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393
Psychologists

(D.O.T.  045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, -034, and -046)

Nature of the Work

Psychologists study human behavior and mental processes to
understand, explain, and change people's behavior.  They may study
the way a person thinks, feels, or behaves.  Research psychologists
investigate the physical, cognitive, emotional, or social aspects of
human behavior.  Pychologists in applied fields counsel and conduct
training programs; do market research; apply psychological
treatments to a variety of medical and surgical conditions; or
provide mental health services in hospitals, clinics, or private
settings.

   Like other social scientists, psychologists formulate hypotheses and
collect data to test their validity.  Research methods depend on the
topic under study.  Psychologists may gather information through
controlled laboratory experiments; personality, performance,
aptitude, and intelligence tests; observation, interviews, and
questionnaires; clinical studies; or surveys.  Computers are widely
used to record and analyze this information.

   Since psychology deals with human behavior, psychologists apply
their knowledge and techniques to a wide range of endeavors
including human services, management, education, law, and sports.
In addition to the variety of work settings, psychologists
specialize in many different areas.  Clinical psychologists who
constitute the largest specialty generally work in independent or
group practice or in hospitals or clinics.  They may help the
mentally or emotionally disturbed adjust to life and are
increasingly helping all kinds of medical and surgical patients deal
with their illnesses or injuries.  They may work in physical
medicine and rehabilitation settings, treating patients with spinal
cord injuries, chronic pain or illness, stroke, and arthritis and
neurologic conditions, such as multiple sclerosis.  Others help
people deal with life stresses such as divorce or aging.  Clinical
psychologists interview patients; give diagnostic tests; provide
individual, family, and group psychotherapy; and design and
implement behavior modification programs.  They may collaborate with
physicians and other specialists in developing treatment programs
and help patients understand and comply with the prescribed
treatment.  Some clinical psychologists work in universities, where
they train graduate students in the delivery of mental health and
behavioral medicine services.  Others administer community mental
health programs.  Counseling psychologists use several techniques,
including interviewing and testing, to advise people on how to deal
with problems of everyday living personal, social, educational, or
vocational.  (Also see the statements on counselors and social
workers elsewhere in the Handbook.)

   Developmental psychologists study the patterns and causes of
behavioral change as people progress through life from infancy to
adulthood.  Some concern themselves with behavior during infancy,
childhood, and adolescence, while others study changes that take
place during maturity and old age.  The study of developmental
disabilities and how they affect a person and others is a new area
within developmental psychology.  Educational psychologists evaluate
student and teacher needs, and design and develop programs to
enhance the educational setting.

   Experimental psychologists study behavior processes and work with
human beings and animals such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons.
Prominent areas of experimental research include motivation,
thinking, attention, learning and retention, sensory and perceptual
processes, effects of substance use and abuse, and genetic and
neurological factors in behavior.

   Industrial and organizational psychologists apply psychological
techniques to personnel administration, management, and marketing
problems.  They are involved in policy planning, applicant
screening, training and development, psychological test research,
counseling, and organizational development and analysis.  For
example, an industrial psychologist may work with management to
develop better training programs and to reorganize the work setting
to improve worker productivity or quality of worklife.

   School psychologists work with students, teachers, parents, and
administrators to resolve students' learning and behavior problems.
Social psychologists examine people's interactions with others and
with the social environment.  Prominent areas of study include group
behavior, leadership, attitudes, and interpersonal perception.

   Some relatively new specialties include cognitive psychology, health
psychology, neuropsychology, and geropsychology.  Cognitive
psychologists deal with the brain's role in memory, thinking, and
perceptions; some are involved with research related to computer
programming and artificial intelligence.  Health psychologists
promote good health through health maintenance counseling programs
that are designed, for example, to help people stop smoking or lose
weight.  Neuropsychologists study the relation between the brain and
behavior.  They often work in stroke and head injury programs.
Geropsychologists deal with the special problems faced by the
elderly.  The emergence and growth of these specialties reflects the
increasing participation of psychologists in providing direct
services to special patient populations.

   Other areas of specialization include psychometrics, psychology and
the arts, history of psychology, psychopharmacology, and community,
comparative, consumer, engineering, environmental, family, forensic,
population, military, and rehabilitation psychology.

   Psychologists counsel their clients on how to best deal with a
variety of life's problems.

Working Conditions

A psychologist's specialty and place of employment determine working
conditions.  For example, clinical, school, and counseling
psychologists in private practice have pleasant, comfortable offices
and set their own hours.  However, they often have evening hours to
accommodate their clients.  Some employed in hospitals, nursing
homes, and other health facilities often work evenings and weekends,
while others in schools and clinics work regular hours.
Psychologists employed by academic institutions divide their time
among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities.  Some
maintain part-time consulting practices as well.  In contrast to the
many psychologists who have flexible work schedules, most in
government and private industry have more structured schedules.
Reading and writing research reports, they often work alone.  Many
experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and overtime
work.  Their routine may be interrupted frequently.  Travel may be
required to attend conferences or conduct research.

Employment

Psychologists held about 144,000 jobs in 1992.  Educational
institutions employed nearly 4 out of 10 salaried psychologists in
positions involving counseling, testing, special education,
research, and administration; hospitals, mental health clinics,
rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, and other health facilities
employed 3 out of 10; and government agencies at the Federal, State,
and local levels employed one-sixth.  The Department of Veterans
Affairs, the Department of Defense, and the Public Health Service
employ the overwhelming majority of psychologists working for
Federal agencies.  Governments employ psychologists in hospitals,
clinics, correctional facilities, and other settings.  Psychologists
also work in social service organizations, research organizations,
management consulting firms, marketing research firms, and other
businesses.

   After several years of experience, some psychologists usually those
with doctoral degrees enter private practice or set up their own
research or consulting firms.  A growing proportion of psychologists
are self-employed.

   Besides the jobs described above, many persons held positions as
psychology faculty at colleges and universities, and as high school
psychology teachers.  (See the statements on college and university
faculty and kindergarten, elementary, and secondary school teachers
elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

A doctoral degree generally is required for employment as a
psychologist.  Psychologists with a Ph.D qualify for a wide range of
teaching, research, clinical, and counseling positions in
universities, elementary and secondary schools, private industry,
and government.  Psychologists with a Psy.D.  Doctor of Psychology
qualify mainly for clinical positions.

   Persons with a master's degree in psychology can administer tests as
psychological assistants.  Under the supervision of doctoral level
psychologists, they can conduct research in laboratories, conduct
psychological evaluations, counsel patients, or perform
administrative duties.  They may teach in high schools or 2-year
colleges or work as school psychologists or counselors.

   A bachelor's degree in psychology qualifies a person to assist
psychologists and other professionals in community mental health
centers, vocational rehabilitation offices, and correctional
programs; to work as research or administrative assistants; and to
take jobs as trainees in government or business.  However, without
additional academic training, their advancement opportunities in
psychology are severely limited.

   In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semester
hours in psychology and one course in statistics qualify for entry
level positions.  Competition for these jobs is keen, however.
Clinical psychologists generally must have completed the Ph.D.  or
Psy.D.  requirements and have served an internship; vocational and
guidance counselors usually need 2 years of graduate study in
counseling and 1 year of counseling experience.

   In most cases, 2 years of full-time graduate study are needed to
earn a master's degree in psychology.  Requirements usually include
practical experience in an applied setting or a master's thesis
based on a research project.  A master's degree in school psychology
requires about 2 years of course work and a 1-year internship.

   Five to 7 years of graduate work usually are required for a doctoral
degree.  The Ph.D.  degree culminates in a dissertation based on
original research.  Courses in quantitative research methods, which
include the use of computers, are an integral part of graduate study
and usually necessary to complete the dissertation.  The Psy.D.
usually is based on practical work and examinations rather than a
dissertation.  In clinical or counseling psychology, the
requirements for the doctoral degree generally include a year or
more of internship or supervised experience.

   Competition for admission into most graduate programs is keen.  Some
universities require an undergraduate major in psychology.  Others
prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological,
physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics.

   Most colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree program in
psychology; several hundred offer a master's and/or a Ph.D.
program.  A relatively small number of professional schools of
psychology some affiliated with colleges or universities offer the
Psy.D.  The American Psychological Association (APA) presently
accredits doctoral training programs in clinical, counseling, and
school psychology.  The National Council for Accreditation of
Teacher Education, with the assistance of the National Association
of School Psychologists, also is involved in the accreditation of
advanced degree programs in school psychology.  APA also accredits
institutions that provide internships for doctoral students in
school, clinical, and counseling psychology.

   Although financial aid is difficult to obtain, some universities
award fellowships or scholarships or arrange for part-time
employment.  The Veterans Administration (VA) offers predoctoral
traineeships to interns in VA hospitals, clinics, and related
training agencies.  The National Science Foundation, the Department
of Health and Human Services, and many other organizations also
provide grants to psychology departments to help fund student
stipends.

   Psychologists in independent practice or those who offer any type of
patient care, including clinical, counseling, and school
psychologists, must meet certification or licensing requirements.
All States and the District of Columbia have such requirements.
Licensing laws vary by State, but generally require a doctorate in
psychology, completion of an approved internship, and 1 to 2 years
of professional experience.  In addition, most States require that
applicants pass an examination.  Most State boards administer a
standardized test and, in many instances, additional oral or essay
examinations.  Very few States certify those with a master's degree
as psychological assistants or associates.  Some States require
continuing education for license renewal.

   Most States require that licensed or certified psychologists limit
their practice to those areas in which they have developed
professional competence through training and experience.

   The American Board of Professional Psychology recognizes
professional achievement by awarding diplomas primarily in clinical
psychology, clinical neuropsychology, and counseling, forensic,
industrial and organizational, and school psychology.  Candidates
need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years of experience, and
professional endorsements; they also must pass an examination.

   Even more so than in other occupations, aspiring psychologists who
are interested in direct patient care must be emotionally stable,
mature, and able to deal effectively with people.  Sensitivity,
compassion, and the ability to lead and inspire others are
particularly important for clinical work and counseling.  Research
psychologists should be able to do detailed work independently and
as part of a team.  Verbal and writing skills are necessary to
communicate treatment and research findings.  Patience and
perseverance are vital qualities because results from psychological
treatment of patients or research often are long in coming.

Job Outlook

Employment of psychologists is expected to grow much faster than the
average for all occupations through the year 2005.  Largely because
of the substantial investment in training required to enter this
specialized field, psychologists have a strong attachment to their
occupation only a relatively small proportion leave the profession
each year.  Nevertheless, replacement needs are expected to account
for most job openings, similar to most occupations.

   Programs to combat the increase in alcohol abuse, drug dependency,
marital strife, family violence, crime, and other problems plaguing
society should stimulate employment growth.  Other factors spurring
demand for psychologists include increased emphasis on mental health
maintenance in conjunction with the treatment of physical illness;
public concern for the development of human resources, including the
growing elderly population; increased testing and counseling of
children; and more interest in rehabilitation of prisoners.  Changes
in the level of government funding for these kinds of services could
affect the demand for psychologists.

   Job opportunities in health care should remain strong particularly
in health care provider networks, such as health maintenance and
preferred provider organizations, that specialize in mental health,
and in nursing homes and alcohol and drug abuse rehabilitation
programs.  Job opportunities will arise in businesses, nonprofit
organizations, and research and computer firms.  Companies will use
psychologists' expertise in survey design, analysis, and research to
provide personnel testing, program evaluation, and statistical
analysis.  The increase in employee assistance programs in which
psychologists help people stop smoking, control weight, or alter
other behaviors also should spur job growth.  The expected wave of
retirements among college faculty, beginning in the late 1990's,
should result in job openings for psychologists in colleges and
universities.

   Other openings are likely to occur as psychologists study the
effectiveness of changes in health, education, military, law
enforcement, and consumer protection programs.  Psychologists also
are increasingly studying the effects on people of technological
advances in areas such as agriculture, energy, the conservation and
use of natural resources, and industrial and office automation.

   Opportunities are best for candidates with a doctoral degree.
Persons holding doctorates from leading universities in applied
areas such as school, clinical, counseling, health, industrial, and
educational psychology should have particularly good prospects.
Psychologists with extensive training in quantitative research
methods and computer science may have a competitive edge over
applicants without this background.

   Graduates with a master's degree in psychology may encounter
competition for the limited number of jobs for which they qualify.
Graduates of master's degree programs in school psychology should
have the best job prospects, as schools are expected to increase
student counseling and mental health services.  Some master's degree
holders may find jobs as psychological assistants in community
mental health centers these positions often require direct
supervision by a licensed psychologist.  Others may find jobs
involving research and data collection and analysis in universities,
government, or private companies.

   Bachelor's degree holders can expect very few opportunities directly
related to psychology.  Some may find jobs as assistants in
rehabilitation centers or in other jobs involving data collection
and analysis.  Those who meet State certification requirements may
become high school psychology teachers.

Earnings

According to a 1991 survey by the American Psychological
Association, the median annual salary of psychologists with a
doctoral degree was $48,000 in counseling psychology; $50,000 in
research positions; $53,000 in clinical psychology; $55,000 in
school psychology; and $76,000 in industrial/organizational
psychology.  In university psychology departments, median annual
salaries ranged from $32,000 for assistant professors to $55,000 for
full professors.  The median annual salary of master's degree
holders was $35,000 for faculty; $37,000 in counseling psychology;
$40,000 in clinical psychology; $48,000 in research positions;
$50,000 in industrial/organizational psychology; and $52,000 in
school psychology.  Some psychologists have much higher earnings,
particularly those in private practice.

   The Federal Government recognizes education and experience in
certifying applicants for entry level positions.  In general, the
average starting salary for psychologists having a bachelor's degree
was about $18,300 a year in 1993; those with superior academic
records could begin at $22,700.  Counseling and school psychologists
with a master's degree and 1 year of counseling experience could
start at $27,800.  Clinical psychologists having a Ph.D.  or Psy.D.
degree and 1 year of internship could start at $33,600; some
individuals could start at $40,300.  The average salary for
psychologists in the Federal Government in nonsupervisory,
supervisory, and managerial positions was about $54,400 a year in
1993.

Related Occupations

Psychologists are trained to conduct research and teach, evaluate,
counsel, and advise individuals and groups with special needs.
Others who do this kind of work include psychiatrists, social
workers, sociologists, clergy, special education teachers, and
counselors.

Sources of Additional Information

   For information on careers, educational requirements, financial
assistance, and licensing in all fields of psychology, contact:

   American Psychological Association, Education in Psychology and
Accreditation Offices, Education Directorate, 750 1st St.  NE.,
Washington, DC 20002.

   For information on careers, educational requirements, and licensing
of school psychologists, contact:

   National Association of School Psychologists, 8455 Colesville Rd.,
Suite 1000, Silver Spring, MD 20910.

   Information about State licensing requirements is available from:

   Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards, P.O.  Box
4389, Montgomery, AL 36103.

   Information on traineeships and fellowships also is available from
colleges and universities that have graduate departments of
psychology.