$Unique_ID{bob00484} $Pretitle{} $Title{Rwanda Chapter 5B. Religion} $Subtitle{} $Author{The Director Foreign Area Studies} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{catholic tutsi imana religious spirits missionaries church country members protestant see tables } $Date{1990} $Log{See Table 6.*0048401.tab See Table 7.*0048402.tab } Title: Rwanda Book: Area Handbook for Rwanda Author: The Director Foreign Area Studies Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1990 Chapter 5B. Religion The Constitution assures freedom of religion, subject to respect for public order and security. More than 40 percent of the population has been converted from the traditional tribal beliefs to some form of Christianity. Adherence to dogma, either traditional or Christian, is flexible. Converts, especially those in rural areas, generally retain traditional beliefs simultaneously with their adopted Christian religious practices. The traditional belief states that all men and animals possess the same principal life force, imana, which is manifested in a physical existence. In animals this invisible soul disappears when the creature dies, but, in humans it is transformed into abazimu, a spirit of the dead. It eventually eliminates the personal identity of the human to become an energy force in the spiritual world. Imana, the term also used to designate the creator god, is the most powerful force and source of energy, but is least concerned with worldly activities. Rituals and mediators allay impending disaster that might be caused by malevolent spirits. Missionaries, especially the Missionaries of Africa (White Fathers), the Catholic religious order, have been active since the late 19th century. Certain similarities between tribal religion and Christianity account for much of their success. In addition to proselytizing, the Catholic church has been instrumental in establishing educational, medical, and social work facilities, contributing greatly to the development of an elite and leadership class. Before the revolution the schools instructed mostly Tutsi, but the number of Hutu students was slowly increasing (see Education, ch. 7). During the intercaste conflict the missions became places of refuge for Tutsi escapees. The church introduced and promoted principles of equality, inadvertently suggesting the abusiveness of the hierarchical system of the Tutsi monarchical system and thus contributing to its overthrow. Since independence the youth organizations begun under religious auspices have turned to social and political activities. Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism are practiced by members of the small Asian community. Approximately 1 percent of the non-Rwandan African population professes to be Moslem. Non-Christian religions have not actively sought converts, but their members are influential in urban centers as a result of their economic and mercantile activities. High God and Spirits Imana is the core of the traditional religion. He and a group of nondivinatory spirits are accorded specific functions in the invisible world. Although many spirits are of local origin, the belief in Imana as the external first cause of all good is universal throughout Rwanda. Imana's names indicate the roles he performs in relationship to man. Reverential titles include: Rurema, the creator; Rugaba, the giver; Rwagisba, the enricher; Iya-Mbere, the eternal; Rugira, always active; and Rugabo, the knowing. The saying "Imana Y'i Rwanda," or "Rwanda is Imana's country," indicates the nation's strong dependency on the being and his role as the uninvolved protector of the country. His ties to the people are reemphasized by the proverb "If Imana is walking elsewhere during the day, he will come home at night to Rwanda." "We have done our best, it is up to him," indicates the fatalistic attitude and total resignation to his will which pervade the lives of most Rwandans. His name is used in naming children, as words of comfort, warnings against complacency, blessing, salutations, and during rites associated with marriage and death. Oaths take the form of "May Imana give me a stroke" or "May I be killed by Imana." In instances when a long-desired child is born, people say to the new mother, "Imana has removed your shame." Individuals hold informal ceremonies imploring Imana's blessings. There is a tradition that before retiring a woman may leave a pitcher of water for Imana with the hope that he will make her fertile. At times the word "Imana" is used to flatter the spirit, somewhat contradictory to the belief that they cannot alter the will of Imana, regardless of the amount of sacrifice offered to him. The departed ancestors form a group of malicious spirits called abazimu. They bring misfortune, sickness, crop failure, and cattle epidemic because they envy the living the cherished things they had to leave behind. Their power, actuated by the male spirits, or grandfathers, extends only over their own clan. The living members of a family must consult a diviner to discover the reason for the ancestor's anger. Respect is shown principally by joining a secret cult group. Hutu placate the hostile ancestral spirits more frequently than do Tutsi, who manifest an attitude of reverence without fear or subservience. Rituals and Cults Traditional rituals focus upon the spiritual quality of things and attempt to influence or manipulate the supernatural force inherent in all objects. A favorable result is obtained only when rituals are performed properly by the appropriate practitioner at an auspicious time. Ritual practices are directed toward calming the lesser spirits who might wish to cause harm to humans. Most rituals are performed during the main harvesttime, between July and October, when choice beer can be brewed, but events in the life cycle of the individual also prompt a desire for special blessings and ceremonies. Ryangombe, a historical culture hero, is the most powerful spirit and leader of all ancestors (see Historical Setting, ch. 2). He is propitiated by the babandwa, a politicoreligious fraternity, who perform rituals, chants, and dances in his honor. They are not a permanent group and meet only once a year during July, at which time initiation takes place. There are two steps in membership: that of the initiate, or kwatura, and that of the chief, or ziingo. During their festival the members of the fraternity paint themselves and decorate the spirit huts. A member of the group appears as the personification of the spirit of Ryangombe, carrying his sacred spear. After a ritual is performed, all members purify themselves at the stream. The most recently established cult in the northern and northwestern areas of Rwanda is dedicated to a female ancestor, Nyabiingi. She protects and aids those who bring her gifts and offerings. During the 1950s the society existed as a loosely organized membership and had no initiation ceremonies. A Hutu ritual involves the belief that the smooth, round stones found in brooks have in them the power of Imana and can bring blessings to the possessor. Several stones are collected and placed in a small hut, or ndaro, outside the kraal. They receive daily offerings of meat, milk products, broken pots, pumpkin shells, and beer. Eventually, they give birth to 20 or 30 additional stones. The technique of multiplication is taken for granted as supernatural conception demonstrating spiritual fertility. Magicoreligious Practitioners Several magicoreligious practitioners perform specific functions meeting the spiritual needs of the community. The priests act as mediators between spirits and men. Their position is hereditary, but occasionally a man may be seized by the spirit and imbued with the power of mediation. With the proper offering, the priest will go into a state of religious ecstasy, speak to the spirits, and utter prophesies and oracles. Medical practitioners known as abafumu (singular, umufumu) possess powers to communicate with the dead and to ward off misfortunes and diseases caused by the supernatural powers of malevolent spirits. The insignia of office-a leopard skin, a headdress of cowtail, and a gourd rattle-and instruction in the various curing techniques are either passed from father to son or are earned by apprenticeship to a practicing umufumu. Abafumu interpret dreams, call together the spirits during secret seances, and predict the future. Some abafumu called ababvubyi, generally members of the Bashara clan, perform special ceremonies that cause rain. Lucrative benefits come from rainmaking, but it is a dangerous profession, since failure to cause rain allows the client to impose a punishment on the ababvubyi. Other practitioners include the abahenyi, known for their effective curses and incantations; the umulozi, or bewitchers; and the abashitsi, or catcher of thieves. The bahuzi discover poisoners and treat persons struck by lightning. As respected members of the society, the abafumu are paid a fee and may become wealthy and politically powerful. Divination, Curing, and Witchcraft Divining through ancestral spirits is among the umufumu's arts. Chicken divining is most common, the fowl providing the medium through which the practitioner consults the oracle. The patterns of the entrails reveal to the diviner the fate of the client. At times the umufumu examines the jawbone of a sheep to determine the course of the future. The diviner, usually a member of the Abakono clan, is also an expert in curing. External application of medication in the form of amulets is a favorite treatment. Modern medicines, such as pills, may be wrapped in leaves and strapped to the area of illness. Internal medication is used only if the patient's condition does not improve after external treatment. It is generally believed that it is the diviner's power, not the object itself, which will bring relief. Most rural Rwandans consult the diviner; only if he fails will they consent to treatment by modern means. Although this practice is changing somewhat, traditional techniques are still preferred because of the belief in the spiritual cause of illness. In addition to his function as an amulet maker, the diviner has the ability to identify a person who is operating as a witch and to prevent him or her harming others by casting spells. Witches, or abarosi, are held responsible in any disaster, such as an unaccountable death, devastation of the harvest, epidemic, or sterility. The witches use poisons and practice "contagious" magic, a technique of using a piece of the victim's body, hair, or fingernail parings in order to gain power of his soul. When discovered, the witch is subject to ordeals that establish guilt or innocence. Those found guilty are beaten or driven into the bush. Charms and Taboos Charms, or amarozi, made of sticks and the hair or horns of animals are used to ward off evil and to generate supernatural power for their possessor. Diviners transfer supernatural energy to the material object by means of magical formulas, and the more powerful the diviner, the more potent the charms. Most people, even those converted to Christianity, use amulets for luck in hunting, finding a wife, or curing sick cows. Special amulets are made for infants to insure their health by protecting them against intestinal worms, diarrhea, skin irritations, and snakebite. It is widely believed that personal well-being depends on the observance of ritual prohibitions, or imiziro. Some taboos are universally observed, whereas others, such as self-imposed taboos against drinking milk or eating particular types of meat, apply only to members of specific clans. Most Rwandans will refuse to eat chicken and eggs. Major social taboos such as incest are rarely broken, but minor transgressions are more common. It is believed that if a woman whistles her husband will die. A woman must not speak while kneading sorghum dough, nor should she touch any metal. A pregnant woman should not look upon a Westerner or hear a gunshot, for if she does her child will suffer. A strongly held taboo states that, if the umbilical cord is lost during the lifetime of an individual, great harm may occur. Another belief is that if milk is boiled a cattle herd will die. Christianity Many elements of Christianity were accepted with relative ease because of the similarity between certain traditional beliefs and Western religious dogma. Doctrines concerning the existence of a nonmaterial soul a supreme being, and the life of the spirit after death were held by both systems. Catholic missionaries, especially the White Fathers were most successful in obtaining converts. Catholic Missionary Activity Proselytizing began in 1900 at Save in the south-central section of the country. The White Fathers made contact with and attempted to convert persons in the court of Mwami Yuhi V Musinga. Mission stations were set up almost immediately at Gisaka and Zaza, and the first converts were 17 Hutu and 9 Tutsi. In 1905 the bishop, assisted by the German Commissioner, obtained permission to set up a mission station in Kabgayi. Initially, the Tutsi were reluctant to accept Christianity, as they were not favorably disposed toward the doctrine of brotherhood that was being spread by the missionaries. By 1916, however, the Mwami and many of his court had willingly accepted the tenets of Catholicism and had been baptized. The Belgian Administration encouraged and assisted the missionaries, for it felt that colonial goals could be more easily realized in a society embracing Christian social and moral principles. Missionaries provided the tools that might quicken economic development. Although the Belgians did not promote Catholicism as a state religion, there was close and continuing consultation between the political and ecclesiastical authorities as to goals and methods. Before 1922 Rwanda had been a part of the ecclesiastical district of the Vicarate of Kivu with Burundi, the country adjacent to the south. By the time it became a separate entity, there were nearly 25,000 Catholics, and numerous seminaries and convents had already been established. By the mid-1920s the need for educational facilities was growing, since the Tutsi were requesting religious instruction. The missionaries, although dedicated to promoting equality and the brotherhood of mankind, were impressed by the superior social position of the Tutsi and, although still concerned with intergroup tensions and prejudices, welcomed Tutsi students into the schools. Missionary activity came to a standstill in 1928, when famine plagued the country. Missionaries set up public health facilities and expanded their ministry in the direction of public welfare. In 1931, as the result of another drive for converts, there was a great increase in both the number of baptized Catholics and facilities for ministering to the congregations. When famine again ravaged the country in 1943-44 with diseases that killed as many as 300,000 people, the missionaries, with the aid of the chiefs, ministered to the people, and religious instruction was again laid aside for emergency medical assistance. By 1949, when the disaster was over, plans for educational assistance, especially secondary schools, were begun. The Marist brothers had set up a training school at Byimana, and several congregations of sisters, now drawing many Rwandan girls to the convent, were instructing children in religious education and in general subjects. Church officials began to improve the techniques of instruction, upgrading the general education programs and establishing new parishes at the same time. Attempts to establish so-called Catholic Action organizations were begun, but most Rwandan Catholics were not eager to join. Those who became members generally came from the elite Tutsi stratum of society. Throughout its ministry the Catholic church has attempted to ameliorate the problems of intergroup, Hutu-Tutsi tensions. Before the 1940s it recognized the disadvantages of the feudal system, but concerned itself exclusively with spiritual matters, education, and health. Some missionaries believed that, by using the superior position to the Tutsi who were converting to Christianity, the spread of the Catholic faith would eventually dissolve the inequalities of the existing social system. By the late 1950s, however, the problems created by rival political factions caused the church to condemn the situation of inequality. The church supported the Hutu masses by sponsoring their petitions to the United Nations, but they offered active support and asylum at mission stations to the Tutsi fleeing the country. During the time of revolution the church attempted to reason with the leaders of the rebellion, many of whom had received much of their education at the Catholic seminaries. Catholic and Protestant missions were successful in preventing mass reprisals against the Tutsi, who were vulnerable because of invasion attempts by refugee Tutsi, and were also instrumental in helping to relocate refugees in other parts of Rwanda and in neighboring countries (see Historical Setting, ch. 2). Contemporary Catholic Activity Figures published by the Government indicate that in 1967 there were approximately 1,350,000 baptized Catholics and 400,000 catechumens, or persons under religious instruction. For administrative purposes the membership was divided into four dioceses (see table 6). The parishes that compose the dioceses are administered by over 330 priests, who are assisted by approximately 180 male and 485 female religious, many of whom are Rwandans. The Catholic church maintains numerous seminaries and elementary and secondary schools throughout the country (see Education, ch. 7). The Rwandan Constitution allows full freedom to the religious institutions and communities, saying that "... they shall regulate and administer their affairs autonomously, on the condition that they do not infringe upon the prerogative of the state nor mix in the political domain." Catholic missionary publications report that the Church is assisting the nation in developing an African group of capable religious and secular leaders. It has been instrumental in programs dealing with increased employment, family problems, and community development. Student movements, which began in Catholic schools, have spread controversial ideas. In 1969 many seminary-educated Rwandans were in positions of leadership and power. Protestant Missionary Activity Protestant missionary activity began with the work of the Bethel Missionary Society in 1900. Under the guidance of Reverend Johanssen, a station was established near Nyanza. The German Lutheran Belfeld Mission was established in 1907. Between 1908 and 1910 Protestant mission organizations began to set up churches, schools, and dispensaries, concentrating their efforts on Rubengera, Remera, and Zaza. By 1921 their work had been expanded, and Protestant missionaries were traveling and teaching throughout the territory. The Free Swedish Mission Society began its work in 1936, building schools and hospitals. By 1963 there were six missionary associations working among the 170,645 persons who constituted the Protestant population (see table 7). The major Protestant mission centers were at Gitare, Gisenyi, Shyira, Rubengera, Kibuye, Kirinda, Kibogora, Gihundwe, Butare, Nantanga, Runyombyi, Kigeme, Shyogwa, Rutogbe, Remera, Kigali, Kayenzi, Gatsibo, Gahini, and Nyamata. Protestant denominations have never had the influence that Catholic groups have had, and during recent years their activities in the country have been decreasing. The Protestants have attempted to expand their influence by sponsoring movements such as the Agricultural Aid Foundation and Back to the Bible Broadcasts, but because of internal administrative problems, lack of interest on the part of the citizens, and the strong influence of the Catholic church, Protestant conversion attempts have not been significant. [See Table 6.: Roman Catholic Population of Rwanda, 1962] [See Table 7.: Ruanda Christians, 1963, Approximate] Other Religions Islam has never been a popular religion in the country, possibly because of traditional accounts of battles with Arab slave traders. Asians and a very small number of converted Africans, known locally as the Swahili, constitute the 1 percent of the population that belongs to the Moslem faith. Concentrated primarily in Butare, Nyanza, Gitarama, Kigali and Rwamagana, they operate a limited number of Koranic schools devoted exclusively to religious teaching. There are also a small number of Hindus, Buddhists, and Greek Orthodox; almost all of these are of non-African descent.