Full country name: People's Republic of China
Area: 9,596,960 sq km (mainland)
Population: 1.2 billion (mainland)
Capital city: Beijing (pop 11 million)
People: Han Chinese (93%), plus Mongol, Zhuang, Manchu and Uighur minorities
Language: Putonghua (Beijing dialect Mandarin)
Religion: Officially atheist; Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism (no stats available); Muslim (14 million), Christian (7 million)
Government: Communist republic
Head of State: Jiang Zemin
The third-largest country in the world, China is bounded to the north by the deserts of Mongolia, to the west by the inhospitable Tibetan plateau and Himalaya, and to the east by the East and South China seas. China's 22 provinces and five autonomous regions are governed from Beijing, along with some 5000 islands. Hong Kong has now returned to the fold as a Special Administrative Region (SAR) and Macau will do the same in 1999. Disputed territories are dotted near and far around China's south-east coast. Taiwan - a festering dispute that flares up from time to time - is the best known. Then there's the oil-rich Spratly Island group which every country in the region wants to suck dry, the Diaoyutai Islands (known as Senkaku to the Japanese), the Paracels (or Xisha, if China gets its way), and the Pescadores (or Penghu).
The topography included in China's vast panorama runs the gamut from towering mountains to featureless plains, the terrain descending across the planet from Tibet's `roof of the world' in the west, down through the Inner Mongolia Plateau and east to the plains of the Yangzi River valley. In the south-west, the Yunnan-Guizhbou Plateau has a lacerated terrain with numerous gorge rapids, waterfalls, underground caverns and limestone pinnacles, making it one of the country's most spectacular regions. Inland features include the Taklamakan Desert shifting salt lakes and the Turpan Depression (China's hottest region, and known as the Oasis of Fire). Melting snow from the mountains of western China and the Tibetan Plateau provides the headwaters for many of the country's major trade routes: the Yangzi, Yellow, Mekong and Salween rivers.
Snow-capped peaks (18K)
Given China's size, it's only to be expected that its plant and animal life is diverse. Unfortunately, much of the country's rich natural heritage is rare, endangered or extinct, largely due to the destruction of habitat caused by agriculture, urbanisation and industrial pollution. Magnificent animals endemic to China - but found in increasingly low numbers - include pandas, snow leopards, elephants, argali sheep, wild yaks, reindeer, moose, musk deer, bears, sables and tigers. Bird-watchers can spot cranes, ducks, bustards, egrets, swans and herons in the country's lakes and nature reserves (of which there are more than 300). China's plant life has fared a little better under the crunch of a billion people, but deforestation, grazing and intensive cultivation have all taken their toll. The last great tracts of forest are in the subarctic north-eastern region near the Russian border, while the tropical south is home to the country's most diverse plant life, including rainforest. China's many useful plants include bamboo, ginseng, angelica and fritillary.
China's climate ranges from bitterly cold to unbearably hot, and a whole lot in between. Temperatures in the north can drop to -40 degrees Celsius in winter (December-March) and rise to 38 degrees in summer (May-August). The central Yangzi River valley area also experiences extreme seasonal temperatures. In the far south, the hot and humid summer lasts from April to September and, as in north China, coincides with the rainy season. Typhoons can hit the south-east coast between July and September. The north-west experiences dry, hot summers, with China's nominated hottest place - Turpan - receiving maximums of around 47 degrees Celsius. Winters here are as formidably cold as in the rest of northern China.
Local lads, Kashgar (19K)
The Chinese claim a history of 5000 years - the dawn of which is steeped in myth and legend - while its bulk is a seemingly endless succession of dynasties. The existence of the first dynasty, the Xia, is still to be archaeologically verified but is accepted as lasting from 2200 to 1700 BC, and is described in legends as having been preceded by a succession of god-like sovereigns and emperors who bestowed the gifts of life, hunting and agricultural knowledge. The verified existence of ensuing dynasties is similarly hazy, but clarity increases with each era, revealing agricultural societies who practised a form of ancestor worship. The Zhou period (1100-221 BC) saw the establishment of enduring political concepts such as the `mandate of heaven' - in which the right to rule was given to the just and denied to the evil and corrupt, leading to the later Taoist view that heaven's disapproval was expressed through natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and plagues of insects. Along with Taoism, the Zhou period also saw the emergence of Confucianism.
The Chinese were united for the first time into a single empire during the Qin dynasty (221-207 BC), an era which bequeathed administrative institutions which were to remain features of the Chinese state for the following 2000 years. As well as introducing centralised control, the dynasty standardised weights and measures and the writing system; construction of the Great Wall was also undertaken during this period. The ensuing Han dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) was a period of consolidation and expansion, when contact with the `barbarians' who surrounded the empire brought both military conflict and commercial gains. The empire split into the Three Kingdoms and further into a string of kingdoms and fiefdoms which competed for power. Curiously, these war-torn centuries also saw the flowering of Buddhism and the arts.
Unity arose out of the chaos under the Sui dynasty (589-618) and was consolidated under the Tang (618-908), commonly regarded as the most glorious period of Chinese history. The empire was divided into 300 prefectures and 1500 counties, a regional breakdown that persists to this day. Military conquests re-established Chinese control of the silk routes, and society was `internationalised' to an unprecedented degree, with foreign contact being established as far away as Persia, India, Indonesia and Japan. Buddhism flourished under the Tang, splitting into two distinct schools: the Chan (Zen) and Pure Land (Chinese Buddhist).
Power was again centralised under the Song dynasty (960-1279), generally divided into the Northern and Southern Song and known for its strong government, renewal of Confucian learning, civilian-dominated bureaucracy and urban and commercial revolutions (it was during the 13th century that Marco Polo commented on the grand scale of China's prosperous cities). The Mongol rule of the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) was established by Kublai Khan, grandson of Mongol invader Genghis Khan. The Mongols established a capital at what is now Beijing, and militarised the nation's administration. The Chinese were relegated to third and fourth-class citizens, and, unsurprisingly, by the middle of the 14th century the country was convulsed by rebellion. A Buddhist novice called Hongwu arose from the chaos to establish the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), with capitals at Beijing and Nanjing. Maritime power was established for the first time, and expeditions sailed to South-East Asia, Persia, Arabia and even eastern Africa.
The first European ships to anchor off the coast of China were Portuguese, arriving in 1516. A trade mission was established in Macau by 1557, but it was not until 1760 that other powers gained secure access to Chinese markets via a base in Guangzhou. The British, Dutch and Spanish traded via a monopolistic guild known as the Cohong, which served to keep foreigners at arm's length from the political centre in Beijing. Trade flourished, but in China's favour, as British purchases of tea, silk and porcelain far outweighed Chinese purchases of wool and spices. In 1773 the British decided to balance the books by encouraging the sale of opium. The requisitioning of some 20,000 chests of opium by the Chinese in 1839 was just the excuse the British needed to militarise its presence in China, and by 1840 the Opium Wars were on.
Warfare and resulting treaties in British favour led to the cession of Hong Kong and the signing of the humiliating Nanjing Treaty. These final years of the Qing dynasty were administered by Empress Dowager Wu Cixi, a reactionary leader who saw all attempts to reform her country's ancient institutions as a threat to her government. Her failure to adapt to the changing circumstances led to rebellion and civil unrest, and a land-grabbing spree by the Western powers that saw China carved up into spheres of influence. The US-proposed free-trade Open Door Policy was accepted by the Chinese as an alternative to outright foreign control. China's colonial possessions soon evaporated, with Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia falling to the French, Burma to the British, and Korea and Taiwan to Japan.
The first half of the 20th century was a period of utter chaos, with forces jostling for power in the wake of the Qing dynasty. Intellectuals searched for a new philosophy to replace the old Confucian order, while warlords attempted to grab imperial power. Sun Yatsen's Kuomintang (the KMT, or Nationalist Party) established a secure base in southern China and began training a National Revolutionary Army (NRA) with which to challenge the northern warlords. Meanwhile, talks between representatives of the Soviet Comintern and prominent Chinese Marxists resulted in the formation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1921. Hopes of the CCP aligning with the KMT were foiled by Sun Yatsen's death and the rise from the KMT of Chiang Kaishek, who favoured a capitalist state dominated by a wealthy elite and supported by a military dictatorship. Chiang Kaishek set out to put a violent end to both the growing Communist influence and the power of the northern warlords, and by mid-1928 a national government had been established at Beijing, with Chiang holding both military and political leadership.
The Communists were split between those who focused on urban revolt and those who believed victory lay in uniting the countryside. Mao Zedong established his forces in the mountains of Jinggangshan, adopting a strategy of guerrilla warfare, and by 1930 the ragged forces had transformed into an army of 40,000. Four extermination campaigns were made against the Communists by Chiang, each time resulting in Communist victories due to their strategy of launching short attacks rather than pitched battles. Chiang's fifth campaign was very nearly successful because the Communists ill-advisedly changed their strategy and met head-on with the KMT in battle. Hemmed in, the Communists decided to retreat from Jiagnxi and head north to Shaanxi - the Long March of 1934. Of the 90,000 who started out, only 20,000 made it to their destination, one year and 8000 km later. En route the Communists armed the peasants they encountered and redistributed the land they passed through. The Communists proved that, given a method, an organisation, leadership, hope and weapons, the Chinese people could fight. During the march, Mao was established as the paramount leader of the CCP.
In 1931 the Japanese had taken advantage of China's state of chaos to invade Manchuria, setting up a puppet state with the last Chinese emperor, Puyi, as the symbolic head. Chiang Kaishek did little to halt the advance of the Japanese, who by 1939 had overrun most of eastern China; instead he continued to obsessively oppose the Chinese Communist forces. By the end of WWII, and Japan's surrender, China was in the grip of all-out civil war as a dramatic power struggle between the KMT and CCP came to its bitter conclusion. Three great battles were fought in 1948 and 1949 which saw the KMT defeated, and hundreds of thousands of KMT troops changing sides to join the CCP. On 1 October 1949 Mao Zedong proclaimed the foundation of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Chiang Kaishek fled to Taiwan, taking with him the country's entire gold reserves and what was left of his air force and navy. The USA continued to recognise Chiang as legitimate ruler of China, and provided a naval blockade to prevent an attack on Taiwan from the mainland.
The PRC began its days as a bankrupt nation, but the 1950s ushered in an era of great confidence. The people were bonded by the Korean War and worked to defend the new nation from possible US invasion, and by 1953 inflation had been halted, industrial production had been restored to prewar levels, the redistribution of land had been carried out and the first Five Year Plan had been launched. The Party increased its control by organising the people according to their work units and dividing the country into 21 provinces, five autonomous regions, two municipalities (Beijing and Shanghai) and around 2200 county governments. Concurrently, many KMT intellectuals who had stayed on were `re-educated', while writers and artists were subject to strict ideological controls. But pehaps the most tragic consequence of the Party's dominance was the `liberation' (read invasion) of Tibet in 1950 by Chinese forces. In the space of 20 years, Beijing oversaw the enforced exile of the Tibetan spiritual leader along with 100,000 fellow Tibetans, the death of 1.2 million who stayed behind, and the destruction of a serene and precious culture. Today, the destruction is by no means over.
Mao and the hometown masses (18K)
The next plan was the Great Leap Forward, aimed at increasing agricultural production and jump-starting the economy into first-world standards overnight. Despite oodles of revolutionary zeal, the plan was stalled by inefficient management and low incentives, coupled with floods, droughts and, in 1960, the withdrawal of all Soviet aid. The Cultural Revolution (1966-70) attempted to draw attention away from these disasters by increasing Mao's personal presence with the launch of his little red book of quotations, the purging of opponents and the launch of the Red Guard. Universities and schools were closed, intellectuals were killed or persecuted, publications ceased, temples and monasteries were ransacked and reminders of China's feudal and capitalist past were destroyed. The focus was broadened to cover all `counter-revolutionary organisations', and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) took over the offensive.
Beijing politics were divided between Zhou Enlai, Deng Xiaoping and the moderates on one side, and radicals and Maoists led by Mao's wife, Jiang Qing, on the other. The radicals gained the upper hand when Zhou died in 1976. Hua Guofeng, Mao's chosen successor, was made acting premier. Public anger at Jiang Qing and her clique culminated in a gathering of protesters in Tiananmen Square, and a brutal crackdown led to the disappearance of Deng, who was blamed for the `counter-revolutionary' gathering.
When Jiang Qing announced her opposition to Hua she was arrested, along with the three other leaders of her clique. There were celebrations throughout China when the news that the so-called Gang of Four had been brought to justice. Deng returned to public life in 1977, eventually forming a six-member Standing Committee of the CCP. The country was in obvious need of modernisation and ideological revitalisation.
With Deng at the helm, and the signing of the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration, China set a course towards economic reconstruction. Agricultural surpluses were permitted to be sold on the open market and Special Economic Zones were established near Hong Kong and Taiwan - with spectacularly successful results. Political reform, however, was almost nil. General dissatisfaction with the Party, soaring inflation and increased demands for democracy have led to widespread social unrest - epitomised by the demonstrations of 1989 that resulted in the bloody Tiananmen Square massacre.
Now that the British have finally handed back the keys to Hong Kong, China's `one country, two systems' plan shifts up a gear. With Deng dead and Jiang Zemin installed as leader, China is charting a new course. China watchers fear the country might break up because of sky-high inflation levels, official corruption, stalled economic growth and stagnant rural incomes. Hong Kong, say the cynics, will slide into economic obscurity as Shanghai and other mainland cities gain favour ahead of the legendary island. Radical change or slow collapse is certainly possible in Hong Kong, but it's more likely - and more Chinese - for both to somehow occur simultaneously.
GDP: US$581 billion
GDP per head: US$494
Growth rate: 9%
Inflation: 10%
Major industries: Iron, steel, coal, machinery, textiles
Major trading partners: USA, Japan, Germany, South Korea
Calligraphy has traditionally been regarded as China's highest form of visual art - to the point that a person's character was judged by the elegance of their handwriting! Decorative calligraphy is found all over China, in temples and adorning the walls of caves and the sides of mountains and monuments. The basic tools of calligraphy - brush and ink - are also the tools of Chinese painting, with linework and tone the all-important components.
Despite the ravages of time, war and ideology, there's still a lot to see architecturally. Traces of the past include the imperial structures of Beijing, the colonial buildings of Shanghai, the occasional rural village and Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist temples. Funerary art was already a feature of Chinese culture in Neolithic times (9000-6000 BC), ranging from ritual vessels and weapons to pottery figures, jade and sacrificial vessels made of bronze. Earthenware production is almost as ancient, with the world's first proto-porcelain being produced in China in the 6th century AD, reaching its artistic peak under the Song rulers.
China's language is officially Mandarin, as spoken in Beijing. The Chinese call it Putonghua. About 70% of the population speak Mandarin, but that's just the tip of the lingusitic iceberg. The country is awash with dialects, and dialects within dialects - and few of them are mutually intelligible. Of the seven major strains, Cantonese is the one most likely to be spoken in your local Chinese takeaway. It's the lingua franca of Guangdong, southern Guangxi, Hong Kong and (to an extent) Macau.
China's literary heritage is huge, but unfortunately its untranslatability makes much of it inaccessible to Western readers. Traditionally there are two forms, the classical (largely Confucian) and the vernacular (such as the prose epics of the Ming dynasty). Chinese theatre is also known as opera because of the important role played by music, and has spawned such diverse arts as acrobatics, martial arts and stylised dance. Many western film-lovers are fans of Chinese cinema, with releases enjoying success at film festivals and in art-house cinemas. Recently there has been an emergence of talented `fifth-generation' post-Cultural Revolution directors, including Zhang Yimou (Red Sorghum), Chen Kaige (Farewell, My Concubine), Wu Ziniu and Tian Zhuangzhuang. Add to them Hong Kong's East-meets-West action directors John Woo (Hard Boiled) and Ringo Lam (Full Contact) and you have a full-fledged, extremely successful film industry.
Chinese cuisine is justifiably famous, memorably diverse - and generally not for the squeamish. The Chinese themselves like to say they'll eat anything with four legs except a table. For the most part, however, it's a case of doing ingenious things with a limited number of basic ingredients. The cuisine can be divided into four regional categories: Beijing/Mandarin and Shandong (with steamed bread and noodles as staples), Cantonese and Chaozhou (lightly cooked meats and vegetables), Shanghainese (the home of `red cooking' and wuxi spare ribs) and Sichuan (spicy, with lots of chilli). Tea is the most common nonalcoholic beverage on sale, although Coca-Cola (both original and bogus) is making inroads, while beer is by far the most popular alcoholic drink. `Wine' is a loose term which can cover oxidised and herb-soaked concoctions, rice wine and wine containing lizards, bees or pickled snakes. Another favourite is maotai, a spirit made from sorghum which smells like rubbing alcohol and makes a good substitute for petrol or paint thinner.
Chinese New Year (or Spring Festival) starts on the first day of the old lunar calendar - which usually falls in February. Although officially lasting only three days, many people take a week off. Ear plugs are handy at this time to dull the firecracker assaults, and prices of hotel rooms tend to go through the roof. The Lantern Festival isn't a public holiday, but it's big and it's colourful. It falls on the 15th day of the 1st moon (around mid-Feb to mid-March) and marks the end of the new-year celebrations. The famous lion dances occur throughout this period. Ching Ming (or Tomb Sweep Day) is in April, and sees Chinese families spend the day tending the graves of departed loved ones. Hong Kong hosts one of the liveliest annual Chinese celebrations - the Dragon Boat Festival. Usually held in June, the festival honours the poet Wut Yuan and features races between teams in long ornate canoes. Many Westerners take part in the races, but plenty of practice is needed to get all the paddles working as one.
Special prayers are held at Buddhist and Taoist temples on full-moon and sliver-moon days. Temple and moon-based festivities include Guanyin's Birthday (late March to late April), Mazu's Birthday (May or June), Water-Splashing Festival (13-15 April), Ghost Month (late August to late September), Mid-Autumn Moon Festival (October) and the Birthday of Confucius (28 September).
Visas: Visas are required by all foreigners entering mainland China (visas aren't needed for tourists visiting Hong Kong for less than 30 days). Standard tourist visas are valid for 30-day visits and are generally easy to acquire. Visas valid for more than 30 days are usually difficult to obtain.
Health risks: For a start, rabid dogs are common China-wide. Then there's bilharzia (blood flukes) in the central Yangzi River basin, and dengue fever in the south. A fresh strain of cholera has emerged in the west, and malaria is rife in southern and coastal areas. Immunisation is considered essential against: cholera, hepatitis A and B, Japanese encephalitis, polio, rabies and typhoid. And with tuberculosis, diphtheria and typhus also present, hypochondriacs should have a wow of a time.
Time: GMT/UTC plus eight hours (the whole of China is set to Beijing time).
Electricity: 220V, 50 AC; plugs can be three-pronged angled, three-pronged round, two flat pins or two narrow round pins.
Weights & measures: Metric
Tourism: 28 million visitors per year
Currency: Renminbi (RMB). The basic unit is the yuan.
Relative costs:
- Budget meal: US$1-2
- Moderate restaurant meal: US$3-6
- Top-end restaurant meal: US$7-10
- Budget room: US$20-40 (eastern China), US$5-10 (western China)
- Moderate hotel: US$70-150
- Top-end hotel: US$150-280
Generally, eastern China is much more expensive than the west of the country. Visitors to eastern China could budget on around US$50 a day, but it would be a challenge. Budget travellers in western China should be able to keep costs down to US$20 per day. The main drain on savings tends to be long train journeys. Food is cheap throughout China, and if you're careful you won't have to spend much more than US$7 a day on meals. However, the bottom line is that you'll be charged `tourist price' a lot of the time - it's a practice encouraged by the government.
Foreign currency and travellers' cheques can be changed at the main branches of the Bank of China, the tourist hotels, Friendship Stores and some department stores. Hotels usually charge the official rate. You will need to keep your exchange receipts if you want to change any of your remaining RMB at the end of your trip. Travellers' cheques are useful because the exchange rate is more favourable than that for cash; Thomas Cook, American Express and Bank of America are most commonly accepted.
Credit cards are gaining ground in China, with Visa, MasterCard, American Express (branches in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Xiamen), JCB and Diners Club the most common. Cards can be used in most mid to top-range hotels, Friendship and department stores, but cannot be used to finance your transportation costs. Cash advances can be made at head branches of the Bank of China (4% commission).
Tipping is not really expected in mainland China - but bargaining is definitely OK. You can bargain in shops, street stalls, and hotels - but not in large stores.
Spring (March-April) and autumn (September-October) are the best times to visit China. Daytime temperatures range from 20 to 30 degrees Celsius in these seasons, but nights can be bitterly cold and it can be wet and miserable. Major public holidays, in particular Chinese New Year, are best avoided as it's difficult to get around and/or find accommodation.
Beijing
As a capital, Beijing casts a long shadow over the rest of China. Regardless of time meridians, Beijing time is followed nationwide; around the country, the Beijing dialect - putonghua - is spoken; and places such as Tibet and Ürümqi are forced to refer to the central government on all matters. For Beijing, the dictum that a nation's capital doesn't reflect the nature of the country as a whole is especially true. Instead it's a People's Republic of China (PRC) showpiece and a city of orderly design, with long, straight boulevards crisscrossed by lanes. Places of interest are easy to find if they're located on these avenues - and nearly impossible to find if they're buried down the narrow alleys. The city's central core was once a walled enclosure, and it still maintains its ancient symmetry based on a north-south axis passing through Qianmen (Front Gate).
Festooned with colourful nicknames like `the Whore of the East', `the Paris of China' and `the Pearl of the Orient', Shanghai has long been symbolic of the West's rape of the East. In the years following 1949 its gaudy past and foreign appearance was a constant blot on the People's Republic of China's psyche. The city is divided in half by the Huangpu River, with most of the city's highlights located in Puxi. The city is said to have half the world's cranes in it (and judging by the skyline this can't be too far from the truth) but Shanghai's past still lingers. The best times to visit are spring and autumn - winter and summer here are merciless in their respective extremes. Shanghai is 15 hours from Beijing by train.
Hong Kong's dynamism is unforgettable. From the vantage point of Victoria Peak, overlooking the world's busiest deepwater port, you can see a city geared not only to making money but feeling good about it. At night, it's like looking down into a volcano. Despite its British colonial past, Hong Kong has always stuck to its roots and the culture beneath the glitz is pure Chinese. That didn't stop locals from feeling apprehensive about being re-united with the motherland when the British handed the colony back to China in 1997, but their unease has largely evaporated. Visitors often find it takes a few days in Hong Kong to get accustomed to the whirlwind pace. If you need some respite, check out the Outlying Islands for a change of tempo and scene. A train from Beijing takes 30 hours. It's quicker, of course, to fly, but you can expect to pay as much from Hong Kong to Beijing as you would from Hong Kong to Los Angeles.
Xi'an was once a major crossroads on the trading routes from eastern China to central Asia, and once vied with Rome and later Constantinople for the title of greatest city in the world. Today Xi'an is one of China's major drawcards, largely because of the Army of Terracotta Warriors on the city's eastern outskirts. Uncovered in 1974, over 10,000 figures have been sorted to date. Soldiers, archers (armed with real weapons) and chariots stand in battle formation in underground vaults looking as fierce and war-like as pottery can. Xi'an's other attractions include the old city walls, the Muslim quarter and the Banpo Neolithic Village - a tacky re-creation of the Stone Age. By train, Xi'an is a 16 hour journey from Beijing. If you've got a bit of cash to spare, a flight will set you back about US$120.
Terracotta Warriors (20K)
Ever since Portuguese galleons first started dropping by in the 1500s, Macau has been a memorable meeting place of cultures. It's fitting that the city's symbol is St Paul's, the spectacularly crumbling facade of a cathedral designed by an Italian, built by Japanese, attended by Portuguese, and almost destroyed by a Chinese typhoon. For a great view of this compact city take a hike up to nearby Monte Fort, or Guia Fortress, where you'll find a rustic 17th-century chapel and the oldest lighthouse on the China coast. The city's most historic place of worship still in action is the 400-year-old Kun Iam Temple, dedicated to the queen of heaven and goddess of mercy. Add to this a fantastic combination of Portuguese and Chinese cuisine, a gloriously gaudy casino-led nightlife and a streetscape of cobblestones and shady squares and you've got a wonderful antidote to mainland China and Hong Kong. Macau is 65km (40mi) by sea from Hong Kong.
Locked away in its Himalayan fortress, Tibet has long exercised a unique hold on the imagination of the West: 'Shangri-La', 'the Land of Snows', 'the Rooftop of the World', Tibet is mysterious in a way that few other places are. Most of Tibet is an immense plateau which lies at altitudes from 4000 to 5000m, but inhabitants tend to cluster in the valleys in the country's east. Tibet's strategic importance, straddling the Himalaya between China and the Indian subcontinent, made it irresistible to China who invaded in 1950.
Tibetan girls (18K)
The inclusion of Tibet in a destination profile of China is intended to reflect the realities of travel in the region and does not in any way confer approval of the Chinese annexation of this Buddhist kingdom. Tibet was opened to foreign tourism in 1984, closed to all but tour groups in 1987 after a virtual uprising by Tibetans in Lhasa, and reopened in 1992, though with some ludicrous permit requirements. The present Chinese policy on individual tourism in Tibet basically seems to be one of extorting as much cash as possible from foreigners, but not so much as to scare them off completely.
In a country where provincial capitals are rarely known for their beauty, Nanjing shines. The construction work that's churning up the face of China seems to have affected this city less than most and it remains a place of broad boulevards and shady trees. This is just as well considering the oppressive summer heat that grips Nanjing, which is known as one of China's `three furnaces'. The city enjoyed its golden years under the Ming, and there are numerous reminders of the period to be found. One of the most impressive is the Ming city wall measuring over 33km - the longest city wall ever built in the world. About two-thirds of it still stands. On the slopes just east of Nanjing is the Sun Yatsen Mausoleum. Sun is recognised by the communists and the Kuomintang alike as the father of China. Nanjing is asscessible by rail, bus and air. It is roughly 1000km (620mi) from Beijing.
Taishan (or Daishan) is the most revered of the five sacred Taoist mountains of China. Since the dawn of Chinese history, poets, writers and painters have found Taishan a great source of inspiration and have extolled its beauties. Today, however, the fact that it is a major Chinese attraction means that visitors rarely get a moment's peace to drink in the experience, but thankfully the pull of legend, religion and history is enough to make the climb or cable-car ride worthwhile. Taishan is not a major climb, but with around 6000 steps to negotiate, it can be hard work. The central route's bewildering catalogue of bridges, trees, towers, statues, inscribed stones, caves, pavilions and temples combine to take your mind off your aching calves.
Not far from the mountain is the town of Qufu, birthplace of Confucius (551-479 BC). Its massive Confucius Temple features a series of impressive gateways, clusters of twisted pines and cypresses, inscribed steles and tortoise tablets recording ancient events. One of the pavilions dates from 1190, while one of the junipers is said to have been planted by Confucius himself (though a Confucian aphorism about gullibility may descend on you if you believe this). The core of the complex is the yellow-tiled Dacheng Hall. The Confucius Mansions date from the 16th century and are the most sumptuous aristocratic lodgings in China, indicative of the former power of the Confucian descendants, the Kong family. The town itself grew up around these buildings, and was an autonomous estate administered by the Kongs. North of the mansions is the Confucian Forest, the largest artificial park and best preserved cemetery in China. The timeworn route features a `spirit way' of ancient cypresses, passing through the Eternal Spring Archway before reaching the Tomb of the Great Sage. The nearby town of Tai'an is a 9-hour train ride from Beijing. Busses then run regularly to the mountain.
Turpan is 180km south-east of Ürümqi lying in a basin 154m below sea level - the second-lowest depression in the world after Israel's Dead Sea. It's also the hottest spot in China: the mercury hovers around an egg-frying 50 degrees Celsius in summer. Uighur culture is still thriving here and it's one of the few quiet places in China. The living is cheap, the food is good, the people are friendly, the bazaar is fascinating, and there are interesting sights scattered around. Within easy reach are the Gaochang Ruins, once a major staging post on the Silk Road; the Flaming Mountains, which look like they're on fire in the midday sun; and a Sand Therapy Clinic where rheumatics come to get buried up to their necks in sand. To reach Turpan, you'll first have to find your way to Ürümqi by air or - if you're brave - by train. From there you catch a regular bus. The ride takes four hours.
This highway over the Khunjerab Pass (4800m) is the gateway to Pakistan and was used for centuries by caravans plodding down the Silk Road. Khunjerab means 'valley of blood', a reference to local bandits who took advantage of the terrain to plunder caravans and slaughter the merchants. Nearly 20 years were required to plan, push, blast and level the present road between Islamabad and Kashgar; over 400 road-builders died. Facilities en-route are being steadily improved, but take warm clothing, food and drink on board with you. Even if you don't wish to cross into Pakistan, it's worth doing the trip up to Tashkurgan from Kashgar because the scenery is stunning: high mountain pastures nibbled by camels and yaks tended by yurt-dwelling Tajiks.
Guizhou Province's awesome Longgong caves form a network through some 20 mountains and can be reached by charter boat from the town of Anshun - about 32km away. The caverns lie in Anshun county, at the Bouyei settlement of Longtan. A highlight is the water-filled cavern known as Dragon Cave. Other scenic caves in the vicinity include Daji Dong, Chuan Dong and Liniang Dong. Anshun is two hours by minibus or regular bus from Guiyang. From there, it's a US$70 flight or a series of bus and train trips to Beijing, some 1750km (1085mi) away, as the crow flies.
The bicycle is the unofficial symbol of China, and with more than 300 million trundling about you'll have no trouble hiring anything from a rattly old local Forever brand to a half-decent multi-speed mountain bike. Even in towns that don't see many tourists, there are hire shops catering to Chinese who are passing through. Cycling tours are popular and many Chinese and Western travel agents offer short and long-term biking jaunts. Camping along the way is also possible if you can find a few spare blades of grass.
If it wasn't for the ubiquitous and ridiculously expensive permits, mountaineers, white-water rafters, hang-gliders and other adventurous types would be over China like a rash. Instead you're far more likely to encounter mountains of red tape. At least hikers can carry on regardless without having to obtain a permit, as they don't need much equipment. But opportunities for hardcore hiking can be limited as trails are fitted out with handrails, steps, souvenir vendors and restaurants. One solution is to go underground. Caving, particularly in the south-west provinces, can be a lot of fun - but be prepared to get wet and muddy.
Camel rides are popular in Inner Mongolia and in the deserts around Dunhuang (Gansu Province), and horse riding in the hills of Xinjiang and west of Beijing can be a beautiful way to spend the day. Winter offers ice skating on Beijing's lakes and skiing (downhill and cross-country) in the North-east provinces, but Westerners with big clodhoppers may have to bring their own boots.
More sedate pursuits include t'ai chi, a popular form of slow-motion aerobics practised in nearly every town park in the early morning throughout the land. Novices are always welcome. For brain exercising, most universities offer courses to fee-paying foreign students; possible subjects include Chinese language study, Chinese medicine, acupuncture, brush painting and music.
Despite the country's 115 ports of entry and exit, most visitors to China travel via Hong Kong. The national carrier is the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC, known on international routes as Air China), which also operates a company called Dragonair as a joint venture with the Hong Kong airline Cathay Pacific (bookable through Cathay Pacific worldwide). If you are leaving China by air, there's a departure tax of Y105, payable only in local currency.
You can travel to China and back from Europe or Asia without having to leave the ground. Exotic routes include Vietnam-China, the Trans-Siberian railway, Tibet-Nepal, Xinjiang-Pakistan and Xinjiang-Kazakstan - but don't even think about bringing your own car, as foreigners are rarely allowed to drive in China. Other entry points include Zhuhai-Macau, Kashgar-Islamabad (Pakistan) via the Karakoram Highway, Urumqi-Almaty (Kazakstan), Kashgar-Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan), Beijing-Pyongyang (North Korea) and Pinxiang/Hekou-Dong Dang/Lao Cai (Vietnam). You can take a slow boat to China from Japan or South Korea. Popular places to sail to and from include Shanghai, Xiamen (opposite Taiwan), Tanggu (near Tianjin), Macau and - of course - Hong Kong.
Now that private carriers have been allowed to set up operations in China, CAAC has assumed the role of `umbrella organisation' over airlines including China Eastern, China Southern, China Northern, Great Wall, Yunnan Airlines and several others. Substantial discounts are available for students, teachers and senior citizens. There is an airport tax of Y30 to Y50 payable on all domestic flights. Long-distance buses are one of the best means of getting around on the ground, with extensive services, passable roads and interesting towns and villages en route. An even better mode is the train, which reaches into every province along a 52,000-km network. As land transport improves, the romantic days of domestic boat travel are fading. But there are still a number of popular boat trips to be had between Hong Kong and the mainland. The best known river trip is the three-day cruise along the Yangzi River from Chongqing to Wuhan.
In the cities, buses are common and cheap - which also means they're packed to the roof more often than not. Taxis don't cruise the streets except in the largest of cities, and while most cabs have meters they usually only get switched on by accident. Motorcycle taxis, motor-tricycles and/or pedicabs hunt in packs around most major train and bus stations. They're a motley bunch, but they're cheap and useful if you don't mind sudden traffic-induced adrenalin rushes. But really, once you've settled in somewhere, the best way to get around is by renting a bike and joining the pedalling throng.
- Jung Chang's mega-seller Wild Swans is a fascinating family saga spanning three generations against the backdrop of China's turbulent 20th-century history. Other I-survived-China titles include Nien Cheng's Life and Death in Shanghai, Son of the Revolution by Liang Heng & Judith Shapiro and Bitter Winds: A Memoir of My Years in China's Gulag by Harry Wu.
- Western views of contemporary Chinese politics are provided by Nicholas D Kristof & Sheryl Wudunn's China Wakes, Orville Schell's Mandate of Heaven and the highly recommended Evening Chats in Beijing by Perry Link.
- For a spot of biography to enlighten your trip there's The Private Life of Chairman Mao, written by the man's private physician, Zhisui Li. Books on other Chinese personalities include Deng Xiaoping and the Making of Modern China by Richard Evans (which includes a discussion of the Tiananmen Square tragedy), The White Boned Demon: A Biography of Madame Mao Zedong by Ross Terrill and Eldest Son: Zhou Enlai and the Making of Modern China, 1898-1976 by Han Suyin.
- When it comes to history - and be prepared for some brick-sized titles here - the most comprehensive coverage is the 15-volume (and counting) series the Cambridge History of China. Travellers may prefer to lug The Walled Kingdom: A History of China from 2000 BC to the Present by Witold Rodzinsky around - it's a mere 450 pages. A book full of lively prose, and a pleasure to read, is Jonathan Spence's The Search for Modern China; another highly rated modern history is John King Fairbank's The Great Chinese Revolution 1800-1985. More recent history is discussed in Sowing the Seeds of Democracy in China: Political Reform in the Deng Xiaoping Era by Merle Goldman.
- Colin Thubron's Behind the Wall and Paul Theroux's Riding the Iron Rooster remain the two best recent travel books written about China, while older travelogues include Isabella Bird's 1899 The Yangtse and Beyond and Peter Fleming's One's Company.
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