protestant mission centers were at Gitare, Gisenyi, Shyira, Rubengera,
Kibuye, Kirinda, Kibogora, Gihundwe, Butare, Nantanga, Runyombyi, Kigeme,
Shyogwa, Rutogbe, Remera, Kigali, Kayenzi, Gatsibo, Gahini, and Nyamata.

     Protestant denominations have never had the influence that Catholic
groups have had, and during recent years their activities in the country have
been decreasing. The Protestants have attempted to expand their influence by
sponsoring movements such as the Agricultural Aid Foundation and Back to the
Bible Broadcasts, but because of internal administrative problems, lack of
interest on the part of the citizens, and the strong influence of the Catholic
church, Protestant conversion attempts have not been significant.

[See Table 6.: Roman Catholic Population of Rwanda, 1962]

[See Table 7.: Ruanda Christians, 1963, Approximate]

Other Religions

     Islam has never been a popular religion in the country, possibly because
of traditional accounts of battles with Arab slave traders. Asians and a very
small number of converted Africans, known locally as the Swahili, constitute
the 1 percent of the population that belongs to the Moslem faith. Concentrated
primarily in Butare, Nyanza, Gitarama, Kigali and Rwamagana, they operate a
limited number of Koranic schools devoted exclusively to religious teaching.
There are also a small number of Hindus, Buddhists, and Greek Orthodox; almost
all of these are of non-African descent.