Lebanon is located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, surrounded by Syria to the north and west, and bordered by Israel to the south. It's one of the world's smallest countries, measuring roughly 180km (110mi) from north to south and 50km (30mi) from east to west. Despite its modest size, it has a number of completely different geographical regions. There's a very narrow, broken, coastal strip which contains all the major cities. Inland, the Mount Lebanon range rises steeply to a dramatic set of peaks and ridges - the highest, Qornet as-Sawda, is over 3000m (9840ft). Further inland, the range drops steeply to the 150km (92mi) long Bekaa Valley, which runs parallel to the coast at an elevation of 1000m (3280ft). The Bekaa is a major wine producing region and, until recently, a major producer of cannabis. The Anti-Lebanon range rises in a sheer arid massif to the east of the Bekaa Valley, forming a natural border with Syria.
The most famous flora in Lebanon - the cedar tree - is now found on only a few mountaintop sites, notably at Bcharré and near Barouk in the Chouf Mountains. These lonely groves are all that remain of Lebanon's great cedar forests which, in biblical times, covered much of the country. That said, Lebanon is still the most densely wooded of all the Middle Eastern countries: many varieties of pine flourish on the mountains and much of the coastal land is cultivated with fruit trees.
Lebanon's mountain areas are home to birds of prey, and the nature reserve near Ehden has golden and imperial eagles, buzzards, red kites, Bonelli's eagles, Sardinian warblers and Scop's owls. Marine birds, both resident and migratory, can be spotted in the Palm Islands Park off the coast of Tripoli. Green turtles and Mediterranean monk seals inhabit the waters surrounding the park. As for wild land mammals in Lebanon, there's nothing more exciting than the odd hedgehog.
Lebanon's ecology has been under a lot of pressure due to the civil war and increasing industrialisation. During the war, pollutants and rubbish were dumped in the sea and rivers, and unplanned buildings sprang up everywhere. Lack of government control meant that unlawful quarrying and logging went unchecked in many mountain areas. Various conservation organisations are attempting to rectify the damage and protect the natural environment with legislation and reserved areas.
With such a diverse topography, it isn't surprising that the weather varies considerably from region to region. Broadly speaking, Lebanon has three different climate zones - the coastal strip, the mountains and the Bekaa Valley. The coastal strip has cool, rainy winters and hot, sometimes stifling, Mediterranean summers. The mountains have a typical alpine climate. Many people head to the hills to escape the oppressive summers of Beirut and come back again in winter for the snow. The Bekaa Valley has hot, dry summers and cold, dry winters with snow, frost and fierce winds.
Lebanon was the biblical 'land of milk and honey', and conquerors have always been attracted to its abundant natural resources, the safe anchorages on the coastline and the defensive possibilities of the high mountains. This has turned the country's history into a who's who of interlopers, pillagers and big-noters.
The shores of Lebanon attracted settlers from about 10,000 BC onwards and by about 3000 BC, their villages had evolved into prototype cities. By around 2500 BC the coast had been colonised by people who later became known as the Phoenicians, one of the greatest early civilisations of the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians never unified politically: they dominated as a result of enterprise and intellectual endeavour emanating from a string of independent city states. They ruled the sea with their superior vessels and navigational skills, were exceptional craftspeople, and created the first real alphabet - a remarkable breakthrough which paved the way for the great works of literature of the early Greeks.
In the 9th century BC, the Assyrians clomped in, breaking the Phoenician's exclusive hold on Mediterranean trade. They yielded to the Neo-Babylonians, who were in turn overcome by the Persians (whom the Phoenicians regarded as liberators). The Phoenicians finally declined when Alexander the Great swept through the Middle East in the 4th century BC and Phoenicia was gradually Hellenised. In 64 BC, Pompey the Great conquered Phoenicia and it became part of the Roman province of Syria. Beirut became an important centre under Herod the Great and splendid temples were built at Baalbek.
As the Roman empire fell apart, Christianity gathered momentum and the Lebanon region became part of the eastern Byzantine Empire in the 4th century AD, with its capital at Constantinople (modern Istanbul). The imposition of orthodox Christianity didn't sit well with all, and when the Mohammedans brought the word of Allah from the south, they faced little resistance in Lebanon.
The Umayyuds, the first great Muslim dynasty, held sway in Lebanon for about a century, but faced opposition from indigenous Jews and Christians, especially the Syrian Maronite sect who took refuge around Mount Lebanon. After the Umayyuds fell to the Abbasids in 750, Lebanon became a backwater of the Persian-flavoured Abbasid Empire. This empire lasted until the 11th century before being tipped out by the Fatimid dynasty, who struggled on until the rise of the Crusaders. The Crusaders had their sights set on Jerusalem, but marched down the Syrian and Lebanese coast, linking up with the Maronites, before savaging the Holy City.
The Muslim Ayyubids got their claws into Syria, Egypt, western Arabia and parts of Yemen until they were overthrown by the strange soldier-slave kings known as Mamelukes, who ruled Lebanon from the end of the 13th century for the best part of 300 years. They expended much of their energy and resources during this period locking horns with rapacious Mongol armies. The Mamelukes faded with the rise of the Ottoman Empire and Lebanon's tribal leaders - the Tanukhid emirs of central Lebanon, the Maronites and the Druze - formed conflicting alliances with the various empires.
The Ottoman Sultan Selim I conquered Lebanon in 1516-17, was temporarily undermined by Fakhr ad-Din II (1586-1635), and then by Fakhr's nephew, Ahmad Ma'an. The latter established an emirate in 1667, forming the nucleus of modern Lebanon. When Ahmad Ma'an died, power passed to the Shihab family, who held onto power until 1840, when internal power struggles and religious differences brought the age of emirs to an end.
In 1842, the Ottomans divided Mount Lebanon into two administrative regions, one Druze and the other Maronite. That they immediately set to squabbling was anticipated and encouraged by the Ottomans, who practiced a 'divide and rule' policy. By 1845, there was open war, not only between Druze and Maronite, but also between peasants and their supposed feudal leaders. The Ottomans, under pressure from Europe, created a single Lebanese administrative unit under an Ottoman Christian governor and the feudal system was abolished. The system worked, producing stability and economic prosperity until WWI, when Lebanon came under Turkish military rule and suffered a serious famine. Following the Allied victory in 1918, Lebanon came under French rule.
During WWII Lebanon became fully independent and developed into a major trade and banking centre. Lebanon's fatal flaw was that power rested with the right-wing Christian population while the Muslims (almost half the population) felt they were excluded from real government. Add large numbers of displaced Palestinians and there were all the ingredients for conflict. Civil war broke out in 1975 between a predominantly Muslim leftist coalition and Christian right-wing militias. Over the next 20 years, insanely complicated civil and international wars, and some high profile hostage-taking, were pretty much standard fare.
An eye-glazing summary follows: the Syrians intervened at the request of the Lebanese president to force an uneasy peace between Muslims and Christians, the Israelis marched in and set up a surrogate militia to protect northern Israel from the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), and the UN sent in peacekeepers to quell the eruptions of internal Christian-Muslim fighting. Israel laid siege to Beirut in 1982, with the stated aim of eradicating the PLO. Israel also supported Christian militias who massacred Palestinian civilians. The PLO was partially evacuated by the US, and a Multinational Force (MNF) of US and Western European troops was deployed to protect Palestinian and Muslim civilians. When the Israelis withdrew after a year or so, fighting broke out between Druze Muslim militias and Christian forces, and between Lebanese army units and Muslim militiamen. The MNF suffered heavy casualties and withdrew in early 1984.
The Syrians slowly brought the Muslim areas of Lebanon under their control but in 1988, Lebanon's new military government sought to expel Syria. The attempt failed and fighting continued until a new president, Elias Hrawi, a moderate Maronite in good standing with Syria, took the reins. By 1992 all surviving foreign hostages had been released, and Syrian troops began withdrawing. In August 1992 parliamentary elections were held for the first time in 20 years, and Muslim fundamentalists of the Iranian-backed Hezbollah party won the largest number of seats. Rafiq Hariri became the new prime minister.
Skirmishes between Hezbollah and Israeli soldiers continued through 1993, culminating in Operation Grapes of Wrath - a week-long air, sea and land bombardment by Israel on some 80 villages in southern Lebanon. Trouble flared up again in April 1996 when Israel again launched airstrikes on southern Lebanon and Beirut. International response condemned Israel and the UN swiftly negotiated a cease-fire.
The long war has cost some 150,000 Lebanese lives and left the country in a ruinous state; the infrastructure damage bill is reputed to be in the tens of billions of US dollars. Today, internally, Lebanon is on a rapid ride to recovery; building is widespread, institutions are being reopened and the economy is slowly recovering. Lebanon's problem is that it remains at the mercy of larger forces being played out in the rest of the Middle East. Over the past decades, many of the conflicting players in Middle Eastern affairs have used Lebanon as the turf on which to fight their battles and push their cause - be it the PLO, the Syrians, the Iranians, the Israelis - or, indeed - the UN. Shells are still occasionally being fired in both directions across the Israel-Lebanon border, though the main political conflict of interests in Lebanon has currently reached a stand-off.
Lebanon has a lively arts scene, both traditional and contemporary. The national dance, the dabke, is an energetic folk dance. Classical belly dancing still plays an important role at weddings, representing the transition from virgin bride to sensual woman, and is also popular in nightclubs. Traditional Arabic music is created using unharmonised melodies and complex rhythms, often accompanied by sophisticated, many-layered singing. Instruments used include the 'ud, a pear-shaped string instrument; the tablah, a clay, wood or metal and skin percussion instrument; the nay, a single reed, open-ended pipe with a lovely mellow tone; and the qanun, a flat trapezoid instrument with at least 81 pluckable strings. 'Caracalla' is an amazing oriental ballet blending dance and music from the east and west.
Literature and poetry have always had an important place in Lebanese culture. One very popular form of poetry is the zajal, in which a group of poets enter into a witty sung dialogue by improvising verses. The most famous Lebanese literary figure is Khalil Gibran, a 19th-century poet, writer and artist whose work explored Christian mysticism. Contemporary writers include Amin Maalouf, Emily Nasrallah and Hanan Al-Shaykh.
About 60% of Lebanon's population is Muslim and 40% is Christian. The largest Muslim group is the Shiite (Shia) sect, followed by the Sunni and the Druze. The Druze are one of the religious curiosities of the Middle East. Originally an offshoot of Islam, they have diversified so much from the mainstream that they are often considered to constitute a whole separate religion. The Druze believe that God incarnated himself in men at various times and that his last, and final, incarnation was Al-Hakim bi Amrillah, the sixth Fatimid caliph who died in 1021 AD. They believe in reincarnation and that there are a fixed number of souls in existence. Druze gather for prayer meetings on Thursday evenings in inconspicuous halls; outsiders are not permitted to attend and the rites remain highly secretive. The largest Christian group is the Maronite sect, followed by the Greek Orthodox, the Greek Catholic, the Syrian Catholic, the Chaldean, the Protestant and the Orthodox churches.
Arabic and French are the official language of Lebanon although Arabic is by far the most widely spoken and English is becoming common in business circles. Arabs place great importance on civility and it's rare to see any interaction between people that doesn't begin with profuse greetings, enquiries into the other's health and myriad niceties. As an ajnabi (foreigner), you're not expected to know all the ins and outs, but if you make the effort to come up with the right expression at the appropriate moment, you'll be respected for it. In fact, any effort to communicate with the locals in their own language will be well rewarded. No matter how far off the mark your pronunciation or grammar might be, you'll often get the smiling response 'Ah, you speak Arabic very well!'
Lebanese cuisine is an inexpensive delight. Using fresh and flavoursome ingredients and refined spicing, the Lebanese have taken the best aspects of Turkish and Arabic cooking and given them a French spin. A typical meal consists of a few mezze dishes, such as spinach pies, dips, dried cheese, pizza and stuffed vine leaves. This is followed by a main dish of meat (usually mutton) or fish, often stuffed with rice and nuts, plus a salad such as tabouleh or fattoush. The national dish is kibbe, a finely minced paste of lamb and bulgur wheat, sometimes served raw, but more often fried or baked into a pie. Meals are rounded off with syrupy baklava pastries or other semolina and walnut based desserts.
Arabic coffee is very popular. Soft drinks include jellab, a delicious drink made from raisins and served with pine nuts, and ayran, a yoghurt drink. Alcohol is cheap and widely available; the most popular manifestation is arak, which is mixed with water and ice.
Money & Costs
Currency: Lebanese Pound (lira) (LL)
Relative costs:
- Budget meal: US$4-8
- Mid-range restaurant: US$10-15
- Top-end restaurant: US$30-40
- Budget room: US$10-20
- Mid-range hotel: US$20-40
- Top-end hotel: US$100 and upwards
Lebanon is quite expensive by Mediterranean and Middle East standards, and the main expense is accommodation. It is possible though, with careful spending, to live on US$25 to US$30 per day by nosing out cheap rooms and eating street stall food. A more comfortable travelling budget, taking into account the high cost of hotels, is around US$50 to US$80 a day. Room rates are cheaper outside Beirut, but the cost of meals is pretty standardised throughout Lebanon: if you can live on felafel and shwarma, food need only set you back a few dollars a day. Public transport, including long-distance buses, will rarely cost more than US$5.
Most banks will only change US dollars and UK pounds in cash or travellers' cheques, while moneychangers, found throughout Lebanon, will deal in almost any convertible currency. They also offer better rates than the banks. Check the rates in a newspaper and shop around for the best deal. International credit cards are accepted in larger businesses and, increasingly, in restaurants and shops.
Tipping is usually expected as a reward for services. Because of the devaluation of the Lebanese currency, salaries and wages are much lower than they used to be, so tips are an essential means of supplementing incomes. Most restaurants and nightspots include a 16% service charge in the bill, but it is customary to leave an extra tip of 5% to 10% of the total. With the exception of a few set prices, everything can be bargained down in Lebanon, from taxi fares to hotel charges. Most hotels will give you a discount if you stay for more than 3 days.
Once known as the Paris of the Middle East, Beirut really took a beating during the 17 year war in Lebanon. The city hasn't really recovered from the bombardments and the influx of refugees, and the destruction, rebuilding, overcrowding and chaos are often a shock to new arrivals. Situated smack in the middle of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast, Beirut is a city of contrasts: beautiful architecture exists alongside concrete eyesores; traditional houses set in jasmine-scented gardens are dwarfed by modern buildings; winding old alleys turn off from wide avenues; and swanky new cars vie for right of way with vendor carts. Although there's not much to see here anymore, it's still a city of vibrancy and charm.
The Hamra area, in the north-west of the city, is now home to the city's banks, hotels, restaurants, cafes and post office. It's also a great place to window shop and soak up the atmosphere. North of Hamra, the American University of Beirut has a small museum of archaeology (it's not as impressive as the National Museum, but the National is still being reconstructed). The museum's collection of Phoenician figurines is particularly interesting. The Sursock Museum in east Beirut is housed in a splendid Italianate style 19th century villa. The interior is also très stylish, and exhibits include Turkish silverware, icons, contemporary Lebanese art and a small but interesting library.
A visit to Downtown will give you a good idea of what the city went through during the war. Parts of the area are being restored, others have been bulldozed and others are an apocalyptic landscape of burnt-out shells. The centre of Downtown, the Place des Martyrs, has been almost completely bulldozed (only the emotive Martyrs Statue still stands), and a huge billboard has been erected to show what the city has in mind for the area. The Grand Mosque is one of the few historic buildings still standing: built in the Byzantine era as a Crusader church, it was converted to a mosque in 1291.
Pigeon Rocks are the most famous natural feature of Beirut. These offshore rock arches are a lovely complement to Beirut's dramatic sea cliffs, and locals tend to congregate here to watch the sunset and get away from the traffic noise. It's a delight to wander along the Corniche, Beirut's coastal road, and just take in the sea air, stop to drink a coffee served from the back of a van or sample some produce from a push-cart vendor.
Syria is the only country which currently has an open land border with Lebanon - the border with Israel is likely to stay closed for some time. Neither Syria nor Lebanon will issue visas for the other, so make sure you get your visas before you leave home. Buses run between Beirut and Damascus several times a day, and there are also buses and service taxis from Beirut to Aleppo and Homs, or from Tripoli to Lattakia and Homs. If you're planning to drive into Lebanon, be prepared to pay a hefty fee at the border - it's refundable when you leave, but it can be very steep.
Buses travel between Beirut and other major towns, but service is infrequent and un-timetabled. There are plans to restore the country's inter-city bus service, but those plans are still on the drawing board. It's far less likely that the country's rail service will ever be restored.
Car rentals are fairly expensive in Lebanon and the country is notorious for the bad condition of its roads and the hair-raising style of its drivers. Road rules are effectively non-existent, traffic jams are ubiquitous and there are no speed limits. On the up-side, in theory everybody has agreed to drive on the right, and fuel is cheap and easy to get.
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