Multimedia Mania/abacus-multimedia-mania.iso/dp/0036/00367.txt

Text File | 1993-07-27 | 22KB | 405 lines

$Unique_ID{bob00367}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{Japan
Society}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{International Society for Educational Information, Inc.}
$Affiliation{Embassy of Japan, Washington DC}
$Subject{women
japanese
japan
population
work
years
family
leisure
education
games
see
tables
}
$Date{1989}
$Log{See Table 10.*0036701.tab
See Table 11.*0036702.tab
}
Title:       Japan
Book:        The Japan of Today
Author:      International Society for Educational Information, Inc.
Affiliation: Embassy of Japan, Washington DC
Date:        1989

Society

Population

Population growth

     At the end of March 1987 Japan's population stood at 121.4 million,
according to the Ministry of Home Affairs. In terms of population Japan now
ranks seventh in the world after the People's Republic of China, India, the
Soviet Union, the United States, Indonesia, and Brazil, in that order.

     As in other industrialized countries, Japan's population growth has
slowed down in recent years despite a steady decrease in the death rate. After
peaking at a rate of 1.27% in 1974, population growth over the preceding year
declined gradually to 0.54% in 1987. This drop can be attributed to a sharp
decline in the birthrate from 18.6 per 1,000 in 1974 to 11.4 per 1,000 in
1986. It is expected that Japan's population will reach a peak of 136.0
million in 2013, after which it will gradually decrease.

Population density

     As of March 1987 the population density in Japan was 321 persons per
square kilometer, placing it among such densely populated nations as Belgium,
the Netherlands, and the Republic of Korea. At present, 45% of all Japanese
are crowded into the big three metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, and
their surrounding prefectures.

     Recently, there has been a growing concentration of population in the
Tokyo metropolitan area, where one-fourth of Japan's total population now
resides. One reason for this concentration is the increasingly important role
being played by service industries in the Japanese economy. A relatively large
proportion of service industries are located in Tokyo.

Population structure

     The age composition of Japan's population, as expressed in the
conventional population pyramid, is undergoing a gradual alteration. The
typical prewar structure, with a large population of children aged 14 years
and under forming a broad base, has given way to a column-like structure as
a result of a decline in the birthrate.

     In 1987, 10.9% of Japan's total population was 65 years of age and
older. This figure is low in comparison with such Western countries as Sweden,
where the ratio is nearly 20%, and the United Kingdom, where the ratio is
over 15%. Since the average life expectancies in Japan are the highest in the
world at 81 years for women and 75 years for men, however, the ratio of
senior citizens is increasing sharply and is expected to reach 23.6% by 2020.

Social Life

Family life

     Before World War II most Japanese lived in an extended family of three or
more generations. Family relationships were governed by a rigid hierarchical
system, and parental authority was strong. Fathers commanded respect and
obedience from their children, and in turn offered the same to their own
parents; married women were expected to faithfully obey their husbands and
parents-in-law. The process of democratization after the war, however,
transformed every aspect of Japanese family life. Especially important was the
revision of the Civil Code in 1947, which gave women equal legal status with
men in all phases of life, thereby abolishing the old patriarchal character of
the family.

     Rapid economic growth has had a large impact on family life too. One
of the most conspicuous changes has been the increasing number of people who
live in nuclear families of parents and children only, a trend which has been
strengthened by urbanization and technological developments. Extended families
accounted for 44% of all households in 1955, but this ratio has declined
steadily, dropping to 19% in 1970, 16.2% in 1980, and 15.2% in 1985. The ratio
of nuclear families, meanwhile, rose to 61.1% of all households in 1985.

     Another major change in the family has been the sharp decrease in the
number of children that women are giving birth to. In 1930 women gave birth to
an average of 4.7 children, but this number fell to 3.6 in 1950 and 1.8 in
1985. This decline, together with the growing trend among young people to find
employment in the city and live in company dormitories or on their own, has
contributed to a decrease in the average size of the Japanese household, which
now stands at 3.22 people.

     As a result of the demise of the extended family and the increasingly
long life expectancy of the Japanese, the number of elderly people living on
their own has risen. The ratio of households consisting only of people aged 65
or older jumped from 2.2% in 1955 to 8.8% in 1986. Recently consideration of
the problems that elderly people face when living on their own, as well as the
merits of living in extended families, has led to a reappraisal of the larger
family unit.

Life style

     The life style of the Japanese has been transformed enormously by the
widespread use of modern household appliances, the expansion of the instant
and frozen-food industries, and the availability of ready-made clothing and
other daily necessities. These conveniences have given families more time for
leisure, educational, and cultural pursuits, particularly in the case of
married women, who previously were tied down by household chores. With less
time needed for housework and more time to spare for leisure, an increasing
number of married women have been finding jobs, enrolling in courses at
community centers or university, or participating in volunteer activities.

[See Table 10.: Ownership of Consumer Durables]

     The rise and relative consistency in the standard of living has produced
a strong middle-class consciousness among the Japanese. Public opinion polls
on the life of the nation conducted by the Prime Minister's Office since 1964
have indicated that an overwhelming majority of the people feel that they
belong to the middle class. The abolition of class society after the war led
to the realization of a more equal society in which discrimination on the
basis of class or background has been minimized. This equality is reflected in
incomes. The gap between the highest and lowest incomes in Japan is the
smallest among the advanced industrial countries.

     The spread of car ownership and of such household appliances as
televisions, stereos, videos, and air conditioners, as well as the increase in
leisure time, signify a material improvement in the standard of living in
Japan. A change in the social awareness of the nation in the wake of the
information revolution of recent years has given rise to a qualitative
improvement, too. The people now are calling for greater spiritual prosperity
in the form of reduced working hours, more opportunities for participation in
volunteer activities, and so on.

Women

     The status of women in Japanese society improved enormously after World
War II. Article 14 of the Constitution, which was promulgated in 1946, states,
"All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no
discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race,
creed, sex, social status or family origin." The Civil Code and laws
pertaining to elections, education, and labor were subsequently revised in
accordance with the principle of sexual equality.

     By and large, Japanese women today have achieved legal equality with men.
This does not mean, however, that discrimination against women no longer
exists. In a poll conducted by the Prime Minister's Office in 1987, more than
half of the respondents felt that women had not achieved equality in the
workplace or in the realm of social attitudes. This section focuses on the
situation of Japanese women at work today and on measures taken by the
Government to improve their lot.

     According to the 1987 edition of the Ministry of Labor's Fujin Rodo no
Jitsujo (The Labor Conditions of Women), 48.6% of women aged 15 or over had a
job in 1986, 2.8 percentage points more than in 1976. For women aged between
20 and 64, the figure for 1986 was 59.3%, 6.0 percentage points more than a
decade earlier. Women comprised 39.8% of the total work force in 1986, up 2.4
percentage points from 1976.

     By age bracket, women's participation in the labor force can be pictured
as an M-curve: The percentage of women who work peaks with the 20-24 age
group, drops sharply with the 25-34 age group, picks up to form a second,
albeit lower, peak with the 35-50 age group, and drops once again with the
over-50 age group.

     This M-curve illustrates the most common work pattern for Japanese women
today: taking a job after graduation from high school or college, quitting in
order to marry or have children, and rejoining the labor force when the
children have reached school age. Over the past 10 years or so, there has been
a small but steady decline in the ratio of women in the 25-34 age group
dropping out of the labor force. This trend suggests that a growing number of
women are choosing to continue to work during pregnancy and the early years of
child care.

     Of the total number of female workers in 1986, 15.84 million, or 68.1%,
were salaried workers, 58.8% of whom were married. Women accounted for 36.2%
of all salaried workers in that year. Female workers tend to concentrate in
certain occupations. According to 1985 statistics, women made up a relatively
large proportion of the labor force in services, sales, clerical work,
nursing, and teaching, but accounted for less than 10% of the nation's
managers, scientific researchers, certified public accountants, and licensed
tax accountants. In 1986 the average monthly income for women was about
(Y)200,000, which amounted to only 52% of the figure for men.

     The Government has implemented various measures to improve the situation
of working women. The 1947 Labor Standards Law marked an important step
forward by introducing the principle of equal pay for equal work.
Nevertheless, many companies have continued to implement separate hiring
policies for men and women, with different systems for promotion and salary
increases. In reality women have yet to attain true equality.

     Stimulated by the United Nations International Women's Year in 1975
and the U.N. Decade for Women, which ended in 1985, the Japanese Government
began to push for additional measures to promote equality in the workplace. In
May 1985 the National Diet passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Law, which
took effect on April 1, 1986. The law obliges employers to strive toward
equal treatment of the sexes in recruiting, hiring, placement, and promotion.
It also prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in employee education and
training, welfare benefits, mandatory retirement, and dismissals.

     A survey carried out by the Labor Ministry in April 1987, however found
that while many companies had a mended their recruitment policies, little
change had taken place in placement and promotion policies. As reasons for
not placing women in positions of responsibility, companies cited the fact
that women on average work only for a short time and that women are
responsible for housekeeping an raising children. Since many women must stop
working after a few years to take over these household tasks, such domestic
responsibilities can be seen as a major obstacle to the achievement of
equality

     The belief that men should work and women stay at home still holds sway
in Japanese society. In a 1986 poll on the family, more than 90% of the
respondents said that housekeeping and child care were the woman's domain,
even if she works. The burden on working mothers therefore can be
overwhelming. Not surprisingly, in a 1987 poll on women carried out by the
Prime Minister's Office, 90% of the respondents felt that men have more
opportunities than women to use their abilities and skills.

     In Japan companies generally expect their employees to put in long
hours of overtime. But it is difficult for women, who also have household
chores to do and children to take care of, to work at the same pace as men,
who are not burdened with such responsibilities. Many women inevitably opt for
part-time jobs, which enable them to combine work and domestic duties. At
present 23% of all female salaried workers are part-timers, and the ratio has
been on the rise in recent years.

     Part-time work places women at a disadvantage. The wages of part-time
workers are considerably lower than those of full-time employees, and
part-time work tends to involve menial labor. Moreover, because
salaries and promotion in Japanese companies are often based on seniority, it
is extremely difficult for women either reentering the labor force or
switching from part-time to full-time work to climb the ladder.

     The Government is doing its utmost to improve work opportunities for
women by encouraging companies to institute child-care leave and other systems
that enable women to return to work.

Sports and leisure

Sports

     Almost every type of sport, both traditional and modern, has a large
following in Japan today. Sports papers and magazines are avidly read. Crowds
pack the stadiums for all major athletic events, and millions more watch on
television.

     In the field of traditional sports, sumo (Japanese wrestling), judo,
kendo (Japanese fencing), and Kyudo (Japanese archery) are particularly
popular. Radio and television have greatly revived the popularity of sumo. The
beginnings of the traditional style of sumo cannot be traced, but in legend it
goes back more than 2,000 years. It is a highly formalized but dramatic sport,
closely followed today by almost all Japanese. Six regular sumo tournaments,
each lasting 15 days , are held every year in Tokyo and other big cities.
Professional sumo wrestlers spend the rest of the year touring the country.

     Judo, which developed from the old art known as jujutsu, is today a
popular sport not only in Japan but in many other countries. It has been
included as an Olympic event since the 1964 Tokyo Games. International
championships are now held regularly in different parts of the world. In
Japan, the annual All-Japan Judo Tournament attracts keen interest throughout
the country.

     Kendo waned in popularity after the war but is now enjoying a revival. As
for modern sports, baseball, which is played throughout the country at both
amateur and professional levels, enjoys the rank of national sport. In 1987,
a record 19 million spectators turned out to watch professional league games.
During the baseball season, which lasts from spring through fall, games are
aired on television nearly every day. Baseball stars can become national
heroes. Two players, Oh Sadaharu and Kinugasa Sachio, have been the recipients
of the People's Honor Award.

     Professional baseball was inaugurated in Japan in 1936 with one league.
The present system of two leagues-the Central and the Pacific, each with six
teams-was adopted in 1950. This two-league system, the all-star games, the
draft system, and other facets of Japanese baseball are similar to those in
the United States. The regular professional baseball season culminates in
October with the Japan Series, a best-of-seven contest between the two league
champions.

     Twice a year, once in the spring and again in the summer, the eyes of the
nation are riveted on Hanshin Koshien Stadium in Nishinomiya, Hyogo
Prefecture, where high-school baseball tournaments take place. These
tournaments, which overflow with youthful enthusiasm, are major events in the
Japanese sporting calendar. Supporters from around the country converge on
the stadium to cheer on their home-town team, and the media cover the games
in detail. Many a professional star is born at Koshien.

Traditional sports remain popular

     Golf has also established itself as a popular sport in Japan. An
estimated 10 million Japanese play golf, and some of the nation's 1,400
professionals are big names on the international scene. In 1987 Okamoto Ayako
finished second in the U.S. Women's Open and went on to top the U.S.
Professional Ladies' Golf Association's money rankings for the year.

     Other popular sports in Japan today include tennis, badminton, swimming,
soccer, and volleyball, which is immensely popular among young and middle-aged
women. Japan also hosts a number of international marathons, which attract
well-known names from around the world. In the winter Japan's many outstanding
ski resorts are packed with ski enthusiasts.

     Japan's elderly must not be left out of the picture, either. Especially
popular among the nation's growing number of people aged over 60 is
"gateball," a game resembling croquet that can be played easily in parks or
other such open spaces.

     Many Japanese athletes have taken part in international sports meetings
abroad, including the Olympic Games, and numerous foreign teams and individual
athletes visit Japan each year. Japan first entered the modern Olympic Games
with the fifth Olympics in Stockholm in 1912 and was a regular participant
through the Berlin Games in 1936. Wartime interrupted further participation
until 1952, when Japan joined the Helsinki Games.

[See Table 11.: Favorite Sports, 1986]

     In 1964 Japan hosted the Tokyo Games, the first Olympics to be held in
Asia. The event turned out to be one of the largest gatherings of world
athletes since the Helsinki Games, with 5,558 athletes from 94 countries
taking part. In 1972 Sapporo, the capital of Japan's northern island of
Hokkaido, hosted the Winter Olympics. A total of 1,655 athletes from 35
nations participated.

     In addition, Japan regularly participates in such international
championships as the Asian Games, which were held in Tokyo in 1958, and the
Universiade, which was held in Tokyo in 1967 and Kobe in 1985.

Leisure

     The Japanese have begun to devote more attention to leisure in recent
years. Opinion polls show clearly, however, that people do not have as much
time as they would like to spend on leisure activities. In a survey conducted
in 1986 by the Leisure Development Center, more than 50% of those polled said
they did not have enough vacation days to enjoy leisure activities, and 65%
said that they did not have any free time on weekdays.

     Shopping, tending the garden, fixing the house, spending time with family
members and friends, and other such activities form the mainstream of leisure
for most Japanese today, together with sports and travel. The number of
Japanese making overseas trips has increased notably in recent years.

     When asked how they would like to spend their free time, an overwhelming
76% of the respondents in the Leisure Development Center's survey cited
domestic travel. This was followed by driving, overseas trips, picnics,
hiking, and cultural activities, such as attending movies and concerts. These
answers reflect the actual opportunities available to Japanese today. When
asked how they would ideally like to spend their free time, an overwhelming
majority of both men and women said they would like to travel overseas. This
was followed by yachting, skin diving, and other marine sports in the case of
men, and by golf and dancing in the case of women. This disparity between
actual and dreamed-of leisure pursuits stems from a lack of time, money, and
opportunity. Nevertheless, leisure has clearly taken on a greater role in the
life and attitudes of the Japanese.

Education

     During the long feudal period preceding the Meiji Restoration in 1868,
various educational establishments developed to serve the needs of the
different social classes. Provincial lords set up special schools for the
children of the warrior class, and rural communities operated schools for the
wealthier members of the merchant and farming classes. Another type of private
school was the terakoya, where reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught to
the children of the common people, mostly in urban areas.

     A modern national education system was introduced into Japan in 1872,
when the Government set up elementary and secondary schools throughout the
country. In 1886 every child was required to attend elementary school for
either three or four years. In 1900 compulsory education was made free of
charge, and in 1908 its duration was extended to six years. After World War II
this period was again extended, to the present nine years, to cover elementary
and lower secondary school education.

     The basic structure and principles of the present education system are
laid out in two laws passed in 1947: the Fundamental Law of Education and the
School Education Law. A basic principle enunciated in the Fundamental Law is
equality in educational opportunity for all. The law prohibits discrimination
on the basis of race, creed, sex, social status, economic position, or family
background.

     A central goal of the education system is to produce self-reliant
citizens of a peaceful and democratic nation who respect human rights and
love truth and peace. The law emphasizes the importance of political knowledge
and of religious tolerance in the development of sound citizens, but it
specifically prohibits any link between political parties or religion and
education. Social studies comprises a central element of the public school
curriculum in line with the Fundamental Law of Education, which also calls on
state and local authorities to establish such institutions as libraries,
museums, and civic halls.