$Unique_ID{bob00367} $Pretitle{} $Title{Japan Society} $Subtitle{} $Author{International Society for Educational Information, Inc.} $Affiliation{Embassy of Japan, Washington DC} $Subject{women japanese japan population work years family leisure education games see tables } $Date{1989} $Log{See Table 10.*0036701.tab See Table 11.*0036702.tab } Title: Japan Book: The Japan of Today Author: International Society for Educational Information, Inc. Affiliation: Embassy of Japan, Washington DC Date: 1989 Society Population Population growth At the end of March 1987 Japan's population stood at 121.4 million, according to the Ministry of Home Affairs. In terms of population Japan now ranks seventh in the world after the People's Republic of China, India, the Soviet Union, the United States, Indonesia, and Brazil, in that order. As in other industrialized countries, Japan's population growth has slowed down in recent years despite a steady decrease in the death rate. After peaking at a rate of 1.27% in 1974, population growth over the preceding year declined gradually to 0.54% in 1987. This drop can be attributed to a sharp decline in the birthrate from 18.6 per 1,000 in 1974 to 11.4 per 1,000 in 1986. It is expected that Japan's population will reach a peak of 136.0 million in 2013, after which it will gradually decrease. Population density As of March 1987 the population density in Japan was 321 persons per square kilometer, placing it among such densely populated nations as Belgium, the Netherlands, and the Republic of Korea. At present, 45% of all Japanese are crowded into the big three metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, and their surrounding prefectures. Recently, there has been a growing concentration of population in the Tokyo metropolitan area, where one-fourth of Japan's total population now resides. One reason for this concentration is the increasingly important role being played by service industries in the Japanese economy. A relatively large proportion of service industries are located in Tokyo. Population structure The age composition of Japan's population, as expressed in the conventional population pyramid, is undergoing a gradual alteration. The typical prewar structure, with a large population of children aged 14 years and under forming a broad base, has given way to a column-like structure as a result of a decline in the birthrate. In 1987, 10.9% of Japan's total population was 65 years of age and older. This figure is low in comparison with such Western countries as Sweden, where the ratio is nearly 20%, and the United Kingdom, where the ratio is over 15%. Since the average life expectancies in Japan are the highest in the world at 81 years for women and 75 years for men, however, the ratio of senior citizens is increasing sharply and is expected to reach 23.6% by 2020. Social Life Family life Before World War II most Japanese lived in an extended family of three or more generations. Family relationships were governed by a rigid hierarchical system, and parental authority was strong. Fathers commanded respect and obedience from their children, and in turn offered the same to their own parents; married women were expected to faithfully obey their husbands and parents-in-law. The process of democratization after the war, however, transformed every aspect of Japanese family life. Especially important was the revision of the Civil Code in 1947, which gave women equal legal status with men in all phases of life, thereby abolishing the old patriarchal character of the family. Rapid economic growth has had a large impact on family life too. One of the most conspicuous changes has been the increasing number of people who live in nuclear families of parents and children only, a trend which has been strengthened by urbanization and technological developments. Extended families accounted for 44% of all households in 1955, but this ratio has declined steadily, dropping to 19% in 1970, 16.2% in 1980, and 15.2% in 1985. The ratio of nuclear families, meanwhile, rose to 61.1% of all households in 1985. Another major change in the family has been the sharp decrease in the number of children that women are giving birth to. In 1930 women gave birth to an average of 4.7 children, but this number fell to 3.6 in 1950 and 1.8 in 1985. This decline, together with the growing trend among young people to find employment in the city and live in company dormitories or on their own, has contributed to a decrease in the average size of the Japanese household, which now stands at 3.22 people. As a result of the demise of the extended family and the increasingly long life expectancy of the Japanese, the number of elderly people living on their own has risen. The ratio of households consisting only of people aged 65 or older jumped from 2.2% in 1955 to 8.8% in 1986. Recently consideration of the problems that elderly people face when living on their own, as well as the merits of living in extended families, has led to a reappraisal of the larger family unit. Life style The life style of the Japanese has been transformed enormously by the widespread use of modern household appliances, the expansion of the instant and frozen-food industries, and the availability of ready-made clothing and other daily necessities. These conveniences have given families more time for leisure, educational, and cultural pursuits, particularly in the case of married women, who previously were tied down by household chores. With less time needed for housework and more time to spare for leisure, an increasing number of married women have been finding jobs, enrolling in courses at community centers or university, or participating in volunteer activities. [See Table 10.: Ownership of Consumer Durables] The rise and relative consistency in the standard of living has produced a strong middle-class consciousness among the Japanese. Public opinion polls on the life of the nation conducted by the Prime Minister's Office since 1964 have indicated that an overwhelming majority of the people feel that they belong to the middle class. The abolition of class society after the war led to the realization of a more equal society in which discrimination on the basis of class or background has been minimized. This equality is reflected in incomes. The gap between the highest and lowest incomes in Japan is the smallest among the advanced industrial countries. The spread of car ownership and of such household appliances as televisions, stereos, videos, and air conditioners, as well as the increase in leisure time, signify a material improvement in the standard of living in Japan. A change in the social awareness of the nation in the wake of the information revolution of recent years has given rise to a qualitative improvement, too. The people now are calling for greater spiritual prosperity in the form of reduced working hours, more opportunities for participation in volunteer activities, and so on. Women The status of women in Japanese society improved enormously after World War II. Article 14 of the Constitution, which was promulgated in 1946, states, "All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin." The Civil Code and laws pertaining to elections, education, and labor were subsequently revised in accordance with the principle of sexual equality. By and large, Japanese women today have achieved legal equality with men. This does not mean, however, that discrimination against women no longer exists. In a poll conducted by the Prime Minister's Office in 1987, more than half of the respondents felt that women had not achieved equality in the workplace or in the realm of social attitudes. This section focuses on the situation of Japanese women at work today and on measures taken by the Government to improve their lot. According to the 1987 edition of the Ministry of Labor's Fujin Rodo no Jitsujo (The Labor Conditions of Women), 48.6% of women aged 15 or over had a job in 1986, 2.8 percentage points more than in 1976. For women aged between 20 and 64, the figure for 1986 was 59.3%, 6.0 percentage points more than a decade earlier. Women comprised 39.8% of the total work force in 1986, up 2.4 percentage points from 1976. By age bracket, women's participation in the labor force can be pictured as an M-curve: The percentage of women who work peaks with the 20-24 age group, drops sharply with the 25-34 age group, picks up to form a second, albeit lower, peak with the 35-50 age group, and drops once again with the over-50 age group. This M-curve illustrates the most common work pattern for Japanese women today: taking a job after graduation from high school or college, quitting in order to marry or have children, and rejoining the labor force when the children have reached school age. Over the past 10 years or so, there has been a small but steady decline in the ratio of women in the 25-34 age group dropping out of the labor force. This trend suggests that a growing number of women are choosing to continue to work during pregnancy and the early years of child care. Of the total number of female workers in 1986, 15.84 million, or 68.1%, were salaried workers, 58.8% of whom were married. Women accounted for 36.2% of all salaried workers in that year. Female workers tend to concentrate in certain occupations. According to 1985 statistics, women made up a relatively large proportion of the labor force in services, sales, clerical work, nursing, and teaching, but accounted for less than 10% of the nation's managers, scientific researchers, certified public accountants, and licensed tax accountants. In 1986 the average monthly income for women was about (Y)200,000, which amounted to only 52% of the figure for men. The Government has implemented various measures to improve the situation of working women. The 1947 Labor Standards Law marked an important step forward by introducing the principle of equal pay for equal work. Nevertheless, many companies have continued to implement separate hiring policies for men and women, with different systems for promotion and salary increases. In reality women have yet to attain true equality. Stimulated by the United Nations International Women's Year in 1975 and the U.N. Decade for Women, which ended in 1985, the Japanese Government began to push for additional measures to promote equality in the workplace. In May 1985 the National Diet passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Law, which took effect on April 1, 1986. The law obliges employers to strive toward equal treatment of the sexes in recruiting, hiring, placement, and promotion. It also prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in employee education and training, welfare benefits, mandatory retirement, and dismissals. A survey carried out by the Labor Ministry in April 1987, however found that while many companies had a mended their recruitment policies, little change had taken place in placement and promotion policies. As reasons for not placing women in positions of responsibility, companies cited the fact that women on average work only for a short time and that women are responsible for housekeeping an raising children. Since many women must stop working after a few years to take over these household tasks, such domestic responsibilities can be seen as a major obstacle to the achievement of equality The belief that men should work and women stay at home still holds sway in Japanese society. In a 1986 poll on the family, more than 90% of the respondents said that housekeeping and child care were the woman's domain, even if she works. The burden on working mothers therefore can be overwhelming. Not surprisingly, in a 1987 poll on women carried out by the Prime Minister's Office, 90% of the respondents felt that men have more opportunities than women to use their abilities and skills. In Japan companies generally expect their employees to put in long hours of overtime. But it is difficult for women, who also have household chores to do and children to take care of, to work at the same pace as men, who are not burdened with such responsibilities. Many women inevitably opt for part-time jobs, which enable them to combine work and domestic duties. At present 23% of all female salaried workers are part-timers, and the ratio has been on the rise in recent years. Part-time work places women at a disadvantage. The wages of part-time workers are considerably lower than those of full-time employees, and part-time work tends to involve menial labor. Moreover, because salaries and promotion in Japanese companies are often based on seniority, it is extremely difficult for women either reentering the labor force or switching from part-time to full-time work to climb the ladder. The Government is doing its utmost to improve work opportunities for women by encouraging companies to institute child-care leave and other systems that enable women to return to work. Sports and leisure Sports Almost every type of sport, both traditional and modern, has a large following in Japan today. Sports papers and magazines are avidly read. Crowds pack the stadiums for all major athletic events, and millions more watch on television. In the field of traditional sports, sumo (Japanese wrestling), judo, kendo (Japanese fencing), and Kyudo (Japanese archery) are particularly popular. Radio and television have greatly revived the popularity of sumo. The beginnings of the traditional style of sumo cannot be traced, but in legend it goes back more than 2,000 years. It is a highly formalized but dramatic sport, closely followed today by almost all Japanese. Six regular sumo tournaments, each lasting 15 days , are held every year in Tokyo and other big cities. Professional sumo wrestlers spend the rest of the year touring the country. Judo, which developed from the old art known as jujutsu, is today a popular sport not only in Japan but in many other countries. It has been included as an Olympic event since the 1964 Tokyo Games. International championships are now held regularly in different parts of the world. In Japan, the annual All-Japan Judo Tournament attracts keen interest throughout the country. Kendo waned in popularity after the war but is now enjoying a revival. As for modern sports, baseball, which is played throughout the country at both amateur and professional levels, enjoys the rank of national sport. In 1987, a record 19 million spectators turned out to watch professional league games. During the baseball season, which lasts from spring through fall, games are aired on television nearly every day. Baseball stars can become national heroes. Two players, Oh Sadaharu and Kinugasa Sachio, have been the recipients of the People's Honor Award. Professional baseball was inaugurated in Japan in 1936 with one league. The present system of two leagues-the Central and the Pacific, each with six teams-was adopted in 1950. This two-league system, the all-star games, the draft system, and other facets of Japanese baseball are similar to those in the United States. The regular professional baseball season culminates in October with the Japan Series, a best-of-seven contest between the two league champions. Twice a year, once in the spring and again in the summer, the eyes of the nation are riveted on Hanshin Koshien Stadium in Nishinomiya, Hyogo Prefecture, where high-school baseball tournaments take place. These tournaments, which overflow with youthful enthusiasm, are major events in the Japanese sporting calendar. Supporters from around the country converge on the stadium to cheer on their home-town team, and the media cover the games in detail. Many a professional star is born at Koshien. Traditional sports remain popular Golf has also established itself as a popular sport in Japan. An estimated 10 million Japanese play golf, and some of the nation's 1,400 professionals are big names on the international scene. In 1987 Okamoto Ayako finished second in the U.S. Women's Open and went on to top the U.S. Professional Ladies' Golf Association's money rankings for the year. Other popular sports in Japan today include tennis, badminton, swimming, soccer, and volleyball, which is immensely popular among young and middle-aged women. Japan also hosts a number of international marathons, which attract well-known names from around the world. In the winter Japan's many outstanding ski resorts are packed with ski enthusiasts. Japan's elderly must not be left out of the picture, either. Especially popular among the nation's growing number of people aged over 60 is "gateball," a game resembling croquet that can be played easily in parks or other such open spaces. Many Japanese athletes have taken part in international sports meetings abroad, including the Olympic Games, and numerous foreign teams and individual athletes visit Japan each year. Japan first entered the modern Olympic Games with the fifth Olympics in Stockholm in 1912 and was a regular participant through the Berlin Games in 1936. Wartime interrupted further participation until 1952, when Japan joined the Helsinki Games. [See Table 11.: Favorite Sports, 1986] In 1964 Japan hosted the Tokyo Games, the first Olympics to be held in Asia. The event turned out to be one of the largest gatherings of world athletes since the Helsinki Games, with 5,558 athletes from 94 countries taking part. In 1972 Sapporo, the capital of Japan's northern island of Hokkaido, hosted the Winter Olympics. A total of 1,655 athletes from 35 nations participated. In addition, Japan regularly participates in such international championships as the Asian Games, which were held in Tokyo in 1958, and the Universiade, which was held in Tokyo in 1967 and Kobe in 1985. Leisure The Japanese have begun to devote more attention to leisure in recent years. Opinion polls show clearly, however, that people do not have as much time as they would like to spend on leisure activities. In a survey conducted in 1986 by the Leisure Development Center, more than 50% of those polled said they did not have enough vacation days to enjoy leisure activities, and 65% said that they did not have any free time on weekdays. Shopping, tending the garden, fixing the house, spending time with family members and friends, and other such activities form the mainstream of leisure for most Japanese today, together with sports and travel. The number of Japanese making overseas trips has increased notably in recent years. When asked how they would like to spend their free time, an overwhelming 76% of the respondents in the Leisure Development Center's survey cited domestic travel. This was followed by driving, overseas trips, picnics, hiking, and cultural activities, such as attending movies and concerts. These answers reflect the actual opportunities available to Japanese today. When asked how they would ideally like to spend their free time, an overwhelming majority of both men and women said they would like to travel overseas. This was followed by yachting, skin diving, and other marine sports in the case of men, and by golf and dancing in the case of women. This disparity between actual and dreamed-of leisure pursuits stems from a lack of time, money, and opportunity. Nevertheless, leisure has clearly taken on a greater role in the life and attitudes of the Japanese. Education During the long feudal period preceding the Meiji Restoration in 1868, various educational establishments developed to serve the needs of the different social classes. Provincial lords set up special schools for the children of the warrior class, and rural communities operated schools for the wealthier members of the merchant and farming classes. Another type of private school was the terakoya, where reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught to the children of the common people, mostly in urban areas. A modern national education system was introduced into Japan in 1872, when the Government set up elementary and secondary schools throughout the country. In 1886 every child was required to attend elementary school for either three or four years. In 1900 compulsory education was made free of charge, and in 1908 its duration was extended to six years. After World War II this period was again extended, to the present nine years, to cover elementary and lower secondary school education. The basic structure and principles of the present education system are laid out in two laws passed in 1947: the Fundamental Law of Education and the School Education Law. A basic principle enunciated in the Fundamental Law is equality in educational opportunity for all. The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, creed, sex, social status, economic position, or family background. A central goal of the education system is to produce self-reliant citizens of a peaceful and democratic nation who respect human rights and love truth and peace. The law emphasizes the importance of political knowledge and of religious tolerance in the development of sound citizens, but it specifically prohibits any link between political parties or religion and education. Social studies comprises a central element of the public school curriculum in line with the Fundamental Law of Education, which also calls on state and local authorities to establish such institutions as libraries, museums, and civic halls.