This section contains a summary of, and in many cases, a photograph or a video of a huge range of Australian inventors, inventions, and discoveries.
To view a list of all Australian inventions and discoveries for which there is a summary, select the \BSearch\b button from the Toolbar (second from the left), and select the \BCustom\b button from the dialog box that appears. From the submenu that then appears, select \IAustralian Inventions.\i A list of each Australian Invention and Discovery covered will then be displayed, and you can move directly to any of them. If you would like this to be done for you, \P\Kinvent\kclick here\p.
Alternatively, use the \JNext Page\j button from the Toolbar, or the \IGo To Page\i button also from the Toolbar.
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"Air Navigational Radio Beacons",2,"f\1\a4_0038.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Milestones in the Sky\b
\IA device which gives the pilot the precise distance of the plane from a ground radio beacon.\i
The air navigational system pioneered in Australia is a network of automatic ground radio beacons sited at regular intervals along routes aircraft fly. Each beacon has a range of 322 km. Each aircraft is fitted with a transmitter which sends out a constant stream of several types of pulses. The ground beacon will respond to only one of these pulses, and upon receiving the right one automatically sends a reply signal which gives its precise distance from the aircraft. The aircraft can identify the beacon by the type of pulse it responds to. The beacon sends out its signal every twenty seconds. When the aircraft leaves the zone of the beacon it will begin receiving signals from the next beacon.
Work on a distance-measuring system for civil aircraft began in 1944 under the leadership of E.G. Bowen of the CSIR (later called the \JCSIRO\j) Division of Radiophysics. Following successful trials held on the Sydney-Melbourne route, Amalgamated Wireless Australia (AWA) was commissioned by the Department of Civil Aviation to design and produce electronic distance measuring equipment. Sixty-six ground beacons were installed and all domestic aircraft were fitted with a transmitter. It was the first such system in the world. In the 1960s AWA introduced fully solid state VOR (Very High Frequency Omni Range) beacons which are still used in Australia and overseas.
\BDescription:\b All domestic aircraft are fitted with a transmitter \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Aircraft Inflatable Escape Slide",3,"0","g","0"
Aircraft Inflatable Escape Slide and Raft - See \JSlide Raft\j
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"Airtourer",4,f\1\2_0034.jpg,g,0
\IA light two-seater aircraft.\i
The two-seater Airtourer was designed as a private project by a team of three Australian Government Factories employees led by Henry Millicer. The design won a British Aero Club design competition in 1952 and a prototype, built in wood, flew in 1959. The project and the prototype were sold to the \JVicta\j Company (manufacturers of the two-stroke petrol rotary lawnmower) and the aircraft, after being redesigned in metal, went into production.
High production costs, small internal markets and the lack of government subsidy caused suspension of production in 1966 after 168 Airtourers had been built. The project was then sold to a New Zealand company which, with government aid, further developed the design into the Aircruiser and the CT4 Airtrainer. Both aircraft found markets around the world, including Australia.
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"Airtrak",5,"0","g","0"
\IA chemical method of locating sources of polluting and smog-inducing gases.\i
Airtrak is a sophisticated chemical method of locating sources of emission of polluting and smog-inducing gases. It was developed by \JCSIRO\j scientists and is manufactured by the Adelaide-based company Minerals Control Instrumentation.
Airtrak is gradually gaining international acceptance, a necessarily slow process as its adoption presupposes a complicated infrastructure in the places it is to be used.
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"Alarmon",6,"f\2\a4_0039.jpg","c","0"
\IA computerised fire and crash control system for airports.\i
Alarmon is a touch-screen computerised fire and crash control system for airports. In an emergency situation a single operator can monitor up to 10,000 alarms, can issue instructions, and can allocate people and machinery. The system features Australian breakthroughs in computer hardware and software. It taps into existing electrical and communication systems and logs on a printer all events as they occur. It presents the operator with a logical sequence of options to deal with the situation.
The Alarmon system was developed by Melbourne-based Intellitouch, a joint partnership between Redflex Systems and the Civil Aviation Authority. The first installation of the system was at Brisbane airport, and all major airports in Australia will eventually be using it. The system has been exported to Singapore and to the
United Kingdom.
\BDescription:\b All major airports in Australia will eventually be using Alarmon \I(Carrie Webster)\i
\BDescription:\b Part of the moon's surface taken by the Anglo-Australian Telescope \I(⌐ Anglo-Australian Observatory, photographed by David Malin - reproduced with permission)\i
\IAn optical telescope sited at Siding Spring Mountain; it is responsible for major contributions to human knowledge of outer space.\i
The 3.9m Anglo-Australian Telescope is a large optical telescope which has been responsible for several important discoveries. In 1977 it captured the first-ever image of the Vela pulsar, the second-only photograph taken of a pulsar. In 1978 it discovered star SS433, which was identified with an X-ray and radio source at the centre of the supernova remnant W50. In 1981 the first protostar (a developing star composed of condensing interstellar gas and dust) outside our galaxy was discovered using the Anglo-Australian Telescope.
The telescope is a joint project of the Australian and British governments. It began operations in 1974.
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"Anthrax Vaccine",8,"f\2\72067.jpg","c","0"
\IA vaccine for anthrax in sheep and cattle.\i
A vaccine for anthrax in sheep and cattle that gave protection by a single inoculation was discovered by Sydney bacteriologist John McGarvie Smith (1844-1918). Shortly before his death in 1918 he gave the formula to the New South Wales government and also donated 10,000 pounds to establish the McGarvie Smith Institute to manufacture and distribute the vaccine.
\BDescription:\b Anthrax vaccine is for sheep and cattle \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
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"Antivenenes",9,"f\2\brownsna.jpg","c","0"
\IWork at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute and the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories has resulted in the production of a number of antivenenes to counteract the venom of Australian snakes and spiders.\i
Early work on antivenenes was done at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute in Melbourne and concentrated on research into the toxins of Australian snakes, spiders and the platypus. Much of this was done by Dr Neil Hamilton Fairly. In 1930 Dr Kellaway of the Institute, in collaboration with Dr Morgan of the Commonwealth Serum Laboratory (CSL) produced an effective antivenene against the tiger snake. The CSL then took over much of the work in this field and in the 1950s released antivenenes for the bites of the deadly taipan, the brown snake (developed by Dr John Grayden and M. Hinton), the Papuan black snake and the death adder.
An antivenene for the redback spider's bite was developed by Dr Saul Weiner and released in 1956 - some 200 to 250 patients a year are currently treated with it. Weiner also developed an antivenene against the stonefish which is used in many areas of the Pacific as well as Australia. A seasnake antivenene was developed in 1962; later work on this by Dr Harold Baxter showed it to be a polyvalent antivenene that could neutralise the venom of every known seasnake.
A major breakthrough was the release in 1968 of a polyvalent snake antivenene which counteracted the poison from all dangerous Australian snakes - enabling use of the drug even in cases where the victim was unsure of the identity of the snake. As well, in 1981 a range of specific antivenenes to be used in conjunction with a snakebite kit became available. The kit contains glass tubes lined with antibodies which react to snake venom by changing colour. It is used to identify the snake - if the tube turns yellow the venom has come from a red-bellied black snake, copperhead or tiger snake, if green from a death adder, if red from a common brown snake - and the appropriate antivenene can be used.
A sea wasp antivenene was issued in 1969, developed by Baxter, Alec Marr and Heather Gallichio. In 1981 an antivenene against the funnel web spider became available.
\BDescription:\b The brown snake \I(Gum Tree Graphics)\i
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"Aspro",10,"f\2\a4_0084.jpg","c","0"
\IA high-grade aspirin product developed in Australia and now sold worldwide.\i
Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid, was first produced and marketed by the German firm Bayer. When Bayer's activities were disrupted by World War I a Melbourne-based pharmacist, George Nicholas, created the product named 'Aspro' and successfully took over the international market.
In 1915 in a makeshift laboratory Nicholas began experimenting with ways to react salicylic acid and acetic anhydride to produce acetylsalicylic acid. Initial results were impure and soggy. Eventually, with the help of a consultant, Henry Woolf Shmith, a batch of aspirin - reckoned to be purer than the German version - was produced and Nicholas applied under wartime legislation to take over the trade name 'Aspirin' for its manufacture and sale in Australia; this was granted in September 1915. The trade name 'Aspro' was registered in 1917.
Aspro went on sale in the United Kingdom in 1925 (with local manufacture from 1927), in South Africa in 1928, Belgium 1929, Egypt and France 1935 (with local manufacture from 1937) and also spread to countries in South-East Asia and Africa.
\BDescription:\b Aspro \I(Carrie Webster)\i.
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"Asthma, Link With Grass Seeds",11,"0","g","0"
\IAustralian scientists have discovered a new allergen in some grasses which can cause asthma.\i
An asthma-causing allergen has been discovered in the pollen grain of certain grass species. In the form of hundreds of tiny granules, it is packed inside the pollen grain and is released when the pollen grain bursts open after rain. The allergen is small enough to enter the lungs and so cause asthma. It is found only in those grasses which also provoke hay fever, such as rye grass, meadow grass and Kentucky blue.
The substance was discovered in 1991 by a team led by Professor Bruce Knox of the University of Melbourne. An American company, ImmunLogic, is developing a pill, based on part of the substance, which will protect people against asthma and hay fever caused by grass pollens. Professor Knox hopes to collaborate with other Australian scientists to produce a strain of relatively harmless rye grass in which the allergen-producing gene has been rendered ineffective.
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"Atmotic Airship",12,"0","g","0"
\IA large, gas-filled, sausage-shaped balloon; similar in design to the zeppelins of the early 1900s.\i
Designs for the atmotic ship were submitted to the 1851 Great Exhibition at the Crystal Place in London. They depicted a huge gas-filled balloon, some sixty metres long, twenty metres broad and thirty metres high. The balloon supported an iron car, thirty metres long, which carried a stove, a boiler, a water tank, and a steam engine for driving a set of propellers. The total lift was calculated at about five tonnes. The car and contents weighed some four tonnes, leaving one tonne for the payload of passengers, mail and cargo. If the airship flew at the projected speed of 50 knots the journey between London and Sydney could be drastically reduced. It was envisaged that the ship also be used for the aerial exploration of regions such as the Antarctic and inland Australia, in the study of air currents and in the areas of meteorology and astronomy.
The atmotic airship was never built. Farsighted though the concept was in its visualisation of the potential of aerial transport, the airship itself would have been beset by technical difficulties in operation, not the least being the proximity of the wood-fuelled boiler to the hydrogen-filled balloon. It was designed by William Bland (1789-1868), a naval surgeon who was transported to New South Wales following a duel. Pardoned soon after arrival, he set up a medical practice and became involved in the politics of the colony, especially in the movement to gain representative government.
Bland's word 'atmotic', which he used to describe the airship, is derived from the Greek \Iatmos\i vapour.
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"Atom Ignition System",13,"0","g","0"
Atom Ignition System - See \JElectronic Ignition System\j
\IA precision instrument for high speed analysis of trace quantities of metallic elements in solids or liquids.\i
The atomic absorption spectrophotometer is an instrument which can be used to identify metal ions in soil, water, food, wine, oils, metals, biological materials and a host of other industrial applications throughout the world. It uses a method of analysis based on the absorption of light by elements. If, for example, the task is to measure the amount of mercury contamination in river water, the sample is vaporised and a beam of light from a mercury spectral lamp is passed through the vapour. A photocell measures the amount of light which is absorbed by the vapourised mercury atoms, thus giving a precise determination of the amount of mercury in the sample.
The machine has a wide range of practical applications. In Canada it was used to measure lead levels in the blood of children living near a lead smelter and established that they were dangerously high. In Japan the mercury it detected in the blood of Minamata cats was linked to their diet of fish from the polluted waters of the nearby bay. In Sydney it identified a magnesium deficiency in the blood of a young burns victim in time for the appropriate action to be taken to save his life. Agricultural application of the machine has helped scientists investigate the role of selected metallic elements in plant and animal nutrition by providing a fast and simple method of analysing soils, plant and animal tissues. In the food and drink industry corrosion in canned foods can be detected, as can copper in butter oil, and copper, lead and iron in wine.
The atomic absorption spectrophotometer was developed in 1952 by Alan Walsh (later Sir Alan) of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Chemical Physics. The first public demonstration was given at an exhibition of scientific instruments at Melbourne University in 1954. It superseded the technique of emission spectroscopy which was much more limited in its application. The licence to manufacture was originally given to a British company after an unsuccessful search for an Australian firm to develop the machine; however, the British attempts at commercialisation failed and the licence was retrieved. The instrument is now manufactured by more then twenty companies and in Australia Varian Techtron and GBC Instruments both export more than 90 per cent of their production to some 160 countries.
\BDescription:\b The absorbing atom \I(\JCSIRO\j Australia)\i.
\IA powerful radiotelescope consisting of eight dishes spread over several hundred kilometres which in particular will investigate supernovas.\i
The Australia Telescope is a synthesis telescope. It came into operation in the late 1980s and consists of eight antennas at three sites in north-western New South Wales which work together as one instrument. A compact array made up of a set of six new antennas (dishes) is on the one site at Culgoora, near Narrabri. A further new antenna, identical to those at Culgoora, is sited 120 kilometres to the south, not far from the Anglo-Australian Telescope at Siding Spring Mountain. The remaining antenna is the 64 m Parkes telescope, a further 210 kilometres south-west of Siding Spring.
Five of the six 22 m diameter Culgoora antennas are on a railway track three kilometres long and can be moved to any one of 35 positions on the track, to give different spacings between the dishes. The sixth is in line with the track three kilometres from its end. Signals from the individual antennas are converted to light and travel to the control building along fibre-optic cables, instead of along coaxial cables or waveguides, as is the case with previous arrays of radio telescopes. The antennas at Siding Spring and at Parkes form the long baseline array of the telescope.
The telescope has the potential for operation in three different types of configuration: the compact array at Culgoora; the long baseline array in which one or more of the Culgoora antennas are linked with the Siding Spring and Parkes antennas; and the possibility of linking with other antennas in Australia and overseas. Each of these configurations simulates dishes with diameters equivalent to the largest spacing between the antennas. The Culgoora compact array antennas can see detail some 100 times finer than the Parkes alone telescope is able to do, and the long baseline array can see some 50 times finer again.
The Australia Telescope was conceived, designed and manufactured in Australia. The \JCSIRO\j Division of Radiophysics scientists involved include Dr Bob Frater, chief of the Division between 1981 and 1987, project manager John Brooks, Dennis Cooper, Dr Rick Forster and Dr Graeme Jones. Its design innovations include cost-effective designs for rigid antennas; a simple inexpensive method of constructing antenna panels and sensitive cryogenic receiver systems.
In our galaxy the telescope will investigate supernovas as well as look at star birth by observing emission from molecules in the clouds where stars are born. It will be able to chart the heart of our galaxy, the Milky Way, where dense clouds of dust obscure the view for optical telescopes, and will be able to scan galaxies which are not observable from the northern hemisphere.
\BDescription:\b Australia Telescope at Parkes, NSW \I(Random House - photo by Ken Stepnell)\i
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"Australian X, Research Into",16,"f\2\mozzie.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Australian Arbo-encephalitis, research into\b
\IInvestigations into this viral disease were conducted by \JMacfarlane Burnet\j and others.\i
Australian arbo-encephalitis is a disease causing fever and affecting the central nervous system. It is caused by a group of viruses present in waterfowl of the Murray Valley region and is spread from one human victim to another by mosquitoes. It tends to occur in epidemics every few years and often follows flooding.
The disease was first investigated by Anton Breinl of the Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine and J.B. Cleland of the New South Wales Bureau of Microbiology following an epidemic in 1917-18. They were the first to transmit the mosquito-borne virus to experimental animals. Further knowledge of the characteristics of the virus came from the research of \JMacfarlane Burnet\j and others at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute in the early 1950s after another epidemic. There is no vaccine against the disease.
\BDescription:\b Australian X is spread by mosquitoes \I(Gum Tree Graphics)\i
\IA cattle dog bred in Australia to work with cattle under local conditions.\i
The Australian Cattle Dog is a purebred dog with either a black and red face and ears and a dark blue body speckled with lighter blues, or a red body speckled with lighter red and dark red head markings. The dog was developed from a pair of merles (blue-mottled smooth Scotch collies) imported from Scotland by a squatter named Hall from Muswellbrook, New South Wales. It is said they were crossed with the dingo and the result, a quiet, hardy, dog which worked the cattle from behind, was in great demand in the area, where they were known as 'Hall's heelers'.
However they lacked the instinct to protect property, and were not good with horses. This was corrected by crossing them with the Dalmatian. The cross also produced blue speckles instead of mottles in the coats of the dogs. They were then crossed with the black-and-tan Kelpie for intelligence and the instinct for heading-in.
The Australian Cattle Dog was established as a pure breed in 1890. It is the only pure breed of cattle dog in the world.
\BDescription:\b An Australian Cattle Dog \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
\IThe first cattle breed to be developed in Australia.\i
The Australian Illawarra Dairy Shorthorn is a milking Shorthorn with some Ayrshire and Devon blood. The breed originated in the Illawarra district, a fertile coastal strip between Kiama and Nowra, south of Sydney. It was developed by dairy farmers who began settling in the area in the 1820s. By 1898 it was a distinct breed, but it was not until 1929 that the Australian Illawarra Dairy Shorthorn was officially recognised.
The breed has been successful in New South Wales and Queensland. About 20 per cent of Australia's dairy cattle are Australian Illawarra Shorthorns.
\BDescription:\b An Illawarra Dairy Shorthorn champ \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
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"Australian Milking Zebu",19,fairfax2.jpg,g,0
\BAlso AMZ, Milking Zebu\b
\IA cattle breed developed to give high milk production in the tropical conditions of northern Australia.\i
The Australian Milking Zebu is a result of crossing Sahiwal and Red Sindhi cattle with local Jerseys to produce a tropical breed of dairy cattle. A selective breeding program conducted by the \JCSIRO\j Animal Genetics Division began in 1956 and concentrated on characteristics such as high milk and butterfat yields, tick resistance, and heat tolerance. The new dairy breed has proved itself equal in yield to European breeds, and superior in terms of tick resistance. It has been exported to Papua New Guinea and to South-East Asia.
\BViddescription:\b Australian Milking Zebu (CSIRO Australia)
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"Autoflow Wool Press",20,"0","g","0"
\IA lightweight automatic wool press.\i
The Autoflow wool press is a modern, three-door, power-driven version of the basic wool press. It has a built-in scale, so that bales can be filled to the maximum weight, and a set of rollers to allow the easy removal of full bales. The Autoflow wool press was designed by West Australian John Jordan.
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"Automatic Totalisator",21,"f\2\tab2.jpg","c","0"
\B Also Tote\b
\IAn apparatus which automatically records bets, displays odds and calculates dividends for registered racemeetings.\i
The automatic totalisator registers bets and displays the odds at which starters in a race stand at any given moment. Betting details and information on the amount of money invested are transmitted to the betting pool and, after deductions for operating costs and taxes are calculated, the odds are instantaneously adjusted. The bettor receives a printed ticket registering the wager. The machine operates by means of mechanical, electromechanical and electronic processes.
The automatic totalisator was invented by George Julius who later became chairman of the CSIR, forerunner of the \JCSIRO\j. The first machine, an adaptation of a voting machine he devised in the 1890s while working as an assistant engineer with the Western Australian Government Railways, began operating in 1913 at the Ellerslie racecourse in Auckland. Locals suspected that his father, the Anglican Archbishop and Primate of New Zealand, who was known for his mechanical tinkering, was the actual inventor. In 1932 George Julius invented an automatic odds-computing device which eliminated the time lag in displaying new odds.
Further improvements were made by another Australian inventor, Roy Ernest Wells, who added an attachment which showed the return on each runner at any stage of the betting. In the late 1930s he developed a doubles tote which he took to the United States. There he installed both win and place and doubles totes - by 1948 some 24 horse and dog race tracks in the United States were using his machines. After his return to Australia he installed a doubles tote at Rosehill racecourse in Sydney in 1950. They are now on racecourses throughout the country.
Another refinement was the portable totalisator, called the totemobile. This can be fitted into a caravan trailer and transported to racecourses too small for a permanent installation.
The automatic totalisator now operates throughout Australia and New Zealand, as well as in some 30 other countries.
\BDescription:\b Betting can be done at the TAB \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"AVP-SiroCurd",22,a4_0022.jpg,g,0
\IA process for the automated manufacture of natural cheddar cheese.\i
In the AVP-SiroCurd process the solids in milk are increased to almost the concentration of cheese solids before cheesemaking begins. This is achieved by pumping pasteurised milk through ultra-fine filters to increase the solids and reduce the volume of whey to virtually nothing. The resulting cheese retains all the proteins normally lost in the whey. The AVP-SiroCurd process calls for continuous coagulation of the milk and continuous handling of the curd. It takes place mostly in closed vessels to remove the risk of contamination from bacteria.
The Dairy Research Laboratory of the \JCSIRO\j began work on developing the cheesemaking process in the mid 1970s. In the early 1980s, in collaboration with AVP-Bell Bryant, they built equipment that could be used to produce commercial quantities of cheese. The first plant was installed at Cobram, Victoria. The process is faster and cheaper and produces eight per cent more cheese from a given quantity of milk than older methods.
Although technology had been developed overseas to recover whey proteins for soft cheese, the AVP-SiroCurd process led the world in retaining these proteins for hard cheese. The technology has been exported to the USA where a plant was installed in Minnesota in 1989.
\BDescription:\b \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Baa-Brand",23,"0","g","0"
Baa-Brand - See \JBranding System for Sheep\j
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"Bag-in-box Dispenser System",24,"0","g","0"
Bag-in-box Dispenser System - See \JWine Dispenser Cask\j
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"Bancroft, Joseph",25,"0","g","0"
(1836-94)
\IMedical and agricultural research scientist; discovered the filarial parasite.\i
Joseph Bancroft was born near Manchester in England and after becoming a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, arrived in Brisbane in 1864. He was one of the early settlers at Deception Bay, on the northern outskirts of Brisbane. He carried on scientific research simultaneously with the practice of medicine. He was the first to investigate the properties of the pituri plant \IDuboisia hopwoodii,\i used by the Aborigines as a narcotic, and also worked on plant climatisation and hybridisation and the development of rust-free wheat. His most important discovery was of the filarial worm, \IFilaria bancrofti,\i which in its adult form is parasitic in the blood of vertebrates causing filariasis.
His son Thomas Lane Bancroft (1860-1933) was also a medical practitioner and scientific researcher. He discovered that the young of the Queensland lungfish, which breathes air into a peculiar lung as well as using gills, are able to live only in very shallow water and at times even leave the water altogether. In 1902 T.L. Bancroft showed how young of the hookworm enter the body through the skin. Two years later he established that the mosquito \IAedes aegypti\i was the carrier for the dengue fever pathogen. He also continued his father's work on filariasis.
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"Banknote, Counterfeit-proof",26,"0","g","0"
\IA plastic-laminated banknote which incorporates security devices against forgery and has a longer circulation life than conventional banknotes.\i
The limited issue 1988 Bicentennial $10 polymer banknote incorporates technology developed by the \JCSIRO\j. Security elements of the note include a see-through registration device - when held up to the light, diamond-shaped patterns on each side of the note should match perfectly - and the optically variable device (OVD) which contains an image of James Cook within a segmented oval. The optically variable device can be viewed from both sides of the note. Its colour pattern shifts as the angle between the note and the light source changes. A film of aluminium foil forms the reflective surface of the OVD. Another feature is the clarity of the microprinting. A $5 polymer note was released in 1992 and a $20 polymer note was released in early 1995. A $50 polymer note was released in October 1995 and the $100 polymer note was released in May 1996. The $10 polymer note released in 1993 incorporates additional security features and improved handling qualities.
The banknote is the result of more than twenty years research by the \JCSIRO\j and the Note Printing Branch of the Reserve Bank. The aim was to develop a note incorporating new production techniques and security devices designed to foil sophisticated counterfeiting organisations. The project was conducted in secret at the \JCSIRO\j and involved researchers from a range of areas including physical optics, polymer chemistry, machine design and creative metalworking. The Reserve Bank subsequently purchased the technology from the \JCSIRO\j, and through Note Printing Australia, has produced polymer notes for Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Kuwait, Singapore, and Western Samoa.
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"Barra Sonobuoy",27,"f\2\5_0053.jpg","c","0"
\IA sonobuoy which transmits to an airborne processor the bearings of submarines within range.\i
A sonobuoy is a device used to detect and locate submerged submarines. The Barra sonobuoy has suspended beneath it at suitable depths a number of hydrophones which can detect the presence of a submarine by picking up engine noise. The bearings of submarines within range and other data are radioed from the buoy to an airborne computer where it is processed to determine their location and identity.
The Barra sonobuoy presented several difficult engineering problems in its development. The hydrophone array, several metres in diameter, along with a special compass and sophisticated microelectronics, had to be arranged in a small canister. This is dropped by parachute into the sea. When the canister hits the water surface a gas cylinder ejects the contents into the deep. Five telescopic arms holding the underwater microphones then open out. These are held steady by a parachute-like device which acts as an anchor. All parts of the sonobuoy had to be rugged enough to withstand being dropped from a height and subsequent immersion.
The sonobuoy was developed by the Royal Australian Naval Research Laboratories and the Weapons Research Establishment (now called Defence Research Centre Salisbury) in association with the Commonwealth Aircraft Association and Amalgamated Wireless Australia (AWA). The on-board processor was developed in Britain. The total system was first demonstrated in 1970. AWA won a major contract for its development and production.
\BDescription:\b RAN Submarine \I(DFAT)\i
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"Bavay, Auguste Joseph",28,"f\2\2_0087.jpg","c","0"
\B Full Name: Bavay, Auguste Joseph Francois de\b (1856-1944)
\IBelgian-born Australian industrial scientist; developed flotation process to recover zinc sulphide from comminuted mining ores.\i
De Bavay arrived in Melbourne from Belgium in 1884. There he became a head brewer, first at the Victoria Brewery, and from 1894 at the Foster Brewery. He conducted experiments to separate zinc sulphide from worthless mining tailings from \JBroken Hill\j, and contributed to the development of the Flotation Method of Ore Separation.
He also worked on the purification of Melbourne's water supply as well as playing an important part in the establishment of the Australian papermaking industry. During World War I de Bavay developed a process for producing acetone for use in the manufacture of cordite (a smokeless explosive).
\BDescription:\b Bavay conducted experiments here at the mines at \JBroken Hill\j \I(DFAT)\i
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"Bedourie Camp Oven",29,"f\2\76_0089.jpg","c","0"
\IAn improvised camp oven used by pioneers in the outback.\i
A camp oven in which the lid can also be used as a frying pan. It takes its name from Bedourie, a town in Queensland.
\BDescription:\b Cooking in the outback \I(Bill Leimbach)\i
\IA machine which in a series of automated processes produces cheddar cheese.\i
The cheesemaker was based on earlier \JCSIRO\j research which developed methods to make the starter cultures used in fermentation multiply properly, and found ways to combat the virus infection that killed fermentation bacteria. A pilot system for mechanising the first three phases of the four-phase cheesemaking process was developed in 1957 by a team led by Josef Czulak at the \JCSIRO\j Dairy Research Laboratory. The machine was designed to do mechanically each of the processes that had previously been done by hand, and was therefore very complex. As a result the machines were not an immediate commercial success.
The Bell-Siro Cheesemaker was commercialised in collaboration with the Australian engineering company James Bell Machinery Co., and first went into production in 1960. Other cheesemaking technology developed by the \JCSIRO\j team included milling, salting, hooping and pressing equipment.
\BDescription:\b The Bell-Siro cheesemaker \I(\JCSIRO\j Australia)\i
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"Belmont Red",31,"f\2\cattle.jpg","c","0"
\IA cattle breed developed for the harsh conditions of northern Australia.\i
The Belmont Red cattle breed was developed from crossing humped Afrikanders (50 per cent) with Herefords (25 per cent) and Shorthorns (25 per cent). A selective breeding program was conducted by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Animal Genetics at the National Cattle Breeding Station 'Belmont', north of Rockhampton, Queensland. Characteristics concentrated on included fertility, weight gain, carcass quality, heat tolerance, tick resistance, water needs and ability to live on poor quality feed.
The resultant new breed is able to withstand heat and cattle ticks, qualities inherited from the Afrikander, and has the fertility, good meat quality and even temperament of the Hereford and Shorthorn. Belmont Red bulls were released for evaluation in 1972. When used in commercial herds of largely British breeds they produce stock of higher fertility and improved weight gain which are better able to adapt to tropical conditions.
\BDescription:\b Different breeds of cows \I(\JCSIRO\j Australia)\i
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"Beta-carotene Production",32,"0","g","0"
\IA method of extracting beta-carotene from a natural source, replacing manufacture by chemical synthesis, has led to export markets for Australian companies.\i
Beta-carotene is a non-toxic plant form of vitamin A. It is used as a food colorant in cosmetics preparation and in the chicken and livestock industries. As well there is recent evidence that it has an anti-cancer action, in particular against cancers of the lung and cervix.
A process of extracting beta-carotene from a natural source, \IDunaliella salina,\i was developed from research on algae at the \JCSIRO\j Division of Chemical and Wood Technology and led to the building of a production plant by Betatene Ltd at Whyalla in South Australia. The process replaced the previous form of manufacture which was by an elaborate chemical synthesis. The company began exporting beta-carotene to the United States in 1986.
Another company, Western Biotechnology Ltd, has developed algae growth ponds north of Geraldton in Western Australia from which beta-carotene is extracted for export to the United States and Japan.
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"Billings Method of Contraception",33,"0","g","0"
\IA simple and natural method of fertility control.\i
The Billings method of contraception involves a woman analysing the appearance of the mucus that is produced each day by her cervix so that she can recognise at a glance her own state of fertility. Combined with the daily taking of her temperature, this method is reckoned to be the most reliable of the natural methods of family planning. When correctly used the technique offers a 99 per cent success rate in avoiding pregnancies.
The method was developed in the late 1960s by Melbourne-based Dr Evelyn Billings and her husband Dr John Billings and is now used in more than 100 countries.
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"Biological Control",34,"f\2\1_0050.jpg","c","0"
\ITechniques have been developed in Australia for the biological control of animals and plants which cause economic losses.\i
Measures developed to control insect pests include the mulesing technique and the introduction of the dung beetle. Techniques have also been developed to control the sheep blowfly (by releasing genetically altered blowflies which introduce genes for sterility and other defects), the sirex wasp, the Australian plague locust and the potato moth. Vaccines produced by the \JCSIRO\j using genetic engineering techniques include the cattle tick vaccine and a vaccine against footrot.
The first practical application of the technique of an introduced natural predator was in connection with the prickly pear which was brought under control by the introduction of the moth \ICactoblastis cactorum.\i Introduced parasitic wasps have limited the damage caused by the cabbage moth and the green vegetable bug. The viral disease \Jmyxomatosis\j was used to check the rapidly increasing rabbit population.
Research is underway to modify a naturally occurring environmentally safe virus which kills only the cotton bollworm, a caterpillar pest which globally causes damage worth millions of dollars each year.
\BDescription:\b Cotton is under threat by the cotton bollworm \I(DFAT)\i
\IA process which enables sheep to shed their own wool.\i
Biological Wool Harvesting is a process that involves injecting sheep with the protein epidermal growth factor which weakens every wool fibre on the sheep for between 24 and 36 hours before the wool starts to grow again. Jackets of nylon netting are necessary for each animal to prevent loss of the fleece before a protective coat of regrowth is in place. The jackets can be fitted by machine. It takes about six weeks for one centimetre of new wool to grow below the weakened portion. The wool above the weak spot can then be easily removed by hand.
The Biological Wool Harvesting procedure was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Animal Production with funding from the Australian Wool Corporation and assistance from a commercial firm, Pitman Moore. Work on the project began in 1976.
\BDescription:\b Sheep before their coats have grown back \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
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"Bionic Ear",36,"f\2\bionice2.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Cochlear Impant\b
\IAn implantable device which restores a measure of hearing to the profoundly deaf.\i
The bionic ear is an implantable hearing device designed to help the hearing impaired and profoundly deaf who are unable to benefit from traditional hearing aids. It is especially suitable for adults who have had hearing loss at some stage, for children who have had hearing and lost it through accident or illness, and for children born deaf. The device is in two parts - a head set consisting of a 22-channel stimulator in a titanium capsule with platinum electrodes which is implanted inside the skull behind the ear close to residual nerve fibres, and a pocket speech processor. The pocket processor breaks down speech into its various components and feeds them to the implanted stimulator. The stimulator converts the sound into electronic impulses which stimulate the nerve fibres and cause a hearing sensation in the brain. These are not the sounds of speech, but they do give the user, with the aid of lipreading, an increased ability to recognise words - the 22 channels allow differentiation between vowels and consonants and sounds such as 'sh' and ess'. As well it enables an improved detection of sounds in the environment and helps the user to better monitor the loudness of his or her own voice.
Implant surgery lasts about three hours and involves microsurgery to thread the 'tail' of the electrodes into the cochlear.
The bionic ear was developed over ten years by a team at Melbourne University from the departments of Otolaryngology and Electrical Engineering led by Professor Graeme Clark. In 1983 Cochlear, a subsidiary of the Nucleus company, was formed to further research, market and manufacture the device. The product is manufactured entirely in Australia and sold in thirty countries with exports comprising some 95 per cent of all sales. More than 4,000 people around the world are currently benefiting from Australian developed and manufactured implantable hearing devices.
\BDescription:\b Thanks to a bionic ear, this 6 year old girl can now hear \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
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"Biotechnology",37,"0","g","0"
Biotechnology - See \JBlue Rose\j
\JCotton Bollworm, Control of\j
\JMonoclonal Antibodies\j
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"Bishop Rotary Valve",38,"f\2\falcxr.jpg","c","0"
\IA rotary valve for hydraulic power-assisted steering gears.\i
The Bishop Rotary Valve for hydraulic power-assisted steering gears features simple construction, compact size, quiet valve operation and reliable performance. As well it has the benefit of low-cost manufacture of the valve sleeve and input shaft through the one-piece sleeve slotting process and a unique integrated machining system which mills the longitudinal slots and then imprints the precise metering edges of power steering shafts in an overall time cycle of five seconds.
The rotary valve is part of the Bishop power steering system which in Australia is used by General Motors-Holden and Ford Australia. Overseas Bishop inventions are used by leading car manufacturers, including Fiat, BMW, Porsche and Mazda - in Europe, Japan, the USA, Brazil and South Korea.
The rotary valve was developed by Arthur Bishop, founder of A.E. Bishop Holdings Pty Ltd and an international leader in the field of vehicle steering. Bishop developed some forty inventions specifically related to both the design of steering gears and to the equipment and processes involved in their manufacture. The Bishop team has subsequently designed a range of high-precision production line equipment including the roll-imprinting machine for the cold forming of precision hydraulic metering edges on power steering valves; a cost-efficient auto-load metering slot generator for one-piece sleeves; and a cutting tool grinder to make accurate helical form tools for the machine which produces variable ratio copper electrodes and steel rack prototypes. The Bishop company currently holds some 300 patents internationally.
Arthur Bishop was appointed AO in 1984 for his contribution to mechanical engineering in the field of car steering technology.
\BDescription:\b Ford Australia uses the Bishop Rotary Valve \I(Webster Publishing)\i
\IA unit carried on an aircraft which automatically records flight information and is sturdy enough to survive a crash.\i
The black box flight memory recorder unit is a strongly-built, compact and fireproof crash recorder carried on the flight deck of an aircraft. It automatically records cockpit voice communications and registers the main flight parameters on a continuously updated basis so that vital data is available to accident investigators in the event of a crash.
The prototype of the black box flight recorder was developed in 1954 by Dr David Warren of Aeronautical Research Laboratories. The idea was rejected by the Australian Department of Civil Aviation and the RAAF and it was left to British and American companies to commercialise the product. The flight recorder unit is now standard equipment on all commercial airlines and in many military aircraft throughout the world.
\BDescription:\b All commercial airlines use the black box \I(Webster Publishing)\i.
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"Blindess in Premature Babies",40,"f\2\humidic3.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Blindess in Premature Babies, Link with Intensive Oxygen Therapy\b
\IAustralian Dame Kate Campbell linked the incidence of blindness in babies born prematurely to the use of pure oxygen in humidicribs.\i
Retrolental fibroplasia is a condition which damages the retina at the back of the eye, causing permanent blindness in newborn babies. The condition was identified in 1942. In 1951 Melbourne paediatrician Dr Kate Campbell (1899-1986) recognised a link between the condition and the practice at the time of administering pure oxygen to premature babies in humidicribs. (Many premature babies need oxygen to enable them to breathe.)
Campbell published her findings in the \IMedical Journal of Australia.\i In 1964 she shared the first Britannica Australia Award for medicine with Dr \JNorman Gregg\j. She was made a Dame in 1971.
\BDescription:\b A baby in a humidicrib \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
\IControl measures for blowfly strike have been developed in Australia.\i
Blowfly strike is the infestation of the flesh of a living sheep by the maggots of the blowfly, especially those of the metallic-green Australian blowfly, \ILucilia cuprina.\i It can cost the Australian sheep industry millions of dollars each year through sheep deaths, fleece damage and expenses involved in control measures.
Methods of control developed in Australia are the mulesing technique and the use of Cycloprothrin, an environmentally-safe insecticide developed by the \JCSIRO\j and now licenced to the Japanese manufacturer Nippon Kayaku for sale on world markets.
\BDescription:\b Blowfly strike can cost the Australian sheep industry millions of dollars each year \I(Random House - photo by Ken Stepnell)\i
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"Blue Heeler",42,"0","g","0"
Blue Heeler - See \JAustralian Cattle Dog\j
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"Blue Rose",43,"0","g","0"
\IIsolation of the gene responsible for creating the blue pigment in flowers is making possible the development of the blue rose.\i
The isolation of the blue pigment gene in petunias and the development of techniques to transfer this gene into the rose plant has made possible the production of a horticultural novelty, the blue rose. Roses lack the pigment needed to produce blue flowers. The petunia gene will be introduced into a number of different rose varieties in the pink to red range - white roses often lack the pigment-producing pathway altogether - until the optimum blue colour is achieved.
The blue pigment gene was isolated in 1991 by a team led by Dr Edwina Cornish for Calgene Pacific, a Melbourne-based plant biotechnology company. The company filed for patent protection of the blue gene, effectively guaranteeing it a world monopoly on the blue flower ahead of its Dutch and American rivals. It is developing market strategies which it hopes will secure it a royalty on the retail sale price of the unique blue flowers, rather than just on the sale of the plant stock.
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"Boas, Isaac Herbert",44,"a\7\6_0074.jpg","c","0"
(1878-1955)
\IScientist who pioneered Australian papermaking industry.\i
Isaac Boas was the son of a well-known Dutch-born rabbi in Adelaide. In 1916, while working as a lecturer in chemistry at the Perth Technical School, he began investigating the pulping potential of the wood of young karri. In 1919, with co-researcher L.R. Benjamin, he joined the CSIR (after 1949 called the \JCSIRO\j) and in Perth set up Australia's first forest products laboratory. Work there and later trials in Victoria led to the first commercial production of newsprint from eucalypts in Tasmania in 1929.
Benjamin became general superintendent of Australian Newsprint Mills Ltd (ANM) in 1938, a position he held until 1955.
\BDescription:\b Eucalypt trees can be used to produce newsprint \I(DFAT)\i
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"Bone Fractures, Use of Rods",45,"f\2\tony25.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Bone Fractures, Use of Plastics Rods\b
\IA technique using flexible plastic rods to mend long bone fractures was first used in Sydney.\i
The technique using flexible plastic rods to mend bone fractures is particularly applicable to the bone fractures, especially of the hip, suffered by elderly women with osteoporosis, a condition in which bones become brittle as a result of the loss of calcium. Conventional methods using metal pins or screws to fix the fracture in position are likely to shatter such bones; in their place flexible rods from 14 mm to 17 mm in diameter have been used with success.
The technique was developed by Dr Michael Ryan and Dr Stephen Ruff of Sydney's Royal North Shore Hospital and was published in \IThe Journal of Bone and Joint\i in 1991.
\IA curved piece of hardwood which can be thrown so as to return to the thrower.\i
The returning boomerang of the Australian Aborigines is a thin, light, well-balanced missile ranging in length from 30 cm to 75 cm. In shape it is either a deep symmetrical curve or has two sharply angled arms. Both sides may be convex, or one convex and one flat, one side twisting upward, the other downward. When thrown the returning boomerang travels first in a vertical plane and then sweeps upwards in a horizontal plane to complete a large circle of up to 100 metres in diameter as well as several smaller circles before dropping to ground near the thrower.
The returning boomerang is mainly used for recreational competitions and for developing throwing skills in the young. The Aborigines also used it to hunt birds by putting it into the air to imitate the path of a circling hawk. The startled flock would then be attacked by a hunting party waiting with nets and sticks.
The returning boomerang is unknown anywhere else in the world. The name 'boomerang' is derived from the language of the Turuwul tribe of the Georges River area, near Sydney, where it referred to a type of curved throwing stick.
\BDescription:\b The true return boomerang has a deep symmetrical curve, unlike these ones \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Booroola Sheep",47,"f\2\72010.jpg","c","0"
\IA white-fleeced Merino type sheep developed for its improved reproduction rate which is due to a high incidence of multiple births.\i
The Booroola sheep breed is the only high fecundity, white-fleeced Merino type sheep in the world. Its high reproduction rate means increased production of meat as well as wool.
The breed was developed through a program of twinning experiments, conducted between 1951 and 1958 by \JCSIRO\j geneticists led by Dr Helen Newton Turner, which proved that sheep could be selected for an inherited tendency for multiple births. This followed the work of Merino breeders, the Seears brothers of 'Booroola' who had for some years been selecting on the female side for multiple births, and were successful to the extent that their flock produced an average of 170-180 lambs per 100 ewes. The Seears gave the \JCSIRO\j a number of animals from multiple births and, with subsequent selection from both sexes, the \JCSIRO\j Booroola flock was able to produce more than 200 lambs per 100 ewes. The new breed is well-known throughout the world.
\BDescription:\b The Booroola sheep has increased production of wool \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
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"Boot Polish",48,"0","g","0"
Boot Polish - See \JKiwi Boot Polish\j
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"Bosisto, Joseph",49,"f\2\a4_0044.jpg","c","0"
(1827-98)
\IPioneer of medicinal botany in Australia; sought commercial applications of the country's unique natural products.\i
Joseph Bosisto was born in Yorkshire in England. He migrated to Australia in 1848 to take up a three-year appointment with the English chemical firm F.H. Faulding & Co. In 1851 he established a pharmacy business at Richmond in Melbourne and also set up a laboratory to conduct experiments into the chemical properties of Australian flora with the aim of developing commercial ventures based on their products. He investigated the native hopbush, local tannin-containing species, and many plants containing essential oils. Bosisto was the first to recognise the pharmaceutical and antiseptic properties of eucalyptus oil and in 1854, at the instigation of the government botanist in Victoria Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, began the research which led to its distillation for export. He presented a paper on \IYields and Uses of Volatile Oils\i to the Royal Society of Victoria in 1862 and in the 1880s began the large-scale production of eucalyptus oil, siting his plant, at von Mueller's advice, at Antwerp, in the mallee lands of north-western Victoria. There his Eucalyptus Mallee Oil Company distilled oil from local leaves and marketed it under the brandname 'Emu'.
Bosisto also studied the life cycle of Australian leeches with a view to exporting them to England for medical use - he even perfected a method of keeping them alive on the long voyage.
Bosisto was instrumental in establishing the Victorian College of Pharmacy in 1881 and the Pharmaceutical Society of Australia. A genus of Australian plant is named after him. He was appointed Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG).
\BDescription:\b The pharmaceutical properties of eucalyptus oil were discovered by Joseph Bosisto \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Bottrill Wheel",50,"0","g","0"
Bottrill Wheel - See \JPedrail\j
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"Bovine Pleuropneumonia Vaccine",51,"0","g","0"
\IA vaccine which totally eradicated the fatal contagious disease of bovine pleuropneumonia in Australia.\i
Bovine pleuropneumonia was introduced to Australia in 1858 and quickly spread to all parts of the continent. The V5 strain of pleuropneumonia, which provided the vaccine, was isolated in 1933 by a team from the CSIR (after 1949 called the \JCSIRO\j) Division of Animal Health led by Arthur Turner. By 1939 the vaccine and a specific diagnostic test were available, and the disease was soon eradicated from Victoria and New South Wales. Herds throughout Australia were then tested under the supervision of a national committee. Healthy animals were vaccinated, diseased animals were destroyed. By 1973 the country was free of the disease.
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"Box Kite",52,"0","g","0"
\IA kite with a light, box-shaped frame; it added significantly to knowledge of aerodynamics.\i
The box or cellular kite was developed by \JLawrence Hargrave\j in a series of experiments aimed at testing the lifting power of surfaces. Hargrave discovered that kites with a curved surface were more efficient than those with a flat surface, and that kites with two cells or boxes had greater lifting power and stability than those with only one.
Hargrave began testing his kites in Sydney in January 1893. Later that year he moved to Stanwell Park, south of Sydney, a place of broad beaches and high cliffs, where experiments with the fragile machines continued. In November 1894, using four linked kites, Hargrave was lifted nearly five metres from the ground - the first Australian to become airborne in a heavier-than-air machine.
In the United States and France, versions of Hargrave's box kites which had been adapted to carry meteorological instruments were introduced in 1898. Many early aeroplanes, including Santos Dumont's machine - the first to fly publicly in Europe in 1906 - and all the early biplanes such as the Voisin, had wing forms based on the box kites developed by Hargrave.
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"Bragg, Sir William Henry",53,"0","g","0"
(1862-1942)
\IBritish physicist who worked in Australia and his son, Australian-born British physicist, Sir \JWilliam Lawrence Bragg\j; inventors of the X-ray diffraction spectrometer and founders of the science of X-ray crystallography.\i
William Henry Bragg was born in Cumberland in England. He came to Australia in 1885 to take up the Chair in Mathematics at the University of Adelaide. There he conducted his early work on X-rays. When his son, Sir \JWilliam Lawrence Bragg\j (1890-1971), who was born in Adelaide, broke his arm, Bragg senior is believed to have taken the first diagnostic X-ray in the world when he used a Roentgen X-ray tube (which he built shortly after Roentgen's discovery of X-rays) to delineate the fracture.
Father and son returned to England in 1908. Working together they discovered the technique for analysing crystal structures, thus founding the science of X-ray crystallography. In 1915 they were jointly awarded the Nobel prize for physics for their work on X-ray diffraction of crystals.
Sir William Henry Bragg was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 1920 and Order of Merit (OM) in 1931; he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1907, and was its president from 1935 to 1940. Sir \JWilliam Lawrence Bragg\j was appointed Officer Order of the British Empire (OBE) and awarded the Military Cross (MC) in 1918, made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1921, knighted in 1941 and appointed Companion of Honour (CH) in 1967. Both Braggs served, very successfully, as director of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, and both were Fullerian professor of chemistry there.
See \JX-ray Crystallography\j
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"Braille-n-Print",54,"0","g","0"
\IA machine which enables braille users to produce braille and ink-print copy simultaneously.\i
The Braille-n-Print device greatly improves the ease with which written communication can take place between the blind and the sighted. Blind students can produce printed assignments for sighted teachers and at the same time produce a braille reference copy. In the business world it can be used by the blind to prepare accurate printed letters, reports and memos as it simultaneously produces proof copies in braille.
The Braille-n-Print was invented in Brisbane by Norman Wilson, and is designed to be used in conjunction with a Perkins Brailler.
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"Brailler, Portable",55,"0","g","0"
Brailler, Portable - See \JPortable Brailler\j
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"Brake Parts",56,"0","g","0"
\ILight aluminium and plastic brake parts for sports cars.\i
Light aluminium and plastic brake parts have been manufactured in Australia specifically for the Corvette sports car of the United States since 1983. The model manufactured and exported since mid-1988 is also of all-Australian design.
Demand for lighter brakes grew out of the fuel crisis of the early 1980s. Australia's leadership in the production and use of aluminium put it in a prime position to meet this need. The brake parts, manufactured by the Girlock company, were initially of overseas design.
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"Branding System for Sheep",57,"f\2\72012.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Baa-Brand\b
\IA cartridge-fed branding system which imprints a brand on a sheep in a single action.\i
The branding system, known as Baa-Brand, uses a pump-action cartridge to apply a metered dose of branding fluid directly on to the sheep. The configuration of the brand is obtained by punching out a series of holes in the honeycomb branding plate to produce letters and symbols. Fluid from the cartridge is then pumped through the punched out sections to imprint the brand onto the animal in a single action. The amount of fluid in each dose is adjustable.
Sheep have to be branded each year after shearing; and previous methods involved the use of a branding iron which was dipped into a tub of branding fluid and then applied to the animal. The pump-action cartridge system is faster and less messy.
Baa-Brand is the invention of Don Fretwell, who began work on the project in
1981.
\BDescription:\b Sheep have to be branded after shearing \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
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"Brennan Torpedo",58,"f\2\5_0054.jpg","c","0"
\IA propeller-driven guided torpedo designed to defend harbours and narrow channels from enemy ships.\i
A torpedo is a weapon filled with explosives which travels underwater. It is used to attack enemy shipping. The Brennan torpedo pioneered the concept of a guided torpedo. It was driven by two propellers rotating in opposite directions. Each propeller was connected by a shaft to a drum around which steel wire was wound. The propeller was driven by unwinding the wire, which was drawn by a twenty horsepower steam engine onto another drum either on the launching ship or on shore. Steering was achieved by changing the speed of winding of one of the wires. The torpedo had a speed of 32 km/h, a range of 2.5 km and travelled at a depth of 3 metres.
The Brennan torpedo was designed to defend harbours and narrow channels. Its inventor, Irish immigrant Louis Brennan, received technical advice from WC Kemot, Professor of Engineering at Melbourne University. The torpedo was patented in 1877 and in 1880 Brennan took the idea to Britain. There, after it had been tested by the Royal Engineers, he was awarded 5000 pounds plus 1000 pounds a year to further develop the device. Five years later the torpedo was accepted by the British War Office and Brennan was rewarded with the substantial sum of 110,000 pounds. Difficulty in controlling the torpedo from a moving ship led to its eventual abandonment.
\BDescription:\b The BrennanTorpedo was designed to defend harbours from enemy ships \I(DFAT)\i
\IA process for removing moisture from brown coal to give it a higher heating value.\i
This is a system for dewatering brown coal by the removal of the water as a liquid rather than by evaporation. This is done by heating the coal to between 250 and 300 degrees Celsius in water, under sufficient pressure to prevent evaporation. This removes up to 75 per cent of the water, and the dry coal residue has a much higher calorific value - that is, it has a higher heating value - than the original brown coal. Electricity production using this method is some 10 per cent cheaper. The dewatering process was developed by a research group at the University of Melbourne.
Brown coal as mined in La Trobe Valley, Victoria, contains about 60 per cent by weight of moisture, which lowers its heating value and makes it difficult to burn. Specially designed boilers based on a German system are required for its combustion in the production of electricity. Attempts to pre-dry brown coal have been unsuccessful as dry brown coal can ignite spontaneously.
\BDescription:\b Newlands Coal Mine \I(DFAT)\i
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"Bubonic Plague, Link to Rats",61,"d\10\inan13.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Bubonic Plague, Link to Rats Proved\b
\IThe transmission of bubonic plague to humans by fleas from infected rats was first demonstrated in Sydney.\i
Bubonic plague is caused by a bacterium, \IYersinia pestis,\i which normally infects rats and passes from one rat to another in fleas. If a flea carrying plague bacteria bites a human that person will develop the disease. The transmission of the disease from infected rats to man by fleas was established by two men from New South Wales, J. Ashburton Thompson and Frank Tidswell.
Their discovery followed an outbreak of bubonic plague in the Rocks area of Sydney in early 1900. It was spread by fleas from infected rats which had come ashore from ships. More than 100 people died in the first seven months of the outbreak. Once the link to rats was realised quarantine measures were taken; garbage, silt and sewerage were cleared from slum areas, and thousands of rats were destroyed. The disease was eradicated in Australia by 1906.
\BDescription:\b A pile of dead rats \I(\JCSIRO\j)\i
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"Buckyballs, First Commercial Use",62,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Buckminsterfullerenes\b
\IThe first commercial application of this new form of carbon was in an Australian-developed medical diagnostic technique.\i
Buckyballs is the name given to a new form of carbon in which molecules of 60 to 70 atoms of carbons are linked together like the faces of a soccer ball. In this way it differs from the two naturally-occurring forms of carbon - diamond and graphite - in which atoms are linked in endless crystalline arrays.
The first paper on buckyballs was published in late 1985 in the international journal \INature\i by Dr Harold Kato and others at Rice University in Texas. In the same year medical physicist Dr Bill Burch of the Australian National University began working with a carbon vapour very similar to buckyballs, which he had developed after eight years of experimenting. Burch had been looking for a reliable and efficient method of diagnosing pulmonary embolism (clots in the lung), and in particular a way of distinguishing it from other diseases with similar symptoms such as heart attack and indigestion. He wanted a fine solid which would remain suspended in air and behave like a gas, and this he produced by placing a crucible of pure graphite between two copper electrodes and heating it electrically in an atmosphere of pure argon. When the resulting carbon vapour was tagged with the mildly radioactive isotope Technetium-99m it proved to be a highly efficient lung-scanning agent. When breathed in it covers the inner lining of the lungs. This allows special cameras to record images of the lung. The vapour, since known as Technegas, is made of spheres of carbon atoms and is probably a mixture of buckyballs of different sizes. Technegas is now widely used in Australian hospitals in lung scans.
Dr Burch, in collaboration with Ian Tetley, developed a generator to produce Technegas. Since commercial production began in 1985, more than 150 units have been sold in seventeen countries.
In 1991 at the \JCSIRO\j Division of Coal and Energy Technology researchers Dr Michael Wilson, Dr Tony Vassallo and Dr Lewis Pang developed a method of producing buckyballs directly from coal. This should greatly reduce the cost of bulk production.
The name 'buckyballs' was inspired by the structure of these molecular spheres of carbon atoms and is a reference to (Richard) Buckminster Fuller, radical United States architect and inventor who in the 1970s popularised the geodesic dome, which buckyballs resemble in shape.
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"Bulk/container Ship",63,"f\2\dfat79.jpg","c","0"
\IA vessel designed to carry either bulk cargo or containers.\i
A special design of bulk/container ship with alternate holds for carrying either containers or bulk cargo was an Australian innovation. Such a vessel, the \IDarwin Trader,\i was built in 1969 for the Australian National Line to carry general cargo in containers northwards, and on the return voyage southwards to carry bulk cargo plus empty containers.
\BDescription:\b Loading sulphur onto a container ship \I(DFAT)\i
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"Bull, John Wrathall",64,"a\8\1_0061.jpg","c","0"
\IOriginator of the 'comb and beaters' concept on which Ridley's stripper is based.\i
John Wrathall Bull, a dairy farmer from Kent, England, arrived in Australia in 1838. After a period dealing in stock he took up wheat farming at Mount Barker, outside Adelaide. In September 1843 he entered a competition sponsored by the South Australian Corn Exchange Committee which sought a design for a mechanical wheat harvester. Bull submitted a model of a 'locomotive thresher' based on the principle of beating the heads off the standing crop. Bull is said to have formulated the idea while examining the heads of his overripe wheat crop and noting how easily grains could be knocked from the heads.
The competition closed without a winner, but Bull's design drew much interested comment. A working machine similar to this model, which became known as the stripper, was built later in the same year by \JJohn Ridley\j. Bull claimed that the stripper was based directly on his design, but it was not until 1882, some thirty-nine years later, that this was recognised by the South Australian government in the form of a grant of 250 pounds.
\IA series of fin-like armour plates fitted to a radiator to prevent damage by bullets.\i
A series of vertical, fin-like, armour plates, positioned to deflect bullets away from the vital water-carrying core of a radiator, was proposed during World War II as an effective method of protecting the radiators of military vehicles. When a radiator fitted with these fins was tested in 1943 it was not damaged by rifle or machine-gun fire at 35 metres. However development work was slow, and by the time the bullet-proof radiator was perfected such a large number of vehicles had already been fitted with conventional radiators that the army did not introduce the new one. The conventional radiator had armoured shutters which closed over the radiator when necessary. Such shutters, however, blocked airflow and thus prevented the efficient working of the radiator.
The new method of bullet-proofing radiators grew out of ideas put to the Army Inventions Directorate by P.S. Barma.
\BDescription:\b The Bullet-proof Radiator was meant for military vehicles \I(DFAT)\i
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"Bunt, Control Of",67,"f\2\2_0083.jpg","c","0"
\ICopper carbonate has been discovered to control bunt, a disease of wheat.\i
The mixing of a small quantity of powdered copper carbonate with wheat seed before sowing can control bunt, a fungous disease of wheat. This discovery was made by Dr Darnell Smith, of the New South Wales Department of Agriculture, in 1915. His method, an early demonstration of the value of fungicides in the preparation for sowing of wheat and other grains, was adopted all over the world. In Australia it contributed to the development in 1923 of the dry wheat pickler.
\BDescription:\b Bunt is a disease of wheat \I(DFAT)\i
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"Burnet, Sir Macfarlane",68,"e\6\bmacfarl.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Burnet, Sir (Frank) Macfarlane\b
(1899-1985)
\IAustralian medical scientist; his work in immunology and virology earned him international acclaim; shared Nobel prize for medicine.\i
\JMacfarlane Burnet\j was born in Traralgon in Victoria and graduated from the University of Melbourne. He began a study of bacterial viruses while a research fellow at London's Lister Institute. After his return to Australia he was appointed assistant director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute (1928-31) and later, after a further period working in London, as its director (1944-65). He first came to international recognition following his discovery, in association with Dame Jean Macnamara, that there were at least two poliomyelitis viruses, not one as previously believed. In 1935 he identified the cause of Q fever as the bacterium \ICoxiella burnetti\i which now bears his name. His work during World War II on influenza viruses and vaccines was of great value.
In 1960 \JMacfarlane Burnet\j shared the Nobel prize for medicine with Sir Peter Medawar of Britain for their work on acquired immunological tolerance to tissue transplants.
\JMacfarlane Burnet\j declined overseas appointments which could have furthered his career and apart from brief overseas fellowships his work was conducted entirely in Australia. He was honoured with the Order of Merit in 1958, appointed Knight of the British Empire (KBE) in 1969 and Knight of the Order of Australia (AK) in 1978.
"Calculable Standard of Capacitance",70,"0","g","0"
\IA simple, precise method of measuring capacitance, which thus by-passes the standard ohm and standard ampere.\i
Capacitance is the extent of electrical charge which a system has the ability to store. It is measured in farads. The significance of the work of Mel Thompson and Doug Lampard at the \JCSIRO\j National Standards Laboratory in 1955, in developing a simple method of measuring this electrical capacity is that it greatly simplified what had been the extremely complex and laborious task of setting standards for electrical measurement. The accepted method was to construct an inductor - a coil of copper wire with a large number of precisely wound turns - and to calculate the coil's inductance by measuring the position and diameter of each turn of wire. The measuring and calculations involved could take as long as six months. Thompson and Lampard's great contribution was to discover a type of capacitor, consisting of four parallel brass rods, in which the capacitance could be calculated in terms of length alone (using light waves) to an extremely high degree of accuracy. This made it possible to relate the farad to absolute measurements of length and intervals of time, and the entire process took only about three hours.
From 1964 until 1974 the \JCSIRO\j instrument supplied the world with the most accurate value of the farad. The value was confirmed in 1974 in the United States using equipment based on the \JCSIRO\j concept. Other spin-off developments from this project have had important applications in the measurement of magnetostriction, thermal expansion and absolute pressure.
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"Camerated Concrete",71,"0","g","0"
\IA method of building hollow concrete walls; it was used mainly for domestic building.\i
Camerated concrete was the name given to a system of casting concrete cavity walls. Concrete was poured into a type of formwork known as a 'jump form'. The inner cavities were created by removing steel cores.
The system was developed by Henry A. Goddard and was patented in 1905. The first houses using this method were built by Goddard in the Sydney suburb of Concord. Damp-proof courses were not used. Similar buildings were put up in Tasmania as early as 1906, and the technique was also used in New Zealand. The system is no longer used.
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"Cane Harvesters, Mechanised",72,"0","g","0"
Cane Harvesters, Mechanised - See \JFalkiner Harvester\j
\JSugarcane Harvester\j
\JHeader Harvester\j
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"Canvas Waterbag",73,"f\2\71006.jpg","c","0"
\ICanvas bag for storing and transporting water which also cools it.\i
A bag of plain canvas which, once wet enough, holds water quite well. It is easy to carry, and has the added advantage of cooling its contents as the water which seeps through to the outside evaporates.
The canvas waterbag is said to have been invented by explorer Sir Thomas Livingstone Mitchell (1792-1855), who observed that Aborigines carried water in kangaroo skins. He saw that this was a better way of transporting water than the method he was using - tying wooden kegs to the backs of horses. The first bags he had made were sealed with tallow, but this tainted the water.
One hundred and fifty years later canvas waterbags are still used by travellers in the outback, attached to the front of vehicles or hung in the breeze in camp.
\BDescription:\b Swaggie carrying a waterbag - painting by Hugh Sawrey \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
\IA tickicide aimed specifically at the Australian cattle tick problem.\i
A pesticide based on the chemical compound promacyl, which is of lower toxicity than previously used tickicides while still being effective against new strains of resistant cattle tick. The compound was discovered in 1969, and after trials to establish its safety, the tickicide went into commercial production four years later. The tickicide was developed by ICI and marketed under the tradename Promicide. It is the first such veterinary drug to be invented, synthesised and produced commercially in Australia.
About one-third of Australia's cattle are affected by the cattle tick \I(Boophilus microplus),\i and a single beast can be infested by thousands of ticks, resulting in lower milk and meat production and even causing death.
\BDescription:\b Approximately one-third of Australian cattle are affected by cattle tick. \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i.
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"Cattle Tick Vaccine",76,"f\2\75005.jpg","c","0"
\IA genetically engineered vaccine against the cattle tick.\i
The cattle tick vaccine involves the use of protein naturally occurring in ticks which has the capacity to make cattle resistant to the parasite. The protein can be manufactured using recombinant DNA technology. The vaccination technique leads to the death of the tick through gut damage. It is the first effective use of a vaccine against an external parasite, and has reduced tick numbers experimentally by up to 90 per cent.
The vaccine was developed in the late 1980s by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Tropical Animal Science in collaboration with Biotechnology Australia Pty Ltd, supported by the Industry Research and Development Board and the Australian Meat Research Committee. Chemical tickicides currently used for tick control have the disadvantages of resistance being built up to their use.
\BDescription:\b The cattle tick vaccine was developed by the CSIRO in the late 1980s. \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i.
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"Cellular Plywood Float Raft",77,"0","g","0"
\ILightweight two-man raft for ships.\i
The cellular plywood float raft was a raft made of about 26 cells of water-resistant plywood, to be carried by ships. Each raft could carry ten men, even if up to half of the cells were destroyed. The plywood cell design, conceived by Sydney furniture manufacturer Frank Mills, was in response to the interruption by World War II of supplies of balsa wood from South America.
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"Cement-lining Process for Pipes",78,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Cement-lining Process for Iron and Steel Pipes
Also Centriline\b
\IA process for lining new and used iron and steel water pipes with cement.\i
The Tait process for lining new and used iron and steel pipes with cement for use in the ground was developed in Sydney and patented in 1934.
\IIrrigation pumping engine based on a marine steam engine and connected directly to a centrifugal pump; used to move water into irrigation channels.\i
The two pumping plants designed by \JGeorge Chaffey\j which supplied the Mildura irrigation district with water for more than 60 years had 100 cm centrifugal pumps which were driven by triple expansion marine steam engines. The engines were connected directly to the pumps, without belts, ropes, or any kind of gearing. The engines were built by the British engineering firm Tangye Bros to Chaffey's revolutionary design. The builders, doubting the efficacy of the design, refused to accept responsibility for the machines. They decided not to use their own brand but instead labelled the machines with Chaffey's name. These engines supplied water to the irrigation channels around Mildura and Renmark until replaced by electric motors more than half a century later, working at an average hourly output rate of some 8,500,000 litres each. The pumps were the largest in the world at the time of their installation.
\BDescription:\b Mildura was established as an American-style irrigation colony \I(Random House - photo by Gary Lewis)\i
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"Chaffey, George",80,"a\5\a2_0009.jpg","c","0"
(1848-1932)
\IPioneer of the use of engine-driven centrifugal pumps for irrigation systems; co-founder, with his brother, of Mildura and Renmark irrigation areas.\i
George Chaffey and his brother William Benjamin Chaffey (1856-1926) were born in Canada. George, an engineer, pioneered his irrigation techniques in California, where in 1882 he tapped underground water resources to establish the Etiwanda Irrigation Colony near Los Angeles. He was encouraged to bring his skills to Australia by \JAlfred Deakin\j, then the Victorian government minister in charge of water resources. The Chaffey brothers arrived in 1896 and settled on drought-ridden land near the old Mildura cattle station on the lower Murray which, under an agreement with the Victorian government, was to be granted to them progressively following the establishment of permanent irrigation.
The Chaffeys formed a company through which they offered both irrigated blocks for fruit growing and residential blocks. They excavated 250 kilometres of main channels, 500 kilometres of secondary channels and installed pumping stations powered by triple expansion direct drive engines designed by George Chaffey. By 1891 they had acquired and sold some 7000 hectares of land. However, problems associated with soil salinity and yabbie damage to the canal banks, compounded by the collapse of the land boom in the mid 1890s, led to bankruptcy. George Chaffey returned to California, where he carried on his work in irrigation. William Benjamin Chaffey remained in Mildura and continued his involvement in irrigation, fruit growing and community affairs. The present towns of Renmark and Mildura, and the irrigation areas surrounding them, are the result of the Chaffeys' work.
\BDescription:\b The towns of Mildura and Renmark and the surrounding irrigation areas are the result of Chaffey's work - here we see grape drying racks at Mildura\I (Courtesy Random House - photo by Gary Lewis)\i
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"Cheesemaking, Mechanised",81,"0","g","0"
Cheesemaking, Mechanised - See \JAVP-SiroCurd\j
\JBell-Siro Cheesemaker\j
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"Chemical Shearing",82,"0","g","0"
Chemical Shearing - See \JBiological Wool Harvesting\j
\IA combined chlorination and polymer treatment for shrink-proofing wool.\i
The chlorine-Hercosett process for shrink-proofing wool involves first wetting the fibres with a mild chlorine solution. This pre-treatment enables the polymer, applied next, to spread evenly over the surface of the fibre. The polymer is then cured to form a film of resin on the surface of the fibre. This film swells upon immersion in water, preventing fibre movement and hence shrinkage. The polymer used is epichlorohydrin, available commercially as Hercosett 57.
The process was developed by the Sydney company Villawool Ltd in collaboration with the Australian Wool Corporation and was launched in 1967. Its use was extended around the world by the International Wool Secretariat. It replaced several earlier processes which involved either severe and potentially damaging chemical treatments or the application of resins from organic solvents, as is the case with the Si-ro-fix process. Introduction of the chlorine-Hercosett process helped to combat the advantage held by synthetic fibre manufacturers whose products could be machine-washed and spun dry. The process, and subsequent modifications of it, are still in widespread use.
\BDescription:\b Australian Wool Corporation parade \I(DFAT)\i
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"Chris Cross Radiotelescope",84,3_0057.jpg,g,0
\IA form of radiotelescope used in radioastronomy.\i
The Chris Cross radiotelescope consists of a line of radio antennas placed close to a sheet of water, the net effect of which is to receive signals from one direction only. It is therefore able to delineate specific regions in space from which radio signals originate.
The Chris Cross radiotelescope was developed by \JCSIRO\j scientist Professor Wilbur Christiansen.
\BDescription:\b \I(DFAT)\i
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"Clever Clover",85,"a\6\a2_0098.jpg","c","0"
\IA strain of clover developed to mulch, aerate and fertilise soil for summer vegetable crops.\i
Clever clover was developed to naturally aerate, fertilise and mulch the soil for summer crops in market and suburban gardens. It will grow and die back at times suitable for vegetable growers. It is planted in autumn when crops like tomatoes and corn are finished and grows throughout the winter, adding nitrogen to the soil, encouraging worms and suppressing weed growth. Paradoxically, however, it is of greatest value when it dies back, in spring. The dead vegetation forms a thick, soil-enriching layer of mulch on the surface, and the decomposing root systems in the subsoil leave channels which assist drainage and through which the roots of the next crop can grow. The mulch contains clover seeds, so the cycle can be continued without resowing. The method can be tailored to suit local conditions and is especially suitable for use in south-east Australia.
The clever clover strain was developed by Dr Richard Stirzaker and Dr Ian White of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Plant and Industry.
\BDescription:\b Tomato growing \I(Random House - photo by Ken Stepnell)\i
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"Clothes Hoist",86,"0","g","0"
Clothes Hoist - See \JRotary Clothes Hoist\j
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"Cloud Seeding",87,"f\2\7_0093.jpg","c","0"
\IAustralia was the first country in the world to successfully seed clouds and make rain fall.\i
Cloud seeding is the spraying onto clouds of chemicals such as dry ice or silver iodide particles which act as nuclei around which ice crystals form. These then fall as rain. The first man-made rainstorm occurred in 1947 near Bathurst, New South Wales, following the seeding of a cumulus cloud with dry ice. The rain lasted several hours and fell over an area of 80 square kilometres. Fifteen millimetres were recorded.
A program of rainmaking was conducted by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Cloud Physics from 1947 until 1983, when it was abandoned because fluctuations in normal rainfall prevented an objective measurement of its benefits. In 1988 the Melbourne Metropolitan Board of Works, in consultation with the \JCSIRO\j, began using state-of-the-art remote sensing equipment to detect clouds carrying the most water at the optimum temperature to maximise the seeding effect. Seeding trials were conducted over Melbourne's main catchment area.
\BDescription:\b Cloud seeding was invented in Australia \I(Peter Jarver)\i
\ICSlRO-developed superclean and ultraclean coals deliver more efficient power generation and better environmental protection.\i
Coal is one of Australia's biggest export earners. Recent strengthening of regulations for environmental protection and tightening buyer specifications are changing the domestic and international markets for coal. Highly beneficiated coals are becoming increasingly important for more efficient power generation associated with lower carbon dioxide emissions.
Superclean coal (5 per cent ash) and ultraclean coal (less than 1 per cent ash) have been developed by the \JCSIRO\j Divisions of Coal Technology and Fuel Technology. They can replace oil in power generation and many other industrial uses and can also be used to provide feedstock for high value-added carbon products and chemicals.
Auscoal, a joint venture of the \JCSIRO\j, White Industries and Australian Coal Industry Research Laboratories Ltd (ACIRL), undertake the commercial development and marketing of these premium clean coal fuels.
\IAn on-line gauge for measuring the ash content of coal.\i
Coalscan is a computer-linked gauge which can measure the ash content of coal. Its operation is based on nuclear techniques which involve gamma ray interactions that are dependent on the different atomic numbers of the elements. Ash content can be measured because it contains mainly oxides of silicon and aluminium and so has a higher mean atomic number than combustibles, which contain mainly carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. In coal preparation plants, where mined coal is washed and blended to form a uniform product with minimal ash and non-combustible content, on-line determination of the ash content ensures the minimum wastage of valuable combustibles.
Coalscan is based on siroash techniques developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Mineral Engineering, responsible for the nuclear techniques, in collaboration with the Australian Atomic Energy Commission, the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre (University of Queensland), the Australian Mineral Development Laboratories (Amdel) and Mineral Control Instrumentation Pty Ltd (MCI). Coalscan equipment is manufactured and marketed, under licence to the \JCSIRO\j, by MCI. More than 100 monitors have been sold around the world and the device has achieved such a degree of acceptance that no modern coal washing plant is now set up without it.
The invention won its \JCSIRO\j inventors and Dr J. Howarth, proprietor of MCI, the prestigious Australia Prize for 1991.
\BDescription:\b Mining coal at Peak Downs \I(DFAT)\i
\IThe importance of cobalt in the diet of ruminants was recognised first in Australia; methods were devised here to rectify the effects of grazing on cobalt-deficient soils.\i
The fact that cobalt is an essential element in the diet of ruminant animals was established by Australian agricultural scientists. In 1934 Ted Lines of the Division of Animal Nutrition of the CSIR (after 1949 called the \JCSIRO\j) found a cure for the mysterious wasting condition of sheep called 'coast disease'. Affected sheep dosed with one milligram a day of pure cobalt nitrate recovered completely. It was the first indication of the importance of cobalt in the diet of sheep and cattle. These discoveries led to the identification of cobalt deficient soils in Australia and in many other countries of the world.
In 1957 a \JCSIRO\j team developed slow release 'cobalt bullets' - ceramic pellets rich in cobalt - which were administered orally to animals grazing on cobalt deficient pastures. The pellet lodges permanently in the fore-stomach of the animal where it slowly and continuously releases the needed amount of cobalt. It is safe, cheap, effective and long lasting. The slow-release technique has been used with success in administering other veterinary drugs. Another method of rectifying cobalt deficient soils is to apply a cobaltised superphosphate as a fertiliser.
\BDescription:\b Sheep can be infected with coast disease \I(DFAT)\i
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"Cochlear Implant",93,"0","g","0"
Cochlear Implant - \JBionic Ear\j
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"Cold Soda Process",94,"0","g","0"
Cold Soda Process - See \JPaper From Eucalypts\j
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"Computer Research",95,"f\3\2_0033.jpg","c","0"
\IThe \JCSIRO\j was at the forefront of computer research in the 1940s.\i
In the 1940s Australia was a world leader in computer research. By 1947 a team at the CSIR (after 1949 called the \JCSIRO)\j had designed and built CSIRAC. However there was little faith in the future of computers and in the 1950s the \JCSIRO\j phased out its computer research in favour of research into radioastronomy and rainmaking.
\BDescription:\b The CSIRO conducted computer research in the 1940s. \I(DFAT)\i.
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"Concrete Additives",96,"f\3\1_0012.jpg","c","0"
\IAustralia is at the forefront of developments in the use of performance enhancing concrete additives such as fly ash and silica fume.\i
Australia is a world leader in the use of additives to enhance the performance of basic concrete. In the main these additives are derived from the by-products of industrial and manufacturing processes and include fly ash and silica fume, each of which impart specific performance characteristics to concrete.
Fly ash is a fine grey powder similar in appearance to cement. It is a by-product from the burning of black coal by electricity-generating power stations. There are different types of fly ash. Some have strong pozzolanic qualities, that is, they have good cementing properties when combined with lime and water. A particularly good example of this type comes from the Port Augusta power station, and its use was found to increase the strength of concrete by some 50 per cent. Fly ash increases workability of concrete and decreases its tendency to bleed and segregate. In hardened concrete it increases resistance to sulphate attack and decreases shrinkage. It also reduces the permeability of concrete, and is therefore used for dam walls.
Silica fume is a by-product of the electric arc furnace production of silicon and ferro-silicon alloys. It is a fine ash with strong pozzolanic qualities. Its use as a concrete additive results in stronger concrete with reduced permeability, reduced bleeding, and improved resistance to sulphate and marine attack and to abrasion and erosion.
\BDescription:\b Fly ash is used for dam walls \I(DFAT)\i
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"Concrete Building Panel",97,"0","g","0"
\B Also Fowler Method, Tilt-up Slab\b
\IThe use of pre-cast reinforced concrete building panels was pioneered in Australia.\i
Concrete building panels, pre-cast and transported to the site where they were bolted together, were developed in Australia where they were used in particular by the Victorian Housing Commission. The panels were cast on an elevated flat metal table which, after the concrete had matured, was tilted to the vertical position and the panel separated from it. Panels up to thirteen metres long were made using this method, complete with openings for doors and windows, and spaces for pipes and conduits for services.
The basic method of casting wall panels was invented by T.W. Fowler in the 1920s. In 1944, two years after his death, Fowler's plant was taken over by the Victorian Housing Commission. Within a year output had increased to the extent that some 80 to 100 workers were employed on prefabricated concrete house production and it was necessary to relocate the plant to a large site at Holmesglen, outside Melbourne. Here Fowler's system was turned into an industrial production line which by 1946 had turned out the components for some 600 single storey houses. By 1951 the number had reached 3,000. From 1952 the Commission began to use the system for multi-storey buildings.
In 1965 it was used in the construction of a thirty-storey block of flats in South Melbourne, completed in 1969, in which lightweight aggregate concrete panels which were pre-tensioned (that is, the reinforcement in the panel was stretched after the panel was cast) were used. At the time of construction it was the tallest prefabricated concrete building in the world. Although they were technically sophisticated, high-rise prefabricated concrete buildings for public housing were considered to be a social failure, and from the late 1960s they were phased out in favour of low-rise walk-up and single dwelling units.
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"Concrete Truck",98,"0","g","0"
Concrete Truck - See \JPre-mixed Concrete Truck\j
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"Container Ship, First in World",99,"0","g","0"
\B Full Name: Container Ship, First Purpose-built in World\b
\IThe first purpose-built container ship in the world was constructed in an Australian shipyard.\i
The first all-new, specialised, fully cellular container ship in the world was built in Australia. It was the MV \IKooringa,\i constructed by the New South Wales State Dockyard for Associated Steamships Pty Ltd, and it entered service between Fremantle and Melbourne in 1964.
The concept of container ships was pioneered in the United States, where existing ships were converted to carry containers.
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"Cont. Refining Process for Lead",100,"f\3\2_0069.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Continuous Refining Process for Lead\b
\IA refining process in which lead is continuously extracted, conducted in a single automatic operation in one large vessel.\i
Lead commonly occurs in ores with zinc; such deposits are also frequently associated with silver, gold, antimony and arsenic. The continuous refining process is a method of separating these various metals from lead. This is done in one continuous operation in a single large vessel, and is based on the scientific analysis of the phase relations of lead, zinc and silver. Instruments used for this analysis include the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, which greatly reduced the time taken to identify the components of the ore. The new method resulted in significant cost savings.
The process is the culmination of more than ten years research and was invented by mining engineer George Kenneth Williams, who began working on modifications to smelting and refining practices in 1921. Williams was based at the Port Pirie, South Australia, plant of \JBroken Hill\j Associated Smelters, where lead ore from \JBroken Hill\j was smelted. His first achievement was a lead desilverising process, to replace the inefficient, hot and unhygienic batch operations which were carried out manually and involved a series of large pots. Williams and his team then proceeded to change all other batch refining operations to single stream continuous processes, a project substantially completed by 1935, by which time the Port Pirie plant claimed the largest single-unit lead smelting works in the world.
\BDescription:\b A lead pour at Mt. Isa mines \I(DFAT)\i
\IA method of establishing acceptable sleeping patterns in babies and toddlers.\i
The aim of the controlled crying technique is to establish a proper sleeping pattern in healthy toddlers who resist going to bed or who wake in the middle of the night. This is done by gradually increasing the time that elapses before attention is given to the child. The child must be comforted and reassured, but must also be put back to bed. If crying continues a longer time must elapse before attention is once again given. The child knows that caring adults are nearby, and should eventually realise that crying is not worth the effort and that the easiest course is to go to sleep. Using the technique more than 90 per cent of sleep problems can be cured within seven days, depending on the age of the child.
The technique is suitable for babies who are more than twelve months old. It was developed in the mid-1970s by Dr Christopher Green, head of the Child Development Unit of the Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children in Sydney. It has been adopted in many countries, including Britain, Germany and Japan.
\BDescription:\b Using the controlled crying technique usually works \I(Carrie Webster)\i
\IA cabinet for storing food which is kept cool by the evaporation of water from a wet fabric covering.\i
The \JCoolgardie\j safe works on the principle of capillary siphoning and cooling due to evaporation. The safe is a timber-framed, hessian-covered cabinet with one or more internal shelves and with a dish or tray of water on the top. Wet strips of fabric trail from the water down the outside of the cabinet, keeping the hessian wet. As the water evaporates from the wet hessian it absorbs heat from its surroundings and so keeps the contents of the safe cool. The drier the air, the greater the rate of evaporation, and the cooler the safe. The legs can be stood in another tray of water or in tins of water to keep ants at bay. The safe works best in a breeze and is similar in operation to the canvas waterbag.
The \JCoolgardie\j safe, as the name suggests, originated in Western Australia and dates from the gold rushes of the 1890s. It is said to have been devised by A.P. McCormick who later became mayor of \JCoolgardie\j.
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"Cotton Bollworm, Control Of",103,"f\3\1_0047.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Cotton Bollworm, Biological Control of\b
\IAn environmentally safe naturally-occurring virus is being used to control the cotton bollworm, a damaging crop pest.\i
Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) kills only the cotton bollworm, \IHeliothis armigera,\i an economically important insect pest. The virus has great potential as a biological control. It is non-toxic to vertebrates, including man, and it leaves no toxic residues in the environment. It persists on plant surfaces and in the soil, so a single application can infect later generations. It is unlikely that the bollworm will develop resistance to the virus.
NPV is one of a range of microbiological organisms being developed by the \JCSIRO\j as alternatives to conventional farm chemicals. Current research by its Division of Entomology, funded by ICI Australia, is aimed at modifying a naturally-occurring isolate of the virus to increase its effectiveness against the pest. ICl's Agrochemical section in the United Kingdom will market NPV overseas.
The use of NPV will be of significant economic benefit to farmers around the world. The cotton bollworm attacks not only cotton crops, but also maize, sorghum, sunflower and vegetables, costing Australia alone many millions of dollars each year. Chemical insecticides, used in the past to control the cotton bollworm, have become less effective as the moth developed resistance. A similar virus, imported from the United States in the late 1970s, was not successful because of its slow rate of kill and its inability to kill the larger caterpillars.
\BDescription:\b A safe virus is being used to control the cotton bollworm \I(DFAT)\i
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"Cotton, Frank Stanley",104,"f\3\5_0018.jpg","c","0"
(1890-1955)
\IPhysiologist in sports medicine; pioneered the use of ergometers to develop training programs for athletes.\i
Frank Cotton, when Professor of Physiology at Sydney University, designed and built machines which he called ergometers. These he used to identify potential athletes, revealing latent ability by analysing their performance on the machines.
He began in 1909 to apply scientific principles to his own swimming training programs and set university records for all distances from 220 yards (210 metres) to one mile (1.61 kilometres). His techniques were used in the selection of a successful state rowing team in which were included two members entirely new to the sport. He also devised the program followed by Olympic gold medallist swimmer Jon Henricks.
\BDescription:\b Frank Cotton's techniques were used in the selection of rowing teams \I(DFAT)\i
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"Coupe-utility",105,"0","g","0"
Coupe-utility - See \JUtility\j
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"Crankless Engine",106,"0","g","0"
\IAn engine which embodied a completely new method of converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion.\i
In its simplest form a crank is a handle or arm projecting at right angles to the shaft of a machine. In most conventional machines a crank is used in the interconversion of rotary and reciprocating motion. In the crankless engine the principle of the tilting slipper pad, a unique feature of the Michell thrust bearing, was applied to the process of converting reciprocating motion to rotary motion, and a reciprocating double-ended piston drives the shaft through a tilted disc.
In 1920 A.G. Michell formed Crankless Engines Ltd and set up a workshop to design and develop various kinds of crankless machines. Michell hoped to have his engine used in cars. In 1923 an eight-cylinder crankless automobile engine was built for demonstration overseas and another was installed in a Buick chassis in Melbourne. Continuing improvements were made to the design and in 1927 a new model five-cylinder crankless engine was completed. However, although both Ford and General Motors agreed that the engine had a performance that was some ten per cent better than conventional car engines of the time, the cost of retooling and re-equipping plants for its manufacture was too great to warrant serious consideration of its adoption. The economic downturn of the late 1920s was a further discouragement and in 1928 Michell's Melbourne company closed down.
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"CSIRAC",107,"0","g","0"
\IDesigned and built by CSIR scientists, CSIRAC was the first stored-memory electronic computer in Australia.\i
In 1947 Marston Beard and Trevor Pearcey (a prominent British radar scientist who had emigrated to Australia after World War II) led a research group at the CSIR (after 1949 called \JCSIRO\j) Radiophysics Laboratory which designed and built CSIRAC, the world's fourth stored-memory electronic computer. The first program was run in 1949 and the machine came into full operation in 1949. It embodied many features novel at the time and was able to operate more than 1000 times faster than the best mechanical calculators.
However it was never developed commercially as neither government nor private industry expressed much interest, and after 1956 the project was dropped. CSIRAC remained in use until 1964.
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"CSIRO",108,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation\b
\IThe largest scientific research organisation in Australia, the \JCSIRO\j carries out research on behalf of the Commonwealth government.\i
The \JCSIRO\j is one of the largest scientific research organisations in the world. It carries out research of economic and social value to industry and the Australian community in all fields except defence, nuclear energy and clinical medicine. Its six broad areas of research are: information and communications technologies; industrial technologies for manufacturing, including materials research, chemicals and polymers and biotechnology; minerals and energy exploration technology, mining, processing and products and research for the construction industry; animal production, health and processing, human nutrition; crop production, protection and processing, forestry; the environment, with research covering the atmosphere, wildlife, oceans and land water.
The organisation has field stations and laboratories in all states and territories and a staff of more than 7,000 including some 2,500 scientists and engineers. It operates two national facilities, the multi-antenna Australia Telescope and the oceanographic research vessel RV \IFranklin.\i
The organisation began in 1926 as the CSIR-Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Its early work reflected Australia's great reliance on the rural sector, and concentrated first on agriculture, gradually expanding to include animal health and nutrition, soils, plant industry, fisheries, food preservation and transport, entomology and forest products. From 1936 the scope was broadened to include assistance to secondary industry. During World War II the organisation expanded its operations into radar, laying the foundations for its important work in the areas of radiophysics and radioastronomy. In 1949 the CSIR was reconstituted as the \JCSIRO\j. There has been a great increase in research directed towards manufacturing and in the areas of minerals and energy.
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"Cyanide Method of Gold Recovery",109,"a\10\1_0048.jpg","c","0"
\IRefinements in the cyanide method for extracting gold from gold-bearing ores were developed for Australian conditions.\i
The cyanide method of gold recovery was patented in Great Britain in the nineteenth century by J.S. MacArthur. Gold is dissolved from the crushed ore body by using sodium or potassium cyanide and zinc is added to precipitate metallic gold. This method proved unsuitable for the recalcitrant telluride ores found at \JKalgoorlie\j in Western Australia. In 1899 a variation on the cyanide method was successfully employed by Dr Ludwig Diehl, a German chemist who worked for the Hamburg Gold Recovery Company at \JKalgoorlie\j. He discovered that gold could be extracted from these ores by crushing it in a tube mill (based on the limestone mill used in cement making) and treating it with bromo-cyanide, instead of using the usual potassium cyanide method.
The most important recent variation of the cyanide process is the carbon-in-pulp (CIP) process. This enabled considerable expansion of Australian gold production in the 1980s. The standard method is to precipitate dissolved gold from a filtered, clarified solution using zinc dust or activated carbon. The CIP process eliminates the expensive and difficult filtration and clarification steps and is particularly useful in treating clayey deposits.
\BDescription:\b One of Australia's biggest gold nuggets \I(DFAT)\i
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"De Mole's Tank",110,"0","g","0"
\IA continuously tracked vehicle which pioneered the concept of the armoured tank.\i
The de Mole tank was never built. In design it was about eight metres long and moved on a continuous chain track. It was to be steered by screwing the tracks to one side or the other so that they formed a curve. The four bogies under the tank could move sideways to follow the curve of the chain, allowing the vehicle to turn in a radius of about twenty metres. The tank could cross a trench nearly four metres wide and had high clearance to reduce the risk of becoming bogged.
The tank was invented by Adelaide engineer Lance de Mole, who sent his designs to the British War Office in 1912. De Mole received a letter of rejection and his submission was pigeonholed. As World War I progressed it became obvious that a continuously tracked vehicle such as de Mole's was necessary to penetrate the trenches on the Western Front. De Mole's idea had been forgotten and although he resubmitted drawings in 1915, British inventors were instead called upon to design a suitable vehicle.
In 1916 a crude tank, which earned its inventors 15,000 pounds, went into action in France. A working model of the de Mole tank reached the War Office in 1917 and was unfortunately misplaced. Although the worth of his invention was eventually recognised as 'brilliant', de Mole's later claim for royalties was dismissed because there was no direct connection between his tank and the tanks which the British Army put into the field.
#
"Defender",111,"0","g","0"
Defender - See \JSnail and Slug Killer\j
#
"Defibrillator",112,"0","g","0"
Defibrillator - See \JPacemaker\j
#
"Dengue Fever",113,"f\2\mozzie.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Dengue Fever, Transmission by Mosquitoes Recognised\b
\IAn Australian research scientist was the first to show that mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of dengue fever.\i
Dengue fever is a viral disease of the tropics. It causes high fever, severe aching of the back, head and legs (hence its alternative name, breakbone fever), and in its second phase, a rash. It often occurs in epidemics. In 1905 it was established that transmission of the virus from one person to another was by mosquito. This followed research work by Queensland doctor and research scientist Thomas Lane Bancroft, which showed that the \IAedes aegypti\i mosquito was the carrier. As yet there is no vaccine against the disease and the only protection is the prevention of mosquito bites by the use of insect repellents and covering of the arms and legs. In 1920 the mosquito fish was introduced into Australia to eat mosquito larvae more and this has aided the control of both dengue fever and malaria.
\BDescription:\b Mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of dengue fever \I(Gum Tree Graphics)\i
#
"Dethridge Weir",114,"a\2\a2_0035.jpg","c","0"
\IWeir design developed in Australia; used in the River Murray.\i
The Dethridge weir consists of a series of steel frames mounted on wheels which move on rails embedded in a concrete sill which crosses the riverbed. In times of falling flow these steel frames are hauled into place and faced with timber panels to hold the upstream water pool at a sufficiently high level to allow water to continue to flow into the irrigation channels. In periods of flood the frames are pulled out of the river altogether.
This unique type of weir was developed by John Stewart Dethridge, at one time Commissioner of Victoria's State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. There are Dethridge weirs across the Murray River at Torrumbarry and Mildura.
\BDescription:\b The Murray River \I(Random House - photo by Ken Stepnell)\i
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"Dethridge Wheel",115,"f\3\2_0059.jpg","c","0"
\IA wheel which meters the volume of water delivered to farms through irrigation channels.\i
The Dethridge wheel is a small eight-vaned waterwheel which powers a geared revolution counter linked to the axle of the wheel. With each revolution of the wheel a known quantity of water passes under it. The wheels are set up to register how much water is delivered to individual farms from irrigation channels. A sluice gate near each wheel allows the farmer to control the rate of flow of water.
The wheel was developed in 1910 by John Stewart Dethridge. It is used throughout Australia and in many other countries including the United States, Israel and parts of Africa.
\BDescription:\b A rice field \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Dexion Shelving",116,"f\3\ware.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Dexion Slotted Angle; D Shelving\b
\ISlotted angle iron strips which can be joined at many angles and in many positions to provide shelving to fit any available space; much used for industrial storage racks.\i
Dexion is a type of bent angle iron with pre-drilled and pre-slotted holes and slots which enable it to be bolted together at many angles and in many positions, thus allowing great versatility in the construction of racks and shelving. Dexion shelving is adjustable, economical, reusable and easily transportable. It is extensively used for factory storage racks and for construction of laboratory apparatus.
Dexion was developed in the late 1930s by Greek-born Dimitris Comino, a migrant to Australia, while he was living in England after studying Engineering at London University. During World War II Dexion was in great demand for use in the rapid construction of storage racks in the myriad of new armament factories spawned by the war. It is now found in factories, scientific laboratories and homes around the world.
\BDescription:\b An example of Dexion shelving \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Diabetes, Vaccine Research",117,"0","g","0"
\IResearch in Melbourne may lead to a vaccine for diabetes.\i
Trials of a new vaccine that may eliminate the use of insulin injections for diabetes sufferers took place in Melbourne in 1991. Research by Professor Len Harrison and a scientific team from the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute revealed that insulin-producing cells in the pancreas are vulnerable to attack from cells called 'T-cells'. The cells were isolated and a vaccine developed.
#
"Division Bells",118,"f\3\fed6.jpg","c","0"
\IElectrical system of bells for calling members of parliament to a division.\i
The method of calling members of parliament by a system of electric bells fitted in all the rooms was devised by London-born Melbourne inventor John E. Edwards. The bells were activated by a combination switch on the Clerk of Assembly's table. In August 1866 Edwards installed his first system for the Victorian parliament. He later fitted similar systems of bells in other government buildings and in lunatic asylums. In 1877 Edwards set up his own company which made and sold telephones of his own design until 1885.
\BDescription:\b Members of Parliament \I(AUSPIC)\i
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"DRCS",119,"f\3\1_0090.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Digital Radio Concentrator System\b
\IA system which provides telecommunications to remote areas through a combination of concentrator techniques, digital radio and solar power.\i
The 'digital' part of the DRC system means that signals are sent as a series of on or off pulses rather than as a continuously varying signal. As such they are far more resistant to noise (in the form of unwanted signals). Signals can therefore be passed down a chain of repeater stations without degrading the quality of transmission by a build-up of background noise.
The system has small power requirements and the chain of radio repeater stations can operate on solar power. Each DRCS can carry up to 127 services and a typical installation consists of customer units linked by a series of repeater units to the exchange unit. The customer units include small solar-powered transmitting antennas directed at the nearest repeater unit. The repeater units, at spacings of 40 to 50 km, are towers with radio receiving and transmitting dishes on them; any one line has a maximum of thirteen repeaters, allowing up to 600 km between the subscriber and the exchange. The exchange unit is linked to the rest of Australia's telecommunications network by either a coaxial cable or a microwave link.
The DRC system was developed by Telecom's research laboratories. It was introduced in 1986 and will eventually service some three million kilometres. It provides a high quality service well in advance of that available elsewhere in the world where similar conditions apply. It has been marketed in China and the Middle East.
The name comes from D(igital) R(adio) C(oncentration) S(ystem).
\BDescription:\b DRCS provides telecommunications to remote areas \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Drip Safe",120,"0","g","0"
Drip Safe - See \JCoolgardie Safe\j
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"Dry Wheat Pickler",121,"f\3\1_0064.jpg","c","0"
\IA machine for treating wheat seed for protection against the fungous diseases of smut and bunt.\i
The dry wheat pickler is a machine for treating wheat seed for protection against smut and bunt by coating the seed with chemical dusts such as copper carbonate. A later development incorporated a mechanism for seed grading into a machine which could treat and grade one tonne of wheat an hour.
The dry wheat pickler was developed in 1923 by Alf Hannaford, a farmer from Riverton, South Australia. Before its advent seed was treated by being plunged into hot water, after which it was spread out to dry, or by chemical methods which involved mixing either copper sulphate or formalin solution in with the grain before sowing it. Both were strenuous manual tasks. Hannaford provided a partial solution in 1915 with his wet wheat pickler, which agitated wheat seed in a chemical solution. However, this method affected the germination capacity of the seed. This problem was overcome by the dry pickler which used the discovery made in 1915 that bunt could be controlled by copper carbonate.
During the Depression of the 1930s, Hannaford hired his machines to farmers who could not afford to buy them. So began a contract seed preparation business which still operates from the Hannaford works at Woodville, South Australia, where all types of seed can be treated.
(Smut is a fungous disease of cereals which converts the affected parts into a black powdery mass of fungus spores. Bunt, also called stinking smut, is a similar disease of wheat in which the kernels are replaced by black spores.)
\BDescription:\b A wheat field \I(DFAT)\i
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"Drystat",122,"0","g","0"
See \JSelf-supporting Membrane\j System for Treatment of Rising Damp
#
"Dung Beetle",123,"f\3\dung.jpg","c","0"
\IDung beetles were introduced into Australia from Africa to speed up the disintegration of cow manure which was fouling pastures.\i
In 1967 the \JCSIRO\j Division of Entomology began a major project to dispose of cow dung, in order to limit the growth of fly populations, by encouraging the spread of appropriate dung beetles throughout Australia. In the period 1968-78 some 55 species and 16 strains of dung beetle were brought to Australia, mainly from Africa. At least nine species are now established in northern Australia; other species are being investigated for temperate regions.
Cow dung fouls pastures, produces unpalatable forage, and also provides a breeding place for insect pests such as buffalo fly. As well, valuable plant nutrients are lost to the soil if the manure is not broken down. Native dung beetles can dispose of the small dry droppings of native animals, but cannot deal with cow dung. The imported beetle is a successful aid in the disintegration of cow manure. It forms dung balls which are rolled away and buried in a burrow. The female lays an egg in each ball of dung. When the larva hatches it consumes the ball from within.
The idea of using dung beetles to clear pastures of cow pads was proposed in 1951 by Hungarian-born entomologist George Bornemizza, who later joined the \JCSIRO\j.
\BDescription:\b The dung beetle \I(\JCSIRO\j Australia)\i
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"Dunlite",124,"0","g","0"
Dunlite - See \JWind-driven Electrical Generators\j
#
"Dynamic Lifter",125,"0","g","0"
\IFertiliser made from dried chicken manure; the manufacturing process is now used overseas.\i
This method of making fertiliser from chicken manure involves the use of two Australian-developed technologies. The first is a drinking system that prevents the birds wetting the pile of waste below them, ensuring a supply of dry manure for processing. The second is a method of compressing the waste into a pellet which, as it gradually breaks down, fertilises the soil.
The drinking system is installed by the Dynamic Lifter company in large battery-hen farms; every few weeks the manure is collected by contractors and delivered to the plant for processing.
Dynamic Lifter is the brainchild of Norman Jennings, of Sydney. In 1971, in tests conducted by the Department of Agriculture, a prototype of the product outperformed a chemical fertiliser, producing results up to 150 per cent better. The product came on to the market in the late 1970s. There are now five plants manufacturing Dynamic Lifter in Australia, and the technology has been licenced for use overseas, notably in the United States.
\IA special body suit which helps to control involuntary muscle spasms in children with cerebral palsy.\i
The dynamic proximal mobility splint is a complete body suit made of plastic splints and various grades of stretch Lycra sewn together to create specific lines of pull across the body. It fits tightly around the body, from ankle to neck to wrist, and firmly controls the involuntary muscle movements which prevent the performance of daily tasks by children with cerebral palsy. Wearers are better able to write legibly, handle crockery and more accurately reach electric wheelchair controls. The suit is worn all day but not at night. Benefits of the garment remain for up to two hours after it has been removed.
The body suit was developed in 1991 by occupational therapists at the Spastic Welfare Association of Western Australia's Sir David Brand Centre in Perth. It evolved from attempts to construct Lycra hand splints to help children with cerebral palsy control basic hand movements. It was discovered a shoulder girdle was necessary before good hand coordination could occur. The body suit - a world first - was the result.
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"Earth Leakage Protection",127,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Earth Leakage Protection Power Point
Also Bodyguard\b
\IAn electronic circuit built into the power switch which cuts power in the event of power leakage.\i
The Bodyguard power point has an inbuilt electronic circuit which switches off the power if there is a leakage of current. This effectively eliminates the risk of receiving an electric shock.
The earth leakage circuit breaker was developed in 1981 by the Adelaide-based company Gerard Industries and is marketed under the brand name Clipsal. A range made to British standards is exported to the United Kingdom. In 1984 the company won the Prince Philip Prize for Australian Design for the earth leakage circuit breaker.
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"Eccles, Sir John (Carew)",128,"0","g","0"
\INeurophysiologist who shared the Nobel prize for medicine for his work on the nervous system.\i
\JJohn Eccles\j was born in 1903 in Melbourne and was educated at Warrnambool and at the University of Melbourne; he studied at Oxford University as a Rhodes scholar. While working at Oxford University he carried out research into the chemical transmission of nerve impulses and discovered the chemical means by which impulses are communicated or repressed by nerve ends. This work has greatly advanced understanding of the working of the central nervous system. He has also investigated the part of the brain which controls posture and locomotion.
In 1963 Eccles shared the Nobel prize for physiology and medicine for this work. In the same year he was named Australian of the Year, and became the first overseas scholar to win the prestigious Cothenius Medal, Germany's highest award in natural science. In 1966 Eccles left Australia to continue his work in the United States.
Sir John Eccles died in Switzerland on 2 May 1997 at the age of 94.
#
"Echelon Shed",129,"0","g","0"
Echelon Shed - See \JHerringbone Dairy\j
#
"Electrical Measurement",130,"0","g","0"
Electrical Measurement - See \JCalculable Standard of Capacitance\j
#
"Electron Diffraction",131,"0","g","0"
\IA high resolution electron diffraction camera.\i
This instrument, believed to be the first of its type in the world, was built by CSIR (later called \JCSIRO\j) scientists John Cowley and Alec Moodie in 1949. In 1946 Cowley was an early exponent of electron diffraction to Australia, while a research student at the University of Adelaide. He used a Finch electron diffraction camera to study the surface of crystals used as radar diodes during World War II.
\IAn electronic ignition system for small engines.\i
An electronic ignition system for small engines such as those in lawnmowers, chainsaws and pumps was developed by John and B. Angelo Notarus. They manufacture the system and export more than 90 per cent of their product.
In 1976 the Notarus brothers, former banana growers from northern New South Wales, won the Invention of the Year award on the ABC's The Inventors for their silicon-chip ignition system.
\BDescription:\b Chainsaws use the electronic ignition system \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Encke's Comet",133,3_0057.jpg,g,0
\IObservations and predictions concerning this comet were made in New South Wales in the 1820s.\i
Encke's Comet was observed by Carl Rumker, assistant astronomer under New South Wales governor Sir \JThomas Brisbane\j, from the observatory at Parramatta, on the outskirts of Sydney, in 1822. He had predicted its return and for this and his observations Rumker received the Silver Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society of London in 1828. He also discovered three comets.
\IA protein which weakens wool fibre; used in Biological Wool Harvesting.\i
Epidermal Growth Factor is a protein which modifies the thickness of wool fibre. It is used as a means of biologically defleecing sheep in the biological wool harvesting process. EGF is a naturally occurring protein which can be manufactured by biotechnology. It was discovered by \JCSIRO\j scientists in 1980.
\BDescription:\b Sheep after being shorn \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
\BFull Name: Ergometer, Use in Selecting Champion Athletes\b
\IThe use of ergometers, machines which measure the work done by groups of muscles, was pioneered in Australia.\i
The ergometer is a device such as an exercise bicycle or rowing machine which measures the amount of work done by a group of muscles under conditions in which time, rate, or resistance are controlled. Performance on the machine can identify latent ability. Results from the ergometer also show what training would most benefit the athlete and are used in devising individual training programs.
The first ergometers, built in 1946 by Frank Cotton, were no more than stationary bicycles and rowing boats with adjustable tensions.
\BDescription:\b Ergometers are used to select champion athletes \I(DFAT)\i
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"Eucalyptus Oil",136,"f\2\a4_0044.jpg","c","0"
\IOils distilled from certain species of Australian eucalypt are used in medicine as a germicide and as an expectorant.\i
Eucalyptus oil is classed as an essential oil, meaning that it retains the smell of the plant tissue from which it is distilled and it is volatile or quick to change into vapour. Extraction of eucalyptus oil began in 1854, based upon the investigations of pharmacist Joseph Bosisto and was encouraged by fellow pharmacist and botanist Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, at that time government botanist in Victoria.
Initially the eucalyptus oils with greatest commercial use were those rich in the terpene ether cineole. These oils were and still are used for medicinal purposes and are distilled mainly from the blue mallee \I(Eucalyptus polybractea).\i Also extracted are oils rich in piperitone and phellandrene which are used mainly for industrial purposes, for example in disinfectants and soaps. These latter oils were also found to be suitable for use in a method of flotation separation of metallic sulphides developed by H. Lavers at \JBroken Hill\j in 1910. Other oils, such as those from the lemon-scented gum, are used in perfumery.
Eucalyptus oil is extracted by the process of steam distillation. Leaves are placed in a vessel fitted with a lid and an outlet pipe connected to a water-cooled condenser. The leaves are boiled, then the steam, enriched with oil vapour, is passed through the water-cooled condenser. When the steam condenses, the oil floats to the top where it can be skimmed off. One tonne of leaves yield only eight litres of oil. Most producers are part-time and small-scale and production methods have varied little in the 140 years or so of the existence of the industry. Production peaked at about 1000 tonnes in 1947 but by 1980 had fallen to 200 tonnes.
Large quantities of eucalyptus oil are imported from Spain, Portugal, South Africa and China - where the Tasmanian blue gum \I(E. globulus),\i another good source, has long been naturalised - for re-export from Australia. This is especially ironical as eucalyptus oil was the first Australian product to be exported when First Fleet surgeon general White despatched a phial to England.
\BDescription:\b Eucalyptus oil has many uses \I(Carrie Webster)\i.
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"Exercise Bike",137,"0","g","0"
Exercise Bike - See \JRepco Exercise Bike\j
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"Exploding Bullet",138,"f\3\1910sa.jpg","c","0"
\IA bullet designed to explode on contact and discharge shot over several metres.\i
The exploding bullet was far more deadly than a conventional bullet. The lead case of the bullet contained chemicals which, when the bullet was fired, were spun about so violently that they caused the case to explode on the slightest contact. Such a bullet removed the need for accuracy as a bullet in the arm would kill as surely as one through the heart. A single bullet was capable of killing ten men.
The exploding bullet was devised by John Pomeroy in 1902. Two years later it was tested by New Zealand army experts, who found it effective but, although enthusiastic about its potential, did not adopt it. Pomeroy took his invention to Britain, where it was eventually used against German Zeppelins during World War I. Pomeroy received 25,000 pounds in royalties.
\BDescription:\b Australia and New Zealanders at bomb factory, Anzac \I(Australian \JWar Memorial\j negative no. A883)\i
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"Ezekiel Wheel",139,"f\3\a4_0092.jpg","c","0"
\IA wheel with inbuilt rollers to allow sideways movement.\i
The Ezekiel wheel is able to move forwards, sideways and backwards without turning. This is achieved by a series of small rollers set at right angles around the rim of the wheel which allow sideways movement. The wheel also operates in a conventional manner, rotating around an axle for forward and backward movement. It is made of hard plastic and is suited for use on shopping trolleys, strollers, wheelchairs and skateboards. The wheel also has potential for use on the back end of semitrailers which have difficulty negotiating tight corners.
It was invented by Sydney engineer Harry Guile, whose company, the Ezekiel Wheel Company, began commercial production of it in 1991. The first wheels were used on supermarket trolleys.
The wheel is named after the prophet Ezekiel, who in the Old Testament is recorded as seeing chariots which 'went in any of their four directions, without turning as they went'.
\BDescription:\b The Ezekiel Wheel is used on supermarket trolleys \I(Webster Publishing)\i
\IAn instrument which combines the programming and memory features of a microprocessor with the sound possibilities of a synthesiser.\i
The Fairlight Computer Musical Instrument (CMI) consists of computer keyboard, a video graphic display monitor, a 'lightpen' with which notes and music can be drawn onto the monitor screen and a musical keyboard which can be used to play melodies into the Fairlight. The first Fairlight CMI was designed as a tool with which sounds from various sources could be sampled and then played musically. It can synthesise totally new kinds of sounds, blend natural and synthesised sounds, or create new composite sounds. The CMI digitises the sound and stores it in memory. Sounds are represented graphically on the monitor screen as waveforms, and can be altered, or entirely new sounds created, by using the 'lightpen'.
A composition can be entered onto the CMI by playing it in on the musical keyboard. The system allows 'real-time composition' - meaning that the operator can listen to music that has just been written. Whole blocks of music can be moved, transposed, changed in tempo, or copied. The Fairlight can play complete musical compositions itself, or can play part in conjunction with a live performance.
Film composers and sound editors use the Fairlight CMI for soundtracks in film; musicians use it to create an entire orchestra; it has been used to write operas and ballets and many well known artists of popular music use the system.
The first Fairlight was made by Peter Vogel and Kim Ryrie in the mid 1970s. They called it Fairlight after a Sydney Harbour ferry of the same name. The system is exported around the world.
\BDescription:\b Musicians use the Fairlight Computer to create entire orchestras \I(DFAT)\i.
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"Falkiner Harvester",141,"f\3\2_0079.jpg","c","0"
\IMachine for harvesting straight, upright sugarcane.\i
The Falkiner Harvester is a long narrow machine with cutters in a 'V'shaped opening near ground level. It cuts the cane at the thick end. The stalks are then transported, head first, up a system of rollers to a pair of knives which remove the leafy tops. A powerful blast of air separates each stick of cane from the leaves and trash. The cane sticks are then dropped into a bin at the side of the harvester, stacking horizontally.
The harvester, based on a machine built by a Bundaberg sugar farmer called Hurrey, was developed by R.S. Falkiner. Although efficient in straight, upright cane, Falkiner's harvester was unable to cope effectively with the heavy, tangled cane of the Queensland fields. However, it came to be widely used in Cuba and the southern United States.
\BDescription:\b Sugarcane fields \I(DFAT)\i
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"Farrer, William James",142,"f\3\1_0058.jpg","c","0"
(1845-1906)
\IPioneer of scientific cross-breeding of wheat; developed Federation wheat variety.\i
Farrer was born in England, the son of a small landowner. He graduated from Cambridge with first class honours in mathematics and, in poor health, came to Australia in 1870 intending to become a sheep farmer. Instead in 1875 he became a licenced surveyor in the New South Wales Department of Lands. Farrer began wheat-breeding experiments in 1885 while still working as a surveyor. In the following year he took over management of 'Lambrigg', a small farm near Queanbeyan, New South Wales, where, in 1889, after accumulating a range of wheat seed from around the world, he began a wheat-breeding program.
As a Darwinian, Farrer accepted the mechanism of natural or artificial selection in perpetuating better adapted mutant forms. He believed that carefully controlled cross-breeding from chosen parent stock could produce varieties of wheat that met specific criteria. Farrer's particular quest was to develop a high yield, high quality, drought and rust resistant wheat which would allow wheat growing in Australia to extend into drier inland areas. The result was Federation wheat.
In 1898 Farrer was appointed wheat experimentalist to the Department of Agriculture in New South Wales. He developed many wheat varieties, among them Comeback, \JCanberra\j, Florence and Rymer, as well as Bobs, a cross between wheat and barley.
\IA diesel-hydraulic luffing crane used in high-rise construction around the world.\i
The Favelle Favco crane is used on very tall high-rise buildings. It is self-supporting and, because extra units can be added sequentially to increase its height, is virtually self-erecting, unlike the previously used stiff-legged derrick cranes which needed smaller derrick cranes to erect larger cranes as the building rose.
The Favelle Favco is powered by diesel-hydraulic winches which enable it to operate without an external power supply, thereby giving it a greater capability than electric or electric-hydraulic cranes. It is a luffing crane, which means it has a jib whose angle, and hence its radius of lifting, can be altered. Thus it is extremely versatile and can be configured for a broad range of load and radius requirements. All Favelle Favco cranes have load-sensing hydraulics and an onboard computer safe-load system. The hoist speed adjusts automatically to the load on the hook. The introduction of the Favelle Favco crane made possible the economic construction of concrete high-rise buildings.
In Australia the cranes are used almost exclusively. Australian made cranes are also in use in the United States - where they were used to build the World Trade Centre - in the United Kingdom, and in countries on the Pacific rim, including Singapore and Taiwan.
The cranes have been adapted for use on off-shore oil rigs, and in this form are in use all around the world - on rigs in the North Sea, Bass Strait and the North-West Shelf and off Brazil, Africa and Asia. Favelle Favco also manufacture derrick cranes, ship deck cranes, wharf cranes, building maintenance cranes, winches and specialised lifting equipment.
The Favelle Favco crane was developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s and patented in 1964. It has evolved continuously since then. It was devised by Eric Hastings Favelle, a Sydney steel fabricator, after he had been refused a licence to build a crane to an overseas design because it did not meet local regulations.
\BDescription:\b Cranes are used in construction worldwide \I(Carrie Webster)\i.
#
"Feature Film",144,"f\3\p51c.jpg","c","0"
\IThe first feature length film in the world was made in Australia.\i
The world's first feature length film, \IThe Story of the Kelly Gang,\i was made in Australia and had its first screening in Melbourne in December 1906. It ran for more than an hour at a time when few films elsewhere in the world ran for more than ten minutes. Australia led the world in full length feature film production - by 1911, when such films began to be produced in other countries, some sixteen had already been produced in Australia.
\IThe Story of the Kelly Gang\i was produced by Dan Barry, directed by Charles Tait and was based on the life of bushranger Ned Kelly. It broke even in its first week of screening, was later released in England, and eventually grossed its backers some 25,000 pounds.
\BDescription:\b A scene from \IThe Story of the Kelly Gang (Courtesy NFSA)\i
#
"Fecundin",145,"0","g","0"
Fecundin - See \JVaccine to Increase Lambing\j
#
"Federation Wheat",146,"a\9\2_0060.jpg","c","0"
\IA high quality, drought and rust-resistant wheat variety developed for Australian conditions.\i
Federation wheat is a cross between Purple Straw, the highest yielding wheat variety in Australia in the 1880s, Fife, a hard Canadian wheat with good bread-making quality, Etawah, an early maturing rust-free wheat from India, and Yandilla, a wheat which gave the new variety short straw and upright ears, making it especially suitable for stripper harvesting.
Wheat varieties sown in Australia in the nineteenth century were predominantly those common in England and Scotland. They were late-maturing wheats and grew well in high rainfall areas, but were subject to stem rust diseases. Early-maturing varieties, although not subject to rust, found little favour with farmers because of their low yield. Federation wheat was developed by \JWilliam Farrer\j in response to these problems.
Federation wheat was named in 1901, became available in 1903, and by the 1919-20 season comprised some 80 per cent of the Australian harvest.
\BDescription:\b A wheat field \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Fibre-steel Reinforced Concrete",147,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Fibrecrete\b
\IReinforcement in the form of small steel fibres added to concrete used in the construction of swimming pools reduces installation time.\i
Concrete for use in the construction of inground swimming pools is strengthened with millions of small steel fibres. These fibres have enlarged ends and are similar in appearance to double-ended pins. The inclusion of steel fibres in the concrete mix replaces the conventional method of pool wall reinforcement, which involves the placing of a steel frame consisting of a mesh of steel bars in the excavation before the concrete is applied. The steel fibre reinforced concrete is sprayed directly into the excavated shape of the pool. Installation is quicker and the finished structure is claimed to be more durable and just as strong as pools built in the conventional way.
The method of producing fibre-steel reinforced concrete was developed in 1971 by BHP engineer Winston Marsden, who devised 'Fibresteel', the small steel fibres. These were mixed with concrete, and the resulting steel reinforced concrete was marketed as 'Fibrecrete'. Since 1981 more than 2,000 pools throughout Australia and New Zealand have been built with the product. Other uses have been in the construction of large transportable water tanks, for tunnel linings in the mining industry and for heavy duty workshop floors.
The Fibrecrete process has been patented in 38 countries, including the United States, Britain, Germany and Japan. Fibresteel technology has been licensed to Norway, centre of a large European market for fibre reinforced concrete.
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"Filariasis, Cause Recognised",148,"f\2\mozzie.jpg","c","0"
\IFilarial nematodes were first recognised as the cause of filariasis by the Brisbane doctor and research scientist Joseph Bancroft.\i
Filariasis, also called elephantiasis, is a disease of the tropics. It is caused by microscopic filarial nematodes or roundworms and is spread when the filarial embryos are sucked up with blood when a mosquito bites an infected person. These are injected into the bloodstream of the mosquito's next victim. The disease results in enlargement of limbs. This is because waste products cannot be carried away as the lymphatic system has been damaged by the infecting animal.
Filarial nematodes were identified as the cause of the disease by Brisbane doctor and research scientist Joseph Bancroft who in 1876 discovered the adult female of the worm, since named \IFilaria bancrofti.\i
\BDescription:\b Mosquitoes can spread filariasis \I(Gum Tree Graphics)\i
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"Flame Ionisation Detector",149,"0","g","0"
\BAlso FID\b
\IAn instrument which can detect minute quantities of organic gases; an important monitor in pollution control.\i
The flame ionisation detector is based on the discovery that the electrical conductivity of a flame burning in a mixture of hydrogen, nitrogen and air is very sensitive to the presence of organic substances. The FID consists of a metal jet, to which a strong voltage can be applied, and a resistor. When the jet is fed by a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen very few ions are formed in the flame and the electrical current generated in the circuit is very small. However, when the gas mixture contains organic compounds, these ionise in the flame and cause a large increase in current. The voltage produced when the current passes through the resistor can be measured and applied to a pen recorder.
The detector had immediate application in the field of gas chromatography. This is a method for separating a mixture of organic compounds into their constituents. The FID is very fast, very sensitive and gives an essentially linear response over a very wide range of sample concentrations.
The flame ionisation detector was invented by Ian McWilliam in 1957 and developed by McWilliam and Ray Dewar at the Central Research Laboratories of ICI (Australia) in Melbourne. Since 1962 the detector has been produced under licence by some forty overseas manufacturers. The instrument has wide application, including the measurement of atmospheric pollutants, such as hydrocarbons in car exhaust fumes, and in urine testing for anabolic steroids. Its introduction as a detector increased the sensitivity of detection by a factor of about 10,000.
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"Flight Recorder",150,"0","g","0"
Flight Recorder - See \JBlack Box Flight Memory Recorder\j
#
"Florey, Sir Howard Walter",151,"0","g","0"
\I(Baron Florey of Adelaide and Marston)
Australian scientist and Nobel Prize winner; co-discoverer of penicillin.\i
\JHoward Florey\j was born in Adelaide and studied at the University of Adelaide, and as a Rhodes scholar at Oxford University. It was while working in bacteriology at Cambridge that he first learned of Alexander Fleming's work on the antibacterial properties of the mould he had accidentally discovered in 1928. In 1935 Florey returned to Oxford as Head of the School of Pathology and there led a team of bacteriologists and biochemists in the search for a substance which would destroy deep-seated bacterial infection. The team, which included German-born Ernst Boris Chain, successfully extracted and refined Penicillin. Florey went to the United States in 1941 to organise manufacture of the drug in quantities large enough to aid casualties of World War II.
Florey was knighted in 1944 and appointed a life peer in 1965. In 1960 he became the first Australian president of the Royal Society. He was adviser to the \JJohn Curtin\j School of Medical Research in \JCanberra\j from 1947 to 1957. In 1945 Florey, Fleming and Chain shared the Nobel prize for physiology and medicine for their work in developing penicillin.
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"Flotation Method of Ore Separation",152,"f\3\smh15.jpg","c","0"
\IA method for separating ore from rock crushing by using bubbles to float the ore to the surface.\i
The flotation process has been described as one of the most significant advances in metallurgy in the last thousand years. Acid, salt or other chemicals are added to a vat of water containing ore-rich crushed rock. This causes frothing (which can be increased by agitating the mixture) and the resulting bubbles can lift grains of ore to the surface. The method was developed in 1903 for recovering zinc concentrates from tailings at \JBroken Hill\j and is now used for the selective concentration of minerals wherever they are mined. The need for more efficient mineral extraction methods had become a pressing problem by the late nineteenth century.
However Charles Potter, a Melbourne brewer, realised that the surface tension properties of bubbles could be exploited for lifting the mineral sulfides to the surface in much the same way as beer sediments were lifted to the frothing surface of the brewing vat. He took out the first patent for a frothing system in which the bubbles were generated by sulfuric acid in 1901 and by 1903 a small flotation plant had been established at \JBroken Hill\j. This achieved up to 60 per cent recovery of zinc. Another brewer, Auguste de Bavay, is credited with contributing to the development of the process. At about the same time Guillaume Delprat, BHP's general manager at \JBroken Hill\j, developed a similar froth flotation method based on salt. Potter sued BHP for violating his patent but lost the case after four years litigation.
Ultimately BHP adopted the acid method, which became known as the Potter-Delprat process. Between 1902 and 1915 at least 40 individuals in eleven companies, mainly in \JBroken Hill\j and Melbourne, contributed to the development and refinement of the flotation process. The most significant contributions included the 1905 discovery that bubbles could be made by agitating the water with paddles, instead of using acid, and the discovery that adding chemicals to the mixture enabled minerals to be floated selectively. This discovery was made, independently, by F.J. Lyster of the Zinc Corporation Ltd, T.M. Owen of the Junction North Mine and Leslie Bradford of BHP. By 1911 \JBroken Hill\j had used the flotation process to recover minerals from about 8 million tonnes of crushed rock and was one of the world's major suppliers of zinc concentrates.
\BDescription:\b An old photo of \JBroken Hill\j Mines \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
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"Flying Doctor Service",153,"0","g","0"
Flying Doctor Service - See \JRoyal Flying Doctor Service\j
\IClergyman and missionary who founded the Royal Flying Doctor Service.\i
\JJohn Flynn\j was born at Moliagul in central Victoria. He graduated in theology and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1911. He was particularly conscious of the needs of the people in the sparsely populated areas of outback Queensland and the Northern Territory and in 1912 founded the Australian Inland Mission (AIM). He was instrumental in enlisting a number of patrol padres to minister to the people of the remote interior and also in the establishment of strategically placed welfare centres and nursing homes.
Flynn believed that the problems of outback isolation, and especially the lack of access of farflung communities to medical services, could only be solved by air transport and his dream was to establish a flying doctor service. Advances made in aviation during World War I and the invention, at Flynn's instigation, of the Pedal Wireless by Adelaide engineer Alfred Traeger, led to the realisation of this dream. The service began operating out of Cloncurry in Queensland in May 1928. Similar services have since been set up outside Australia.
Flynn was appointed OBE in 1933. He was Moderator-General of the Presbyterian Church of Australia from 1939 to 1942. A granite monument marks his gravesite at Mount Gillan, near \JAlice Springs\j.
\BDescription:\b First RFDS planes \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
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"Fowler Method",155,"0","g","0"
Fowler Method - \BAlso Tilt-up Slab
See Concrete Building Panel\b
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"Frozen Embryo Transfer in Sheep",156,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Frozen Embryo Transfer in Sheep and Cattle\b
\ITechnique now used in human in-vitro fertilisation pioneered in sheep and cattle.\i
The technique of freezing embryos was developed by Neil Moore, of the Department of Animal Husbandry, University of Sydney. In 1960 he carried out the first embryo transfers, in sheep. In 1976 he froze cattle embryos for export.
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"Frozen Embryos",157,"0","g","0"
Frozen Embryos - See \JIn-vitro Fertilisation\j
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"Fruit Dehydration, Mechanised",158,"0","g","0"
\IA method of preserving fruit by mechanical dehydration; pioneered in Tasmania.\i
This method of preservation involved slicing the fruit and spreading it on trays suspended horizontally from a shaft. The trays were slowly rotated in a chamber heated by a rising current of hot air to dehydrate the fruit.
This machine, the Climax Fruit Evaporator, was developed in 1886 by A.F. Spawn to process excess apples in southern Tasmania. A world first, it was the beginning of mechanical dehydration.
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"Funnel Web Spider Antivenene",159,"d\1\spid1.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Funnel-web Spider Bite Antivenene\b
\IAn effective antivenene to the bite of the funnel-web spider was developed by Commonwealth Serum Laboratories.\i
The Sydney funnel-web, \IAtrax robustus,\i is found from the north of Sydney to the north-east of Victoria. It is the deadliest of all Australian spiders, with a number of human deaths recorded from its bite. The venom of the male is more toxic than that of the female.
An antivenene to the bite of the funnel-web was developed by the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories in Melbourne following much research into the nature of the \IAtrax\i venom. A team led by Dr Struan Sutherland isolated the main toxin from its other components and was then able to produce an antivenene which became available in 1981. It is effective only if administered to the victims soon after they have been bitten.
\BDescription:\b A female funnel-web spider \I(Australian Museum)\i
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"Gas Fuse For Bottled Gas",160,"0","g","0"
Gas Fuse For Bottled Gas - See \JSafety Fuse For Bottled Gas\j
\IA way of preventing harmful and unwanted genes in plants and animals from doing their work.\i
Gene shears is the name given to molecules (ribozymes) which can intervene in the activities of a single cell to target and destroy a specific RNA, thereby preventing a harmful or undesirable gene from carrying out its work. They can also be used on viruses, which behave like genes. Ribozymes can be developed to defend plants, animals and bacteria against virus attack by targeting and destroying a virus before it can multiply. The potential impact on agricultural, veterinary and medical science is enormous - genetic diseases and viral infections can be controlled, new strains of plants can be developed, disease resistance can be built into existing varieties, and it may even be possible to control gender in animals.
The gene shears discovery was made in 1987 by Wayne Gerlach and Jim Haseloff of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Plant Industry. In July 1989 the \JCSIRO\j and the French seed company Groupe Limagrain formed Gene Shears Pty Ltd to apply the discovery and to conduct further research.
\BViddescription:\b CSIRO research on 'gene shears' (CSIRO Australia)
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"German Measles",162,"0","g","0"
Full Name: German Measles, Link with Birth Deformities Recognised - See \JRubella\j, Link with Birth Deformities Recognised
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"Granny Smith Apple",163,"f\3\a4_0019.jpg","c","0"
\IA cooking apple developed by chance by a Sydney woman.\i
The \JGranny Smith\j apple is a green skinned apple with sweet, crisp, juicy flesh which is used for cooking but can also be eaten uncooked. \JGranny Smith\j apple trees bear prolific crops and are now grown throughout the world.
In 1868 Maria Ann Smith cultivated a seedling apple which was the fortuitous result of a chance scattering of seeds. Smith lived at Eastwood, then a rural area on the outskirts of Sydney, where she had an orchard from which she sold fruit. There are two versions of how the apple evolved. One, attributed to Smith's grandson, is that she was given some green apples known as Tasmanian French Crabs by a fruit agent at the Sydney fruit markets to try out as cooking apples. The skins and cores from these apples were thrown onto a flowerbed and a seedling which grew from them developed into the tree which bore the first \JGranny Smith\j apples. An earlier version of the story, discounted by her grandson, is that the first trees grew from a box of rotting Tasmanian apples which Smith tipped out near a creek which ran through the property.
Initially Smith sold the fruit, which became known as \JGranny Smith\j's apples, directly from her home. Further specimens were later cultivated by her sons-in-law, and there were small-scale plantings in the Parramatta district in the early 1890s. In 1895 the government experimental station at Bathurst began planting the apple on a large scale. The \JGranny Smith\j apple has been grown commercially since 1912.
\BDescription:\b The \JGranny Smith\j apple \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Gravity Gradiometer",164,"0","g","0"
\IA precision instrument for measuring variations in gravity.\i
A quartz thread torsion balance was developed for use as a gravity meter by Sir Richard Threlfall and J.A. Pollock at the University of Sydney, where Threlfall was appointed professor of physics in 1866. The meter was used to make gravity measurements in a wide range of eastern Australian localities.
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"Gregg, Sir Norman McAlister",165,"0","g","0"
(1892-1966)
\ISydney ophthalmologist who made the important link between rubella in early pregnancy and birth defects.\i
\JNorman Gregg\j was born in Sydney and graduated from the University of Sydney. By 1930 he was president of the Ophthalmological Society of New South Wales. His discovery, published in 1939, that rubella contracted by a woman early in her pregnancy could cause serious defects in her child was of enormous significance because it recognised for the first time the possible grave effect on the unborn child of infection and other 'noxious influences' during pregnancy.
In 1951 the University of Toronto awarded Gregg the Charles Mickle Fellowship, given once a decade for an outstanding contribution of a practical kind in medical art or science. He was knighted in 1953, and in 1964, along with Dr Kate Campbell (See Blindess In Premature Babies, Link With Intensive Oxygen Therapy), received the first Britannica Australia Award for work in the field of unborn and premature babies.
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"Growth Hormone",166,"0","g","0"
\IThe discovery of the molecular structure of the receptor for growth hormone was made by an Australian.\i
In 1988 Dr Michael Waters of the Department of Biochemistry at the University of Queensland discovered the structure of the human growth hormone receptor and produced monoclonal antibodies to it. The discovery, which has potential uses in medicine and animal production, has been developed by Genetech (California).
\IAeronautical engineer whose experimental work with kites and models played a vital part in the development of heavier-than-air flight.\i
\JLawrence Hargrave\j was born and educated in England. In 1865 he joined his family in Sydney, where his father was a prominent judge. At the age of twenty he devised a method of walking on water using long boat-shaped boots with hinged flaps beneath to reduce backwards movement. In 1872 he joined an expedition to the Fly River, New Guinea, and later worked at the Sydney Observatory. By 1883 gifts of land from his father had made him sufficiently financially independent to be able to devote his life to private scientific experiments and he turned his full-time attention to the problems of heavier-than-air flight.
Hargrave at first tried to replicate the flapping motion of the wings of a bird in his model flying machines and in 1884 achieved free flight with a model ornithopter powered by two flappers driven by stretched rubber bands. A later rubber band powered model flew 35.5 metres. In his work on developing an efficient engine for flying machines he experimented with petrol vapour, steam, carbonic acid, petrol and kerosene. He was the first in the world to look at the use of lighter fuels to offset the problem of weight. His other achievements in the field of aeronautics include: a design for an airship driven by an airscrew turned by hand through a system of geared pulleys; box kite designs; the first propeller-driven flying machine model (1888); a radial rotary engine (1889); the first full-size monoplane glider; a design for a turbo jet engine and a model of a pure jet engine which he could not get to work; and designs for a powered aeroplane on floats. His total output numbered some 70 models of flying machines, 91 box kites and gliders, and more than 50 engine designs of which more than 30 were built.
Working in isolation away from the main centres of technology and in the face of the scepticism of his fellow citizens ('The people of Sydney who can speak of my work without a smile are very scarce,' he wrote in 1892), Hargrave devoted his life to the painstaking research and experimentation which laid the groundwork for the development of powered flight. He believed in the free flow of scientific information and therefore declined to patent any of his inventions, many of which, such as the box kite and the radial rotary engine, were immediately picked up overseas.
\INewspaper proprietor and inventor; pioneer of refrigeration.\i
\JJames Harrison\j, the son of a salmon fisherman, was born in Renton on Loch Leven in Scotland. He arrived in Australia in 1837 and by 1842 had obtained sole control of the \IGeelong Advertiser.\i He became interested in refrigeration by chance after noticing that ether used to clean metal type had a cooling effect when it evaporated (evaporation is in fact expansion). Between 1852 and 1857 he conducted a series of experiments in a small cave near Geelong where he eventually produced the world's first artificial ice.
Harrison was soon able to turn out three tonnes of ice a day and in 1857 patented his machine. He continued to refine his ice-making equipment and in 1873 was awarded a gold medal at the Melbourne Exhibition for his method of preserving foodstuffs by freezing. In the same year he invested in a consignment of meat which he froze and sent to England in a specially constructed refrigerated compartment on board the \INorfolk.\i
Unfortunately problems with the maintenance and operation of the equipment resulted in the meat thawing and spoiling. Harrison was bankrupted by the loss. His refrigeration method was perfected by others, notably \JEugene Nicolle\j in association with Thomas Sutcliffe Mort. The first shipment of frozen meat and butter from Sydney reached London in 1880.
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"Header Harvester",169,"0","g","0"
\IA harvesting machine able to handle heavy and tangled crops, thus allowing a greater percentage of the grain to be gathered.\i
The projecting comb at the front of the header harvester incorporates a cutter bar which cuts the heads from a standing crop instead of beating them off, as the stripper harvester does. Two spiral screws run the full length of the comb. Together they form a conveyor which quickly and gently gathers the heads as soon as they are cut and carries them to an elevator which lifts them to the thresher. This is a rasp type threshing drum in which the head is broken up; a series of vibrating screens sieve the grain from the chaff. The grain is collected in a container below the screens. The straw and chaff are blown out at the rear of the machine.
The header harvester was developed by \JHeadlie Shipard Taylor\j. His first machine failed, but his second version, tested successfully on the 1912-13 harvest, was able to recover grain from a section of heavy and tangled crop which would have been lost by other harvesting methods. Taylor took out patents, and continued to refine his machine. In 1915, following the exhibition of his third machine at the Henty Show in New South Wales, Taylor attracted sufficient financial backing to build five machines for the 1915-16 harvest. Only three were ready in time. Taylor sold them at a fraction of their cost, shrewdly calculating the publicity value of this move. He was ready to sell his patent rights to an established agricultural manufacturer, preferably Australian, so that the machines could go into large-scale production.
Farmers and manufacturers gathered to watch the machine in action, among them H.V. McKay, the leading manufacturer of agricultural machinery in Australia, who at Taylor's invitation attended a field trial. McKay was immediately convinced of the future of the invention and bought the rights. The machine went into production in the following year, initially marketed as the Taylor Header. Its value was proved beyond doubt in 1920-21 when it was used to harvest the storm-flattened New South Wales crop. More than one thousand of the machines, which were now called the Sunshine Header Harvester, were fitted with a specially designed 'Headlie crop lifter' (a set of wooden fingers to lift the crop onto the comb) and rushed to the fields. They were outstandingly successful in salvaging the crop.
Taylor also produced the first auto header - a motorised harvester - which was released in 1924. The idea of a fully self-propelled machine found quick acceptance in the United States, and Australia led the world in its production. Australian farmers, however, preferred to use power drive from the farm tractor.
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"Henshaw, David",170,"0","g","0"
Henshaw, David - See \JSelf-twist Spinning Machine\j
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"Herringbone Dairy",171,"0","g","0"
\IA milking shed which allows ease of access to the cows' udders for milking.\i
The herringbone dairy is a milking shed arranged in a herringbone pattern with cows standing obliquely on either side of a sunken central passage. The milker works between the two rows of cows, whose rear ends are angled to make the udders quickly and easily accessible for milking. The design of the shed is based on the 'echelon stall', patented by W. L. Boyce in 1910. In this system cows stood side by side on two slightly raised platforms separated by a metre-wide passage in which the milker worked.
The herringbone dairy system is now used throughout the world.
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"Hills Hoist",172,"0","g","0"
Hills Hoist - See \JRotary Clothes Hoist\j
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"Howard, (Arthur) Cliff",173,"0","g","0"
(1896-1971)
\IInventor of the rotary hoe and founder of an international agricultural equipment manufacturing company.\i
Howard was born at Crookwell in south-eastern New South Wales. His family later moved north-west to a farm at Gilgandra where, as a sixteen-year-old engineering apprentice, Howard first thought of the idea of a rotary hoe to replace the traditional method of ploughing. He realised that much of the power of a tractor was used just to press on the ground hard enough to take the strain of pulling a plough behind it.
With a friend Everard McCleary, Howard formed a company to make rotary hoes. There was little interest in and no market for their first version, a small machine powered by a motorcycle engine. They set about designing a larger machine which could be used by wheat farmers in combination with a seed drill.
The outbreak of war delayed the project. McCleary was killed in World War I; Howard returned to Australia in 1919, and with the help of his family built the prototype of the present rotary hoe. When demonstrated in the district it received a favourable response from farmers. In 1921 he raised sufficient finance from his friends to form a company to produce the machines. The company first operated from Moss Vale and later moved to Sydney. It prospered as orders poured in. In 1927 the company began producing Howard DH 22 tractors designed to work with the rotary hoe, the first large-scale production of entirely Australian built tractors.
Cliff Howard was awarded the Order of the British Empire in 1970.
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"Hume Pipe",174,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Humespun pipe\b
\ISpun concrete pipes are made by a centrifugal process developed in Australia and now used around the world.\i
The spun concrete pipe is made by a process in which centrifugal force is used to spread a wet concrete mixture over the inner surface of a horizontal mould. There is no inner mould. Concrete is fed into the slowly revolving mould in which wire reinforcement is already in place. The mould is then spun at high speed, squeezing out surplus water and evenly spreading compacted concrete over the inner surface. This results in pipe walls of high density concrete, giving them improved strength and durability. The moulds are greased to facilitate the clean removal of the pipes.
The first pipes were straight tubes of concrete about 1.8 m in length. They lacked the required strength and so wire reinforcement was incorporated into the concrete during spinning. Further developments were the addition of a collar unit on one end of each pipe, and the introduction of steam curing.
Pipes produced by Hume's spun concrete process (Humespun) had many advantages over previously used pipes. They were extremely dense and so were able to withstand greater pressure, and were non-porous because the centrifugal process expelled all water from the concrete.
The use of the spun concrete process, patented in 1910, spread rapidly throughout the world. By the early 1920s the process was licensed for use in the United States, Japan, Germany, England, South Africa, India and New Zealand. In Australia the use of Humespun pipes was greatly increased in the years following World War I by the soldier settlement scheme, which required vast irrigation systems for which the spun concrete pipe was especially suitable.
The process is also used in the manufacture of a wide range of hollow concrete products, including gas mains, sewer pipes, irrigation pipes, fencing posts, concrete bridge units, building columns, telegraph poles, septic tanks, silos and factory chimneys.
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"Hume, Walter Reginald",175,"0","g","0"
(1874-1943)
\IInventor, known particularly for the centrifugal process of concrete pipe manufacture now used around the world.\i
Walter Hume was born in Fitzroy, Victoria. He was apprenticed as a plasterer at the age of twelve. In 1892 he formed a partnership with his brother, Ernest Hume, a carpenter, and they left Melbourne in search of work. Hume's first invention was a new type of fencing dropper for sheep-proof fences, which the brothers patented and began manufacturing in 1900 in Adelaide.
In 1906 they added ornamental steel fences to their products. It was while devising equipment which used centrifugal force to spin off excess paint from the fencing that Hume saw the possibilities of using a similar mechanism for the casting of concrete pipes. The process was patented in 1910 and the Hume Brothers Cement Iron Company Limited formed to manufacture the pipes. The process was quickly adopted throughout the world.
In the early 1920s Hume began manufacturing steel pipes and developed a new rolling process. He also developed a method which used the spinning process to cast a concrete lining inside the steel pipe and so greatly increase its life and strength. This method also spread throughout the world.
Hume was directly responsible for more than 500 inventions patented by the Hume organisation between 1910 and 1939.
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"Igloo Satellite Cabin",176,"0","g","0"
\IA fibreglass shelter for extremely cold conditions, developed originally for use in Antarctica.\i
The satellite igloo cabin is made of fibreglass and can be extended, by the addition of extra panels, from the basic 'apple' shape, which sleeps three people, to larger 'melon' or 'zucchini' shapes. The igloo was developed by Malcolm Wallhead, of Kingston, Tasmania, for the Australian Antarctic Division, which needed a structure that could be transported by helicopter into areas where scientific field teams might be working away from base for anything from a week to a year.
The shelters have been used for a variety of purposes. One was used to cover a hole in the ice to make it safe for divers; another was borrowed by Telecom Australia for use when installing equipment on top of an inhospitable mountain in Tasmania. Yet another, designed as a cover for magnetic instruments, was made without steel bolts.
Australia has 43 igloos for use in Antarctica. The shelters have been sold to Britain, France, Germany, Norway and Japan for use in polar research programs.
\IA ship-launched long-range anti-submarine weapon system which delivers a missile incorporating a homing torpedo.\i
The Ikara anti-submarine missile system involves a radio-controlled rocket, launched from a ship, which can be controlled in flight to drop a homing torpedo into the vicinity of a target submarine (detected by sonar). It avoids the need of the surface ship to go close to the submarine, and also overcomes the problem of not knowing the depth of the submarine. Changes in the position of the submarine which occur while the missile is in flight are taken into account and the missile's course altered accordingly. A complex weapon, it incorporates advances in computer technology and sonar equipment - enabling destroyers to locate and track a greater number of submarines - and the introduction of a small and fast homing torpedo.
It was developed in the 1960s by the Aeronautical Research Laboratories, the Weapons Research Establishment (now called the Defence Research Centre Salisbury) and the Materials Research Laboratories, Maribyrnong, Victoria. After successful testing in 1963 and 1964 the system was installed on destroyers of the Royal Australian Navy and has also been adopted by the navies of Britain and Brazil.
\BDescription:\b RAN ships \I(DFAT)\i
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"Illawarra Dairy Shorthorn",178,"0","g","0"
Illawarra Dairy Shorthorn - See \JAustralian Illawarra Dairy Shorthorn\j
\BFull Name: Immunological Castration and Spaying\b
\IAn injection which castrates and spays livestock.\i
Surgical castration (the removal of the testicles of a male animal) and spaying (the removal of the ovaries of a female animal) of sheep and cattle is traumatic and costly in terms of lost production.
A consortium of \JCSIRO\j, Peptide Technology Ltd and Arthur Webster Pty Ltd is developing an injectable vaccine which has the same effect as surgical neutering. The vaccine stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies which neutralise the reproductive hormones. The injection is suitable for both males and females and is reversible. A booster is needed to maintain loss of reproductive capacity.
\BDescription:\b Immunological development of a vaccine for cattle is underway \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
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"Immunology Research",180,"0","g","0"
Immunology Research - See \JBurnet, Sir Macfarlane\j
\JRubella\j, Link With Birth Deformities Recognised
\ITechniques developed in Australia have made Australian gynaecologists world leaders in in-vitro fertilisation technology.\i
In-vitro fertilisation permits the natural processes of conception and fertilisation to take place in a laboratory glass dish. The woman's egg, removed by laparoscopy at the peak of the ovulation cycle, is placed in a special nutrient solution in a test tube or shallow glass dish and sperm added to fertilise it. The resulting embryo is transferred to the mother's womb and a conventional pregnancy should follow.
Researchers at Monash University have made several major breakthroughs in in-vitro fertilisation technology. The first was in 1973 when scientists at the Monash University Medical Centre reported the world's first IVF pregnancy - it ended with an early embryo death. Five years later the first IVF baby was born in England using techniques developed by the Melbourne research team. In 1980 the first multiple IVF embryo transfer baby was born in Melbourne.
In 1984 the world's first frozen embryo baby was born using a technique developed by Dr Alan Trounsen, director of Monash University's Research Centre of Early Human Development and Dr Linda Mohr. Known as embryo cryopreservation, it involves placing an early embryo in a phial of cryogenic nutrient solution and then slowly cooling it to minus 80 degrees Celsius, at which point biological functions stop. The phial is then stored in liquid nitrogen. The frozen embryo technique has many advantages. In cases of damaged ovaries the embryo can be used at a later date. Couples can store extra embryos for future attempts, should the first prove unsuccessful - or if another child is desired - without having to go through the stress and expense of further egg retrieval. Embryos can be stored for donation to infertile women.
The technique also reduces the risk of multiple pregnancies resulting from the necessary practice of superovulation, that is, stimulating the production and release of several eggs for collection by administering fertility drugs during the menstrual cycle. Patients have the choice of limiting the number of embryos transferred.
Other world firsts achieved by the Melbourne team, which included Professor Carl Wood and John Leeton, were the first IVF twins in 1981, the first triplets in 1983, and the birth in 1983 to a mother who lacked ovaries of the first baby born from a donor egg.
In 1984 the first IVF quadruplets were born, the result of multiple implantation of embryos. The team also pioneered the combination of IVF techniques with artificial insemination by donor (AID), enabling couples to have children when both partners are infertile (eggs surgically removed from the woman are fertilised with donated sperm).
In 1991 teams of medical researchers led by Carl Wood at Melbourne's Royal Women's Hospital and the Monash Medical Centre developed a technique for freezing mature human eggs for use at a later time. As well as avoiding the ethical and moral problems involved in freezing embryos, the technique could help women with ovarian cancer and other medical problems conceive if eggs were removed before medical treatment. It could also be used to allow women up to the age of fifty to conceive by taking eggs in early child-bearing years (this has the added advantage that such eggs are less likely to give rise to birth defects than older eggs).
Similar work has been done by Dr Christopher Chen of the Flinders Medical Centre in Adelaide and by a University of Adelaide research team, headed by Dr Patrick Quin, at Adelaide's Queen Elizabeth Hospital.
Australian fertilisation technology and expertise is exported to the United States by a company called IVF Australia. Australia has the best pregnancy success rate of any IVF program in the world and the highest number of IVF babies born.
The term 'in-vitro' means 'in glass', that is, fertilisation takes place outside the body, in a glass dish.
\BDescription2:\b Embryologist with the liquid nitrogen storage tank that maintains the temperature of frozen embryos \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i.
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"Infra-red Brooder",182,"0","g","0"
\IA brooder which keeps chickens warm while also allowing them to move about and breathe fresh air.\i
In the infra-red brooder a reflector above the heater deflects the infra-red radiation downwards to warm the chickens. At night the heater gives off a soft red glow which is enough light for the chickens to see by but not enough to encourage them to feed after dark. Each unit heats a circle 122 cm in diameter, and can accommodate 300 chicks up to six weeks old. Each bird receives maximum quantities of fresh air, and there is space for them to move about and not crowd in on each other.
In earlier brooders chickens were kept in heated air under a large hood. Using the infra-red brooder the loss rate is greatly reduced, the chicks are stronger, more alert and gain weight at a faster rate.
The infra-red brooder was developed in 1949 by G. Withnall, of Sydney. It is now the standard form of brooder throughout the world.
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"Infrascan",183,"0","g","0"
\IA device which detects the presence of body heat and can be used to trigger lighting or alarm systems.\i
Infrascan is based on technology developed during the Vietnam War which detects the arrival and departure of a person by responding to body heat movement. It can be used industrially and domestically to switch lights on and off for convenience, economy or security purposes. It can also be used to trigger an alarm when a person enters its detection field.
Infrascan was developed by the Adelaide-based company Gerard Industries.
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"Interscan",184,"f\3\a4_0097.jpg","c","0"
\IA microwave approach and landing guidance system which has been adopted worldwide.\i
Interscan is the name given to the microwave landing system (MLS) developed in Australia. Unlike the earlier instrument landing system it allows an aircraft to approach the airport at a steeper angle and on a curved path. This results in faster landings, reduces noise pollution and enables more aircraft to use existing runways. Landing aircraft can be guided into airports in all weather conditions, including zero visibility.
A unique feature is its use of a time-referenced scanning beam. This involves scanning a beam at a constant rate from left to right across the runway; two pulses are received in the aircraft. The precise angular position of the plane relative to the ground transmitter can be determined from the time between the two pulses.
The MLS landing system was first suggested in 1967 by Australian scientist Brian O'Keeffe; in 1971 the \JCSIRO\j Division of Radiophysics under Dr Paul Wild became involved and pioneered the time-referenced scanning beam principle. The system was subsequently developed jointly by the \JCSIRO,\j the Department of Civil Aviation and the Department of Transport. An early version of the system, called MITAN, was built by Amalgamated Wireless Australia (AWA) and Hawker de Havilland under contract to the Department of Transport and tested successfully at Melbourne's Tullamarine Airport in 1975. This was followed by major government funding and the formation of a company called Interscan to develop and market commercial versions of the equipment.
The Interscan system was chosen by the United States Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) in 1975 and by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) in 1978 which ruled that from 1998 Interscan's MLS will become the international standard for instrument approaches to airports, replacing ILS, the instrument landing system previously in use. The Interscan system has been installed at \JCanberra\j airport; in conjunction with a US partner MLS units have been installed at some American airports; and the system will soon be operating at Salamanca, Spain. An agreement has been signed with the Italian communications company, Italtel, to market the system in southern Europe.
The name is derived from 'time \Iinter\ival \Iscan\ining'.
\BDescription:\b Interscan has been adopted worldwide. \I(Carrie Webster)\i.
#
"Ironscan",185,"f\3\1_0062.jpg","c","0"
\IAn iron ore analyser which can accurately measure the iron content of ore.\i
Ironscan is an instrument which can accurately determine the iron content of ore. It can be used to continuously analyse ore moving on a conveyor belt during shiploading or stockpiling and give immediate information on ore grade, so that any variation from the desired quality can be noted and action taken. The Ironscan analyser can be mounted on existing conveyor belts. Its use will raise the quality of iron ore exported or stockpiled, and will extend the life of the resource by enabling optimum use to be made of ore grades throughout a deposit.
Ironscan was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Mineral Engineering in collaboration with Hamersley Iron Pty Ltd and Mineral Control Instrumentation Pty Ltd.
\BDescription:\b Iron ore mining \I(DFAT)\i
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"Isasmelt",186,"f\3\2_0069.jpg","c","0"
\I A method for recovering pure lead from lead-containing waste materials.\i
Isasmelt is a process for recovering pure lead from lead concentrates, drosses and battery scraps. Because it also helps recover sulfur dioxide and restricts lead emissions, the use of Isasmelt technology provides safer working conditions and improved environmental protection.
A pilot plant was built at Mt Isa in 1984, based on the multipurpose Sirosmelt smelting process. The company is in the process of building a large smelter capable of producing 60,000 tonnes of lead annually.
The Isasmelt method was developed by Mt Isa Mines and the \JCSIRO\j Division of Mineral and Process Engineering.
\BDescription:\b A lead pour at Mt Isa mines \I(DFAT)\i
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"IVF",187,"0","g","0"
IVF - See \JIn-vitro Fertilisation\j
#
"Jet Scouring Machine",188,"0","g","0"
Jet Scouring Machine - See \JSiroscour\j
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"Jiffy Clamp",189,"0","g","0"
\IA simple clamp which works by gravity.\i
The Jiffy clamp is a simple device which works by gravity which causes a washer to fall and hold the clamp firmly in place. It was invented by Adelaide man George Whillier, Inventor of the Year in 1970, specifically for use in fence building.
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"Jindalee Radar System",190,"0","g","0"
\IA radar system which can accurately detect aircraft at great distances.\i
The Jindalee over-the-horizon radar system extends conventional radar range by applying centimetric radar, known for its extreme accuracy but limited by being only able to detect objects within the line of sight, to wavelengths which can exploit the ionosphere as a reflector and thus 'see' over the horizon. The Jindalee installation is located in central Australia. It is highly accurate and reliable and is able to detect aircraft and track ships - even when they are some distance out to sea - with great precision. The system is also potentially useful for measuring atmospheric conditions and giving cyclone warnings.
Jindalee was developed as a joint venture with the United States. The Australian team from the Defence Science and Technology Organisation (DSTO), led by J.A. Strath, made important contributions to knowledge about the ionosphere, to antenna design and to computing systems. After successful testing in 1978 Jindalee was integrated into the national defence system where its early-warning role is particularly useful because of the size of the Australian continent and Australia's limited air defence capacity.
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"Julius, Sir George Alfred",191,"e\4\2_0095.jpg","c","0"
\IEngineer and inventor of the automatic totalisator which is used on racecourses throughout the world.\i
Julius was born in England. He arrived in Australia at the age of eleven with his clergyman father and went to live in \JBallarat\j. After graduating with a BSc in 1896 Julius joined the Western Australian railways as an assistant engineer, later becoming chief draughtsman and engineer in charge of tests. During this time he began working on a mechanical voting machine, which was rejected by the Western Australian government. In 1907 Julius set up a firm of consulting engineers in Sydney where he continued to refine this machine, which eventually became the Automatic Totalisator.
In 1926 Julius was appointed first chairman of the CSIR (later called the \JCSIRO\j). He was awarded the Peter Nicol Russell Medal from the Institution of Engineers in 1927 and in 1939 the W.C. Kernot Medal from the University of Melbourne. Julius was knighted in 1929.
\BDescription:\b Sir Julius' invention is used on racecourses throughout the world \I(DFAT)\i
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"Kangaroo Bicycle",192,"0","g","0"
\IA bicycle without pedals which is propelled by the up and down motion of the saddle.\i
The kangaroo bicycle does not have pedals. Instead the saddle is connected by crank to a centre-mounted chain wheel. The cyclist uses his own weight to drive the chain wheel by resting his feet on a fixed running board and pushing up and down with the body.
It was invented by Peter Bartolin of Sydney in 1975.
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"Kelpie Sheepdog",193,"f\3\kelpie4.jpg","c","0"
\ISheepdog breed developed for Australian conditions; known for its endurance and intelligence.\i
The Kelpie is a strong, intelligent, easily trained sheepdog, bred for Australian conditions. It is loyal, versatile and hardy. They have been exported to the Americas, the Soviet Union, Britain, South Africa, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Overseas they have been trained to round up goats and reindeer as well as cattle and sheep.
The starting point for the breed came from several pairs of short-coated prick-eared collies. One pair, imported in the 1860s from Scotland to Geralda Station near Forbes, New South Wales, produced a litter which included a dog which was later mated to a collie bitch from Victoria called 'Kelpie'. A pup from this litter closely resembled her mother and so was also called 'Kelpie' (a Gaelic word meaning 'water sprite'). She won the first Australian sheepdog trials, held near Forbes in 1872, and subsequently her pups, 'Kelpie's pups', were in great demand. So the name evolved and the breed developed.
\BDescription:\b Kelpie sheepdog on sheeps' backs \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
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"Kenny Method",194,"0","g","0"
\IRehabilitation treatment for poliomyelitis patients which involves re-educating paralysed muscles.\i
Sister \JElizabeth Kenny\j was of the opinion that deformities brought about by poliomyelitis were caused by a condition of spasm in the affected muscles when the conventional belief was that they were due to normal muscles pulling on weak or paralysed ones.
The rehabilitation method devised by Sister Kenny involves stimulating and re-educating the paralysed muscles. She regarded immobilisation of paralysed limbs by splinting as not only useless but possibly harmful. Some of her methods have been adapted into current rehabilitation practice in Australia and the United States.
#
"Kenny, Elizabeth",195,"f\3\71041.jpg","c","0"
(1886-1952)
\INurse whose controversial methods for the rehabilitation of poliomyelitis patients brought her into conflict with the medical profession in Australia.\i
\JElizabeth Kenny\j, daughter of an Irish veterinary surgeon, was born at Warialda in New South Wales. After graduating as a nurse she took up bush nursing in outback Queensland. Here she soon came into contact with the effects of poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis) and developed a rehabilitation method for patients which achieved some remarkable successes. In 1933 she opened a clinic in Townsville; clinics were later established in other Queensland centres and in New South Wales and Victoria.
However her techniques were vigorously opposed by the medical profession. In 1938 a Royal Commission set up to inquire into the treatment of poliomyelitis, and in particular the Kenny Method, found against her. Sister Kenny went to the United States where in 1941 the value of her treatments were recognised by the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. She became guest instructor at the University of Minnesota Medical School, and in 1942 the \JElizabeth Kenny\j Institute of Minneapolis was founded. Several other clinics were opened across the country and Sister Kenny received many honours, including the Distinguished Service Gold Key of the American Congress of Physical Therapy.
A celebrated recipient of the benefits of Sister Kenny's theories is former Queensland premier Sir Joh Bjelke-Peterson. He contracted the disease at the age of nine and was treated by his parents who, following the Kenny method, devised an apparatus which sent a current through the affected muscles, making them twitch.
\BDescription:\b Early nurses \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
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"Kiwi Boot Polish",196,"0","g","0"
\IAn improved boot cream which not only polished and preserved leather, but also restored colour.\i
A cream for cleaning and preserving shoe leather, developed by William Ramsay and Hamilton McKellan in their small factory in Carlton, Victoria, went onto the market in 1904. Two years later they launched 'Kiwi' which, unlike any other available product, was able to restore colour to the faded leather of tan and brown shoes.
In 1908 another advance, 'Kiwi Dark Tan', was produced. This not only polished, preserved and restored colour to dark tan shoes, but also contained ingredients to make the leather water resistant as well as keep it supple. Other colours, and black, followed.
By 1910 the shoe polish was available throughout Australia and in New Zealand, and by 1912 was on sale in England and Europe as well. It was used by Australian, British and United States forces during World War I. Only ten years after it first appeared in Melbourne some 30 million tins of 'Kiwi' polish had been sold throughout the world.
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"LADS",197,"d\10\6_0049.jpg","c","0"
\IA laser depth sounder for charting shallow coastal waters.\i
LADS is a laser airborne depth sounder which was developed for the Royal Australian Navy to provide hydrographic sounding data of the shallow coastal waters of Australia's vast coastline, particularly those of the \JGreat Barrier Reef\j, a task difficult to carry out using conventional methods. The information is needed for RAN charts.
The LADS system uses a light aircraft, a modified Fokker F27, to direct infra-red and green lasers downwards, and measure the distances from which they are reflected. The infra-red laser is reflected from the surface of the water and the green laser from the seabed. The time lapse in the return of the lasers gives the depth of the water. In clear water LADS can measure with great accuracy to a depth of 50 metres. The aircraft on which it is carried flies at moderate speeds at about 500 metres.
LADS was developed by the Electronics Research Laboratory at Salisbury, South Australia in collaboration with Thorn EMI Electronics Australia Pty Ltd. The name comes from L(aser) A(irborne) D(epth) S(ounder).
\BDescription:\b A portion of Australia's vast coastline \I(DFAT)\i
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"Latex Gloves",198,"f\3\a4_0072.jpg","c","0"
\ILatex gloves for household and medical use are an Australian innovation.\i
A technique for the large-scale production of latex gloves for household and medical use was developed in Australia by the Ansell Rubber Company. The Ansell company was founded in Melbourne in 1905 by Eric Ansell, a former Dunlop employee. It began making household gloves in 1925.
In 1945 Ansell designed and built the first automatic dipping machine. This produced 300 dozen pairs of synthetic gloves in eight hours. The company introduced disposable surgical gloves in 1964 and three years later won an export award for that product. In the following two decades Ansell grew into the world's largest producer of latex gloves.
Lawnmower, Victa - See \JTwo-stroke Petrol Rotary\j Lawnmower
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"Letter Sorting Machine",200,"0","g","0"
\IThe world's first mechanised letter sorter was built by a Sydney engineer.\i
The first mechanised letter sorter in the world was designed and built by A. B. Corbett, an engineer with the Postmaster-General's Department (PMG). The machine was installed at the Sydney GPO in October 1930. The press of the day described the new machine as 'monstrous' and claimed it would start a 'confetti industry at the Sydney GPO'.
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"Liteslice",201,"0","g","0"
Liteslice - See \JRail Profile Monitoring System\j
#
"Lithium, Use In Treatment",202,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Lithium, Use In Treatment of Manic-depressive Illness\b
\IA Melbourne doctor was the first to recognise the value of lithium in the treatment of manic-depressive illness.\i
Lithium carbonate is an antipsychotic drug used in the long-term treatment of patients suffering from the illness of manic depression to even out mood swings. It tends to control mania more than depression by preventing or subduing manic episodes. The use of lithium salts as an effective means of treatment was first recognised in 1949 by John Cade of Melbourne's Royal Park Psychiatric Hospital.
#
"Machine-gun Belt",203,"f\3\1910sb.jpg","c","0"
\IA method of avoiding the constant jamming of machine-guns by employing single-use belts.\i
The solution to the problem of machine-guns jamming was found by completely altering machine-gun belt construction. The new style of belt was made of paper and was used only once.
This method of avoiding the jamming of machine-guns was devised by Corporal A. R. Muirhead during World War I. It was adopted immediately and within six weeks of its invention the new style of belt was in manufacture.
\BDescription:\b This invention was used during World War I. Here we see headquarters staff wading ashore at Gallipoli. \I(Australian \JWar Memorial\j negative no. G903)\i
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"Mallee Roller",204,"0","g","0"
\IAn implement which clears mallee scrubland by pushing down the undergrowth with a heavy roller.\i
The mallee roller was a scrub roller which in its simplest form was just a hollow log with a strong branch through it acting as an axle. Other forms used a heavy boiler. The mallee roller was pulled through the scrub by horses or bullocks. As it went it flattened or uprooted small trees and scrub. The smashed vegetation was left to dry and then burnt. There remained the problem of roots left in the ground. These could be grubbed out by hand, a difficult and laborious task, or grain could be broadcast on the untilled land and then covered with soil using a mulleniser. The development of the stump-jump plough in 1876 overcame this problem.
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"McBride, William Griffith",205,"0","g","0"
\IGynaecologist and medical researcher, first to recognise link between thalidomide and birth defects; increased the awareness around the world of the dangers of drugs taken during pregnancy.\i
William \JMcBride\j was born in Sydney and graduated from the University of Sydney. It was while working at the Crown Street Women's Hospital in Sydney that \JMcBride\j discovered that the drug Thalidomide, given for nausea and vomiting early in pregnancy, produced malformation in the foetus. In 1961 he published a paper on 'The Teratogenic Action of Thalidomide'. The drug was subsequently banned.
In 1971 \JMcBride\j was awarded the British Petroleum Prize and the Gold Medal of the Institut de la Vie, in France. He used his prize money to establish Foundation 41 (so-called for the 40 weeks of pregnancy and the first week of life), a research centre which studies the causes of intellectual and physical birth defects. He also pioneered the serial-type oral contraceptive and has been advisor to the World Health Organisation (WHO) on the problems of world population growth. Among other honours, he was appointed CBE (1969) and AO (1977).
There was a NSW Department of Health inquiry into \JMcBride\j's work, linking him with fraud and deception. Foundation 41 subsequently closed down.
\IInventor of the stripper harvester whose Sunshine agricultural machinery manufacturing works grew to be the largest in Australia.\i
McKay grew up in a slab hut at Drummartin, Victoria, the fifth of twelve children of a poor farmer. He had little formal education but was experienced in all aspects of farm life. By the age of nineteen, aided by his father and brothers, he had built and successfully field-tested the stripper harvester, a machine which could strip, thresh and clean grain in one operation.
Aided by a premium from the Victorian government for his invention, McKay established the McKay Harvesting Machine Company Limited. In 1894 he set up a small business in \JBallarat\j where he converted old strippers into stripper harvesters. It was here that he developed an improved version of the stripper harvester which he named 'Sunshine' after a talk of the same title given by a visiting evangelist. In 1906 McKay relocated his business to Braybook Junction, which in 1907 was renamed 'Sunshine'.
The business grew steadily, manufacturing and selling many kinds of farming implements all over Australia, as well as exporting stripper harvesters to South America, Siberia and Canada. McKay was always receptive to the ideas of young inventors. He readily accepted the ideas of \JHeadlie Shipard Taylor\j, who in 1915 developed the machine which was later marketed as the Sunshine Header Harvester, and also manufactured R.A. Squire's Spring-tine Drill Cultivator, which was marketed under the name 'Suntyne'. McKay's plant at Sunshine is now operated by Massey-Ferguson (Australia) Ltd.
See \JStripper\j
\BDescription:\b Vintage tractor display \I(Random House - photo by Ken Stepnell)\i
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"Mechanical Yarn Splicer",207,"0","g","0"
\IA machine that can splice yarns so that the join is virtually invisible; developed by the \JCSIRO\j.\i
The mechanical yarn splicer joins the ends of yarn using a splicing technique which results in a join that is virtually invisible. Lengths of each yarn to be spliced are positioned between rubber twisting surfaces mounted on metal discs that are geared to rotate first in one direction and then in the other. When they are rotated one way the twists in each length of yarn are reversed. The two lengths are then bought into contact and, after the untwisted ends are trimmed into tapering beards, the discs are rotated in the opposite direction. This twists the overlapping ends into one strand, which is virtually indistinguishable from the original yarns, both in strength and appearance.
The machine replaces the mechanical knotting of yarns and is of significant economic benefit to the worsted wool industry. If knots jam machinery during knitting and weaving they have to be removed from the fabric or garment by hand, a costly operation. The mechanical yarn splicer was developed in 1981 by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Textile Industry. Called the Twinsplicer, it is marketed by the Italian company Officine Savio Sp A, a major manufacturer of yarn-winding machines.
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"Memtec",208,"f\3\tony44.jpg","c","0"
\IFiltration and separations technology for water purification.\i
The Memtec water cleaning system totally removes suspended matter, bacteria and viruses from liquids and separates oils and greases from water. It requires no chemical additives or disinfectants. The system uses self-cleaning cross-flow cartridges with microporous hollow fibres - known as continuous micro-filtration or CMF. As feedstream fluids pass around the fibres, rejected matter builds up on the outside and the clean filtrate passes through the walls of the fibre and into the hollow centre for collection.
The unique feature of the system is the ease with which the cartridges are cleaned \Iin situ,\i eliminating the need to periodically replace filters. The cartridges are cleaned in a backwashing processs which does not interrupt the fluid stream - high pressure gas in reverse flow is forced into the hollow centre of the fibres and through the walls, removing deposits from the outside of the fibres.
The Memtec system has many applications: it is used in tertiary sewage treatment plants; it is used to remove heavy metals from industrial waste; it is used to clarify drinking water; it is also used in the wine industry and in computer chip manufacture.
The Memtec technology grew out of research at the University of New South Wales into medical uses of membranes made from polyamide. Commercial applications of the membrane were developed by Memtec, a company founded in 1983. In 1990 Memtec won the 1990 Pursuit of Excellence award for a tertiary sewage treatment system at Blackheath in the \JBlue Mountains\j of New South Wales which uses the continuous microfiltration technology. An upgrading of the existing plant, it is capable of treating three million litres of sewage a day. The combination of a bioreactor and continuous microfiltration units produces discharge water of high purity. The Blackheath unit is only one-sixtieth the size of conventional sewage treatment plants. Memtec products are widely used in Japan, France, the United States and Britain.
\BDescription:\b The Memtec technology grew out of research from this university \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Merino Sheep",209,"f\3\merino.jpg","c","0"
\IDistinctive Merino strains have been developed for Australian conditions.\i
The Merino breed was introduced to Australia in 1797. In the following 70 years, flocks spread around the continent. During the 1850s to the 1870s, selective breeding for specific environments led to the development of distinctive regional types, different in size and fleece characteristics.
In Tasmania, parts of Victoria, and the tablelands of New South Wales the 'fine wool' Saxon type predominated. The 'medium wool' peppin strain was developed for the dry plains of western New South Wales. In South Australia increased crossings with Leicesters and other British breeds led to a robust, large-framed 'strong wool' strain. The Polwarth was developed in Victoria for meat production as well as for the fleece. The Booroola is the result of selecting for multiple births to produce a breed with high fecundity and therefore a high reproduction rate.
\BDescription:\b The Merino sheep \I(Gum Tree Graphics)\i
\IA thrust bearing in which a tilting pad allows a film of oil to form, so reducing friction and increasing power transmitted.\i
In the Michell thrust bearing the bearing surface is a series of sector shaped pads, each one of which is able to tilt and allow the formation of a wedge-shaped film of oil. This film is constantly interposed between the collar and the pad and takes the bearing load, thus eliminating metal to metal contact. Friction, therefore, is practically negligible.
Prior to the development of the Michell thrust bearing propeller thrust was transmitted from a series of plane-faced collars attached to the shaft. These collars made direct contact with a corresponding series of shoes. The resulting friction from this metal to metal contact caused rapid wear and necessitated constant readjustment of the shoes to maintain some degree of uniformity of contact with the collars. Michell thrust bearings are able to operate with sliding speeds that are from five to thirty times faster than the old bearings. As well the Michell thrust bearing is shorter, thus saving space.
The Michell thrust bearing was invented by A.G.M. Michell and was patented in 1905. It was not until it was found in a sunken German 'U' boat that it was adopted by the British Admiralty in 1915 and the use of the Michell thrust bearing by ship-builders around the world became general. It completely revolutionised thrust technology in the field of marine propulsion, and has also been used in compressors, pumps and hydraulic turbines.
\BDescription:\b Shipbuilders throughout the world use the Michell thrust bearing \I(DFAT)\i
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"Michell, Anthony George",211,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Michell, Anthony George Maldon\b
(1870-1959)
\IHydraulic engineer; inventor of the tilt-pad thrust bearing and crankless engine.\i
Michell, an engineer, established his own consultancy firm in Melbourne in 1903. In his work on the designs of pumping equipment for Murray River irrigation schemes and on the Mt Lyell Mining Co's early hydroelectric installations he gained much practical experience of the limitations of conventional thrust bearings. His search for a solution to the problem of friction due to the amount of metal to metal contact included a detailed study of British physicist Osborne Reynolds' theory of lubrication, published in England by the Royal Society in 1886. Michell's extension of Reynolds' mathematical treatment of the problem of viscous flow in a finite space resulted in a paper on the lubrication of plane surfaces, published in a German journal in 1905, which led to the development of the Michell thrust bearing, patented in the same year.
Michell's other achievements in the field of applied mathematics include improvements in nuts and screws (to increase strength and prevent slackening) and the development of the crankless engine.
Michell was awarded the Kernot Memorial Medal (University of Melbourne) and in 1934 was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1943 he received the James Watt International Medal from the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
#
"Micro-BRIAN",212,"0","The uses of Micro-BRIAN","mimbria.avi"
\IA computerised system for processing satellite images as part of land surveying.\i
Micro-BRIAN enables sophisticated interactive processing of data from remote-sensing satellites, such as LANDSAT, to be undertaken on a personal computer without the need for a large, expensive and centralised computer system.
It is used for the mapping and monitoring of shallow water, reefs, erosion, crops, forests and other vegetation, as well as for basic image processing. Its features include the ability to call a defined geographic area to the screen, such as a national park, a water catchment, or a local government area, and carry out routine analysis on it. It is then possible to transfer the new information generated to other geographic information systems, such as those of the federal and state government departments responsible for natural resources management.
Micro-BRIAN was launched in 1986. It is a microcomputer version of an earlier system, BRIAN, which was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Water and Land Resources to map the reefs and shallow waters of the \JGreat Barrier Reef\j and resulted in significant savings in survey money and time. Micro-BRIAN has been commercially available since 1986, and is marketed by the Melbourne-based Microprocessor Applications Pty Ltd. More than 40 systems have been sold in Australia and South-East Asia.
The name comes from micro(computer) plus the name of the original system, BRIAN, B(arrier) R(eef) I(mage) A(nalysis) S(ystem).
\IA method of breaking down sewage with a bacterial product before its discharge into the ocean.\i
'Microbug' is the name given to a bacterial product which has the ability to reduce most sewage to near-acceptable water quality. In five days sewage can be broken down to water discharge standard which, in trial plants, resulted in a cut in running costs of 30 to 50 per cent. The effluent discharged is suitable for irrigation purposes.
Microbug was developed by Queenslander Peter Fritz who began practical testing in 1984. Further research has led to variations of Microbug - 'Megabug', designed to clear heavy grease, and 'Nutribug', which creates organic fertilisers from organic wastes.
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"Microlab",214,"0","g","0"
\IA high speed chemical reactor.\i
Microlab is a novel microwave-based chemical reactor which allows chemical reactions to take place at higher temperatures and pressures than conventional equipment. Chemical reactions which would take many hours or days in a conventional reactor can be completed in minutes in Microlab. As an example, the synthesis of isopropyl acetate, a commonly used solvent, takes 18 hours and gives a 47 per cent yield in a conventional reactor. In the continuous microwave reactor it takes two minutes and the yield is 86 per cent.
Microlab was invented by a research group at the \JCSIRO\j Division of Chemicals and Polymers and was launched in 1989. It has been developed under licence by Industrial Microwave Applications (Australia) Pty Ltd.
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"Microsurgery",215,"f\3\microsu2.jpg","c","0"
\ITechniques of microsurgery pioneered in Australia are now used around the world.\i
Microsurgery is surgery performed under powerful microscopes on very small parts of the body, such as is required for nerve fibres in an operation to rejoin a severed hand to the wrist. Procedures developed in Australia by Sydney surgeon \JEarl Owen\j and Melbourne surgeon Bernard O'Brien are now used around the world and can rejoin the finest capillaries in the body to repair amputated limbs, fingers and toes, to reverse vasectomies and tubal ligations, and to repair damaged sight and hearing. Techniques have also been developed for foetal surgery.
Microsurgery often requires special instruments to enable the surgeon to see and manipulate the very small parts involved in the operation, and a range of instruments for use in microsurgery (see next page) have been developed in Australia.
\BDescription:\b Microsurgery - facial reconstruction after a shooting accident \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
\IAustralian-designed precision instruments are used by microsurgeons around the world.\i
A range of delicate instruments and equipment was designed in Australia to enable surgeons to perform microsurgical procedures under a microscope. They were devised by pioneer microsurgeon \JEarl Owen\j and a Brisbane colleague, Dr David Vickers. The instruments are made in the precision instruments centre at Tuttlingen, in Germany. An operating chair designed by \JEarl Owen\j is manufactured in Sydney.
\BDescription:\b Instruments used in microsurgery \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
#
"Migraine Research",217,"0","g","0"
\IAn Australian neurologist has made major contributions to the understanding of migraine.\i
Migraine is a condition of the arteries of the brain. It is caused by a relaxation of the muscles which control the size of the artery, allowing excess blood to pass to the part of the brain that the artery supplies. This results in pressure and pain.
Professor James Lance of the division of neurology at Prince Henry Hospital in Sydney is a world leader in research into the understanding of headache and migraine. His investigations centre on the effects of blood serotonin, a brain neurotransmitter, in the cerebral blood circulation. ln 1976 he received the Gold Medal of the British Migraine Association for his work.
#
"Milestones in the Sky",218,"0","g","0"
Milestones in the Sky - See \JAir Navigational Radio Beacons\j
#
"Milking Machines",219,"f\4\milkdoc2.jpg","c","0"
\IInnovations and improvements to milking machines have been made in Australia.\i
A milking machine using a pulsating vacuum and double chambered teats, which established the principles of modern milking machines, was developed in Australia and patented in 1893 by John Hart and David Robinson.
The Lawrence and Kennedy milking machine was introduced to Australia in about 1900. One of the purchasers was Alexander Gillies, a farmer from Terang, western Victoria, who set about improving it by incorporating a two-chambered teat cup, and an air admission hole at the top of the teat which allowed the milk to clear away efficiently. These changes he patented in 1902-03. They were significant advances that are still in universal use. The improved machine, which became known as the LKG (Lawrence-Kennedy-Gillies), found wide acceptance in Australia, New Zealand and Britain. Gillies also developed a simple tubular 'claw' for connecting the milk and air tubes from the teat cups to the receiver and pulsator. This design is also still in use.
A typical Mills Cross radiotelescope consists of two long antennas laid out along the ground and intersecting each other in north-south, east-west directions to form a huge symmetrical cross. The telescope was developed for making astronomical observations at wavelengths in the one-metre range. Its design has been adopted around the world and can be varied to a T-shape by omitting half of one arm.
The Mills Cross radiotelescope was developed in 1953 by B.Y. Mills of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Radiophysics. The first Mills Cross radiotelescope is sited near \JCanberra\j and operated by the University of Sydney. It was modified in the 1970s and is now a sensitive synthesis telescope.
#
"Mine Detector",222,"f\4\welder.jpg","c","0"
\IA device for locating landmines.\i
The landmine is a canister containing a powerful explosive charge. During World War II a detector was devised which was able to locate landmines. It used a tuning coil, which formed a searching loop, and was attached to a light rod. The tuning coil was coupled to a wireless valve which acted as an oscillator. The presence of a mine or other metal object caused a change in the loop capacity and inductance. This change was detected by another valve which acted as a regeneration receiver.
The mine detector was invented by an Australian soldier named Miller after he had watched a film of soldiers searching for landmines in the Western Desert of North Africa by prodding the ground with bayonets. The detector was widely used until replaced by a better device.
\BDescription:\b Welder attaching a fitting to a naval mine \I(Australian \JWar Memorial\j negative no. 43968)\i
#
"Mollison, Bill",223,"a\7\a2_0062.jpg","c","0"
\IFormer \JCSIRO\j scientist who developed the permaculture concept of sustainable agriculture.\i
Bill Mollison, Australia's foremost expert on permaculture, was born in Stanley, Tasmania. From 1954 to 1962 he was engaged in fieldwork in remote areas for the \JCSIRO\j Wildlife Survey Section, and later for the Inland Fisheries Commission. His observations during these periods led him to the view that monoculture, and the pesticides and fertilisers needed to support it, was an environmental disaster which in fact created conditions favouring land degradation and the proliferation of pest species.
Mollison published his first book on permaculture in 1978, and since then has been engaged full time in developing and promoting the concept. He is the executive director of the Permaculture Institute, established in 1979, and in 1981 received the Right Livelihood Award in Stockholm and the Vavilov Medal from the USSR. His expertise is much in demand overseas for training in permaculture design.
\BDescription:\b Tea plantation \I(Random House - photo by Ken Stepnell)\i
#
"Monoclonal Antibodies",224,"0","g","0"
\IAn economical method has been developed in Australia for producing antibodies for use in diagnostic testing.\i
Monoclonal antibodies are made by a cell cloning technique which involves fusing a mouse myeloma cell, which has the property of unlimited growth, with a mouse spleen cell. The spleen cell's capacity to make antibodies is therefore made limitless. The antibodies produced are used in diagnostic testing.
The cell cloning technique was developed in 1980 by a research team at the Garvan Institute of Medical Research at St Vincent's Hospital in Sydney, and the \JCSIRO\j Molecular and Cellular Biology Unit.
#
"Mort, Thomas Sutcliffe",225,"f\4\r1218.jpg","c","0"
(1816-78)
\IAustralian merchant and pioneer of exporting frozen meat in refrigerated ships.\i
Mort was born in Bolton, in Lancashire, England, and arrived in Sydney in 1838. In 1843 he established his own business as an auctioneer and broker. He became interested in the potential of exporting frozen meat to England and in 1866 went into partnership with \JEugene Nicolle\j, funding Nicolle's experiments in freezing techniques.
By 1872 they had a small refrigeration plant at Darling Harbour in Sydney; in the following year a freezing works for meat was set up at Bowenfels near Lithgow in the \JBlue Mountains\j of New South Wales. Mort and Nicolle introduced the cooling of milk before its transport from country to city. In 1877 they installed refrigeration equipment on the \INortham\i to transport frozen meat to England, but because of corrosion problems in the machinery the ship had to sail without this consignment. Mort did not live to see the first frozen shipment leave Australia in 1879. He had, however, made a significant contribution to the development of refrigeration and its use in frozen meat export.
See \JRefrigeration\j
\BDescription:\b Darling Harbour 1870s where Mort and Nicolle had a refrigeration plant \I(Royal Australian Historical Society)\i
#
"Motion Picture",226,"0","g","0"
Motion Picture - See \JFeature Film\j
#
"Mulesing Technique",227,"f\4\74066.jpg","c","0"
\IA measure for controlling blowfly strike in sheep which involves the removal of folds of skin from the breech and tail.\i
The mulesing technique of blowfly control involves the removal of the folds of skin in the breech of ewes. This reduces the moistness of the fleece due to urine staining and makes it less attractive as an egg-laying site to the female blowfly. It was also found that blowfly strike in both sexes was reduced if, when docking the tail, several joints were left, but some of the woolled skin removed. The combined result of these operations made the breech permanently less prone to blowfly strike.
The technique was developed by South Australian grazier J.H.W. Mules, who pioneered a method of shearing off skin wrinkles, thereby making the breech plainer. In 1931 the CSIR (after 1949 known as the \JCSIRO)\j became aware of the 'Mules operation' and in 1937 conducted trials that showed it was very successful in the prevention of blowfly strike.
If the mulesing technique is supplemented by mid-season crutching (the shearing of breech and tail) the reduction of blowfly strike is even greater.
\BDescription:\b The mulesing technique controls blowfly strike in sheep. \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i.
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"Mulleniser",228,"0","g","0"
\ISimple implement for burying broadcast seed in untilled land.\i
The mulleniser was a 'V'-shaped log with spikes driven into the underside. It was pulled by a horse across untilled land to bury previously broadcast seed. The implement was developed in the mallee country of South Australia by a farmer from Walseys named Mullens and formed the basis of 'mullenising', a quick, cheap and simple method of tilling the soil. Trees were cut down at ground level and the land cleared of light timber, which was then burnt. (A mallee roller could be used for this clearing process.) The land was not grubbed. Seed was broadcast, and then the mulleniser was dragged over the ground to break up the soil and bury the seed.
The resulting crop could be harvested by a stripper operating between the low cut stumps. In other States the method was called 'Yankee grubbing'.
The task of grubbing out stumps and roots was a particular problem in the mallee scrub of Victoria and South Australia, where the land was covered with mallee eucalyptus, a small tree with light stems growing from a large underground tuberous root. Other implements devised to deal with mallee scrub are the mallee roller and the stump-jump plough.
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"Mulloka",229,"f\4\5_0050.jpg","c","0"
\IAn active shipboard sonar system developed for the warm shallow waters of Australia.\i
An active sonar system measures the depth of the water or the location of an underwater object by sending soundwaves through the water - if the soundwaves strike anything, they bounce back. The distance and direction of the object or seabed can be calculated by the time it takes the soundwave to return, as the speed of sound underwater is known.
The Mulloka active shipboard sonar system was developed for the Royal Australian Navy to be effective in the warm shallow waters of Australia's continental shelf. Warm waters have thermal layers and traditional sonar (developed in the cool waters of the north Atlantic) often bounces or curves as it reaches each of these layers. The Mulloka system uses higher frequency soundwaves emitted at much higher power and these are able to force their way through the changes of layer with less bounce and less curvature.
Research and development was undertaken by the Weapons Research Laboratory (now called the Defence Research Centre Salisbury) and the Royal Australian Naval Research Laboratories. In the early 1970s they began working on the means of producing high-frequency, high-powered radiowave. In 1974 Thorn-EMI Electronics Australia Pty Ltd became involved and in 1979 the company built a prototype which was tested at sea in HMAS \IStuart\i in 1980. Thorn was then awarded the contract for building eight more systems for the Royal Australian Navy.
As there are similar water conditions in many other parts of the world Australia has good prospects for selling Mulloka to other navies. The name is an Aboriginal word meaning 'water devil' or 'devil fish'.
\BDescription:\b Naval ship \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Multiple Monochromator",230,"0","g","0"
\IA device for examining a narrow region of the spectrum.\i
A dramatic improvement to the way a monochromator separates the colours of the spectrum was made in 1949 by Alan Walsh of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Chemical Physics. The simple but effective addition of two small mirrors at right angles with a gap between them caused light emerging from the monochromator to be re-routed back through the device any number of times. The invention was not then able to be manufactured in Australia and the licence to manufacture it was sold to the United States firm Perkin, Elmer.
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"Murray Grey Beef Cattle",231,"0","g","0"
\IAustralian beef cattle breed developed in Victoria.\i
The Murray Grey was developed from the mating of an Aberdeen Angus bull and a light roan Shorthorn cow in 1905 on 'Thologolong', the Murray Valley property of P.A. Sutherland. The progeny was grey in colour. The Murray Grey was recognised for registration in 1962. It is now well established as a commercial beef.
#
"Murray Valley Encephalitis",232,"0","g","0"
Murray Valley Encephalitis - See \JAustralian X, Research Into\j
#
"Myxomatosis",233,"c\10\inan1.jpg","c","0"
\IAn introduced viral disease which has been controlling rabbit numbers for more than forty years.\i
\JMyxomatosis\j is a highly infectious and lethal viral disease of rabbits. The disease occurs naturally in South America and its potential use in rabbit control was first investigated in Australia in the 1920s. However, it was not until 1950, when the rabbit plague was causing severe losses to the sheep and cattle industry, that a further series of tests were conducted. These took place in the Murray Valley and were directed by Francis Radcliffe of the \JCSIRO\j Wildlife Survey Section. Rabbits inoculated with the \IMyxoma\i virus were released between May and December. By the end of March 1951, thousands of rabbits were dying all along the Murray-Darling river system.
\JMyxomatosis\j remains the main means of rabbit control in Australia. As well as being of enormous economic importance to the agricultural industry the dramatic reduction in rabbit numbers has allowed the regeneration of native flora and fauna. The \JCSIRO\j has a continuing research program to develop new and more virulent strains to counter the problem of rabbits growing immune to the virus.
\IAn instrument for measuring the turbidity of fluids.\i
This device uses optical fibres to measure the scattering of light in cloudy liquids. It has been used to monitor the clearing of water in sewage ponds as the sludge sediments sink to the bottom, to detect changes in cloudiness as wine ferments, to monitor suspended matter in drinking water and to regulate the precise coating of rubber surgical gloves with talcum powder.
The nephelometer was developed in the late 1970s by Clive Coogan, of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Chemical Physics. It is adaptable to a wide number of industrial uses and has been marketed for commercial use around the world since 1982.
#
"Nicholas, George",235,"f\2\a4_0084.jpg","c","0"
(1884-1960)
\IMelbourne pharmacist and pioneer of pharmaceutical manufacture who made Australia's first aspirin.\i
George Nicholas founded an international corporation which marketed aspirin, under his registered trademark Aspro, around the world. In 1915, while operating a corner chemist shop in Melbourne, Nicholas began the series of experiments which led to the first production of aspirin on a commercial scale in Australia. Until that time supplies had come from Germany, where the Bayer company held the trade name 'Aspirin', an arrangement disrupted by World War I. Nicholas determined to replace the German product with his own. In this he was successful and by the 1950s was marketing Aspro around the world, together with a range of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
\BDescription:\b Aspro \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Nicolle, Eugene Dominique",236,"0","g","0"
(1823-1909)
\IEngineer and inventor; designed ice-making equipment which used liquid ammonia.\i
\JEugene Nicolle\j, born in Normandy in France, studied engineering in Paris and London before arriving in Australia in 1853. In 1861 he patented a process to liquify ammonia for use in ice-making. In the following year Nicolle became manager and part-owner of the Sydney Ice Company (a company which had been set up by \JJames Harrison\j in 1860, but in which he no longer held an interest), and there installed ice-making equipment based on the use of liquid ammonia, a much less hazardous gas than the ether which had been used by Harrison. Nicolle went into partnership with Sydney merchant Thomas Sutcliffe Mort in 1866. Although they established several successful freezing plants onshore, the method proved unsuitable for use on ships. However, Nicolle's work contributed greatly to the development of refrigeration.
See \JRefrigeration\j
#
"Nightmare Board Game",237,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Nightmare Board and Video Game\b
\IA board game controlled by a video cassette which gives instructions to players.\i
'Nightmare' is a board game for three to six players consisting of playing cards, dice, playing pieces in the form of tombstones, markers and a VHS video cassette. Its unique feature is the one-hour video in which a frightening character, the Gatekeeper, interacts with the players, talking to them and shouting instructions from the screen.
The game begins when the cassette is started, and players cannot pause or stop the tape. It is possible for any of the players to win but if the tape runs its full time the Gatekeeper has won. No game plays the same twice.
'Nightmare' is the brainchild of a Sydney-based production company, A Couple 'A Cowboys, headed by Phillip Tanner and Brett Clements. It was developed over three years and in 1991 was released in Australia, the United States and Canada.
#
"Nomad",238,"0","g","0"
\IDevice which allows graphical information to be accessed by blind and visually impaired people.\i
The Nomad is a simple and low cost device that enables detailed graphical information to be presented individually to blind and visually impaired students. The device incorporates a touch sensitive pad on which tactile graphics are laid, and is used in conjunction with a personal computer and a voice synthesiser. Labels relating to the graphic are created by pressing chosen points on the graphic and then typing the relevant information onto the computer keyboard. Information thus stored can be accessed by pressing the graphic. Information relating to the point pressed is then spoken through the synthesiser.
Entering information does not require programming skills, braille code, or the use of other symbols. Once created the information is stored on computer disc. It can be copied and shared.
The Nomad was invented by Professor Don Parkes of the University of Newcastle and is manufactured in Australia. It is named after a black Labrador guide dog.
#
"Optical Glass",239,"0","g","0"
\IHigh grade optical glass for use in precision instruments.\i
During World War II shortages of materials normally imported from Britain and the United States provided the stimulus for innovative manufacturing activity in Australia. In response to the shortage of high grade glass suitable for munitions such as gunsights, rangefinders, periscopes and binoculars, Professor Hartung of the University of Melbourne developed techniques which, within three months, enabled him to produce optical glass. Experts in Britain had estimated that at least four years would be needed. By the end of the war Australia was supplying the United States with optical components. Patents based on Hartung's methods are now used worldwide.
#
"Optical Ruling Engines",240,"0","g","0"
\IMechanical devices for producing microscopic scales and diffraction gratings.\i
A diffraction grating is a precision instrument used to measure the wavelength of light. A microscope scale is a precision instrument which is used to calibrate optical images viewed under a microscope. The construction of both instruments requires that extremely fine parallel lines (less than one micron wide) are ruled on glass, metal or other substances.
In the late nineteenth century Henry Grayson and John Shephard, both English-born engineers, constructed mechanical devices for ruling these fine lines. Shephard's micro-ruling engine for making microscope scales was based on a microtome (an instrument for cutting ultra-thin slices of specimens for microscopy) and ruled lines 0.5 microns apart. The machine constructed by Grayson and William Stone, a Victorian Railways engineer, enabled lines 0.2 microns apart to be ruled. Both machines used a fine diamond chip cutting tool.
In 1909 Grayson and Stone constructed an engine for ruling diffraction gratings two centimetres square and containing thousands of fine parallel lines. The precision of these gratings was acclaimed internationally. A research group at the University of Melbourne improved the design and construction of these engines in the 1930s and, in the post-war period, more advanced engines have been developed by the \JCSIRO\j.
#
"Orbital Engine",241,"0","g","0"
\IA non-reciprocating engine in which a piston follows an orbital path inside the combustion chamber.\i
The orbital engine has a single piston which does not rotate but follows an orbital path inside a circular chamber divided into combustion areas. Its advantages over existing rotary and reciprocating engines include that of being smaller (it is about the size of a car tyre); it is easier to manufacture on a large scale; it has a higher power to weight ratio than a conventional reciprocating engine; it has fewer moving parts; its simple design means less wear and therefore it is longer lasting; it causes less pollution, is smooth running and quiet in operation.
The orbital combustion process engine evolved from the original orbital unit. It is based on a redesigned two-stroke engine and incorporates a unique direct fuel injection system. The result retains the inherent advantages of two-stroke engines - it is lightweight, compact, simple, of low cost and has a high power to weight ratio. In addition it gives between 30 and 70 per cent better fuel consumption than conventional four-stroke engines. In 1988 a version of the engine developed in partnership with Ford of America was extensively road-tested in the Ford Escort car. This engine had a 1.2-litre three-cylinder engine which weighed only 41 kg and was able to produce 90 hp, 5 hp more than produced by a 1.6-litre four-stroke four-cylinder Ford engine weighing 128 kg. A car fitted with the 1.2-litre Sarich engine was able to accelerate from 0 to 96.5 km/h in 12.8 seconds compared with 14.8 for the conventional 1.6-litre engine. The engine can also be adapted for marine outboard and lawnmower motors.
\JRalph Sarich\j completed the first prototype of the orbital engine in 1971. It was two-stroke and was unable to run under its own power. The second model, also a two-stroke, worked, but not to Sarich's satisfaction. Later that year a four-stroke model with six chambers successfully turned over at about 1500 rpm for 20 to 30 seconds. The fourth prototype had seven combustion chambers instead of six which gave it an even firing sequence. It ran smoothly at speeds of up to 3800 rpm and had excellent compression indicating that its sealing system was working.
#
"Owen Gun",242,"f\4\salvage.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso 'Digger's Darling'\b
\IA lightweight submachine-gun which performed well in the confined and muddy conditions of tropical jungles.\i
The Owen submachine-gun was an accurate and effective short-range weapon. It was simple in both design and construction and could be mass-produced quickly and cheaply. It was easy to grip, load and aim. It worked very well under difficult conditions and was especially successful in the jungles of New Guinea.
Its firing parts were simple - when the trigger was squeezed a strong spring pushed the heavy bolt forward to extract a cartridge from the bottom of the magazine, feed it into the breech and fire it. The bolt was blown back onto the spring and if pressure on the trigger was maintained it would recoil and fire another shot within one-tenth of a second. The reliable performance of the Owen gun under difficult conditions was due in part to the placement on top of the barrel of the magazine containing the cartridges. If mud got into the magazine it either fell out or was pushed out by the magazine spring. It also meant that the gun's centre of gravity was on its longitudinal axis, which gave it greater accuracy when fired automatically. For cleaning it could be taken apart and reassembled very quickly.
The gun was invented by \JEvelyn Owen\j, who was a \JWollongong\j motor mechanic before joining the Australian Army at the outbreak of World War II. Its introduction met resistance from the army hierarchy who favoured use of the British developed Sten gun. However, the superiority of the Owen was proved in trials in 1941. It was issued to soldiers in New Guinea where it was immediately popular, being dubbed the 'Digger's Darling'.
The Owen submachine-gun was used in the Korean War and remained on issue until the Vietnam War, when it was replaced by the British Stirling.
\BDescription:\b The Owen gun was used during WWII \I(Australian \JWar Memorial\j negative no. ME1809A)\i
#
"Owen, Earl Ronald",243,"nopic.jpg","c","0"
\IPioneer microsurgeon and developer of instruments and operating chair for use in microsurgery.\i
\JEarl Owen\j was born in Sydney in 1933 and graduated from the University of Sydney. He pioneered microsurgery and is a world leader in the field. In 1967 he delivered the first university lecture on the subject at Edinburgh University. In the following year he successfully replaced the amputated finger of a two year old Sydney child in the first such operation in the world. Owen developed new teaching techniques using closed circuit television to hold workshops on microsurgery. The first was conducted at Sydney University; others have been held around the world. Owen's techniques are now in use in France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Spain, Israel and South Africa. Owen has also co-designed a range of instruments for use in microsurgery.
\JEarl Owen\j was appointed AO in 1980.
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"Pacemaker",244,"0","g","0"
\IThe first cardiac pacemaker was made in Australia; this country remains at the forefront of the design and manufacture of implantable pacemakers.\i
The modern cardiac pacemaker is an instrument designed to deliver electronically controlled impulses to restore a more normal heart beat to a damaged heart. The device is surgically implanted and electrical impulses are transmitted to the heart through insulated electrodes.
The first artificial cardiac pacemakers were made in Australia and in 1926 one was used at Crown Street Women's Hospital, Sydney, to successfully revive a new-born baby. Subsequent work in Sweden and the United States led to the battery-powered implantable pacemaker that was in use in the early 1960s. At this time an Australian company, Telectronics, was formed by Mr Noel D. Gray to develop electro-medical devices. The company became a significant innovator in the pacemaker field, conducting intensive research and development in the 1960s. In 1966 it began selling its P4 model, which incorporated a half millisecond pulse width that permitted energy conservation without affecting the stimulation threshold.
In 1971 Telectronics released the P9, the first hermetically sealed titanium pacemaker; corrosion was eliminated, and the life of the device extended from three years to more than five years. More recent models use lithium batteries and can function for more than twenty years.
Telectronics is now a wholly-owned subsidiary of Pacific Dunlop Limited with its major production facilities in the United States. It continues to improve the performance of pacemakers and implantable defibrillators through research and development in Denver, in the United States, and in Sydney.
#
"Paper From Eucalypts",245,"f\4\3_0100.jpg","c","0"
\IHardwood pulping technology for the commercial production of paper from eucalypts was pioneered in Australia.\i
Paper from short-fibred eucalypts is produced most successfully by the 'kraft' system (which uses sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphite to break down woodchips into fibres). Processes and equipment were developed in Australia to use the short, stiff eucalypt kraft fibre in the making of paper.
A major breakthrough of Australian research was in the use of eucalypts in the manufacture of newsprint. By treating the wood with caustic soda before pulping it to groundwood, fibre damage is reduced and a stronger fibre results. This is called the 'cold soda' process and was used by Australian Newsprint Mills Ltd (ANM) in the first commercial production of newsprint from hardwood in the world.
Another innovation is the countercurrent pulping process developed by Associated Pulp and Paper Mills (APPM). To reduce the high alkali demand of the conventional soda process a two-stage continuous pulp digester was introduced, in which spent liquor from the second stage is used to extract alkali-consuming substances in the first stage. Pulping liquor moves upwards in the digester while the woodchips move downwards. A final stage of in-digester washing eliminates the labour and expense of external washers. This process results in alkali savings and improved heat economy and bleaching performance. APPM licensed its technology overseas, and its in-digester washing has become standard in many mills.
Chemists J.H. Boas and L.R. Benjamin began investigating methods of producing soda pulp from eucalypts for the manufacture of paper in 1916. Their research was at the instigation of C.E. Lane-Poole, Conservator of Forests in Western Australia, who saw a pulping project as a way of financing the regeneration-thinning program he believed necessary to restore productivity to the karri and jarrah forests. In 1921 commercial trials were carried out using a pilot-scale soda pulping plant at the Fyansford paper mill in Victoria.
The first eucalypt pulp and paper mill in Australia was established by Tasmanian Paper Pty Ltd, a subsidiary of a company associated with Auguste de Bavay. It opened in 1929 at Kermandie, on the Huon River in southern Tasmania, with L.R. Benjamin as technical supervisor. Although short-lived because of the economic depression - it closed in 1930 - work here proved that newsprint could be produced from eucalypt pulp.
\BDescription:\b Eucalypts \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Parkes Telescope",246,"0","g","0"
Parkes Telescope - See \JAustralia Telescope\j
\JPulsars, Detection Of\j
\JQuasars, Detection Of\j
\JSupernovas, Detection Of\j
#
"Passenger Catamaran",247,"0","g","0"
Passenger Catamaran - See \JWave-piercing Catamaran\j
#
"Pasture Improvement",248,"0","g","0"
Pasture Improvement - See \JSubterranean Clover\j
\JTropical Legumes\j
#
"Pedal Wireless",249,"f\4\flydoc.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Bicycle Wireless; Pedal Radio\b
\IA simple, lightweight, radio transceiver powered by a pedal generator.\i
The pedal wireless was operated by a small generator fitted with bicycle pedals. The operator could generate sufficient electricity, some 20 watts of power at 300 to 400 volts, by pedalling. The unit it operated was a transceiver - a combined transmitter and receiver - which could receive and transmit a message across a distance of 1,500 kilometres.
The transceiver was invented by Adelaide electrical engineer and wireless experimenter Alfred H. Traeger in 1925. He was then asked by the Reverend \JJohn Flynn\j to develop a set for use in his proposed Royal Flying Doctor Service. It had to be cheap, small, durable and easy to operate. Traeger felt that batteries were unsuitable as a power source, primarily because of the problems associated with battery acid and instead developed a pedal operated generator to provide power for the transceiver.
Traeger enclosed the generator's fly wheel and gears in a cylindrical metal housing with the pedals outside. A cast base which was screwed to the floor meant that the operator could have both hands free while pedalling. An even flow of communication was ensured by the use of crystal frequency stabilisers. The first pedal wireless set was installed at Augustus Downs, 320 km north of Cloncurry, in 1929. Others soon followed.
Initially messages from outposts were sent in Morse, although the base could transmit by voice to the outposts. In 1932 Traegar introduced a keyboard which transmitted a Morse signal when the corresponding letter was pressed so that a knowledge of Morse Code was no longer required. The system became even simpler in 1935 when Traegar produced a transceiver that could send, as well as receive, messages by voice.
Portable pedal-powered transceivers were carried by inland padres, drovers and transport drivers, enabling them to report their whereabouts and receive news and instructions from the nearest Flying Doctor base. By 1946 the pedals were replaced by a battery operated vibrator. The radios are also used to transmit the School of the Air, which was established in 1951 at \JAlice Springs\j. \JJohn Flynn\j's mission 'to make the dumb inland speak and its deaf distances hear' had certainly been fulfilled.
\BDescription:\b Alfred Traeger was asked by \JJohn Flynn\j to develop a set for use in the Royal Flying Doctor Service \I(Gum Tree Graphics)\i
#
"Pedrail",250,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Bottrill Wheel\b
\IThis wheel was similar in appearance to a caterpillar track; it was designed for heavy vehicles travelling over difficult terrain.\i
The Pedrail was a wheel with a series of flat bearers around the circumference. As the wheel rotated the bearers were placed one at a time upon the ground to form a flat bed and thus prevent the wheel from sinking. For use in very loose ground the bearers could be fitted with studs.
The Pedrail was designed for use by heavy vehicles which had to move over difficult terrain. Pedrail wheels were used on tractors and on heavy traction engines. During World War I the Australian Light Horse, fighting in the desert in the Middle East, were without artillery support until the Pedrail system was fitted to its field guns in 1916.
The Pedrail was invented by Frank Bottrill and patented in 1906.
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"Penicillin",251,"0","g","0"
\IThe world's first and most widely used antibiotic; co-discovered by Australian scientist \JHoward Florey\j and first made available to civilians in Australia.\i
Penicillin is the most widely used antibiotic in the world. It kills a broad range of bacteria and has been used to treat almost every kind of infection.
The research which led to the discovery of penicillin was the joint effort of Alexander Fleming and a team led by Australian scientist \JHoward Florey\j which included German-born Ernst Boris Chain. In 1928 Fleming made the accidental discovery of a mould, \IPenicillium notatum,\i which he noted had antibacterial properties. Florey, by 1935 the Head of Pathology at Oxford University and engaged in a search for a substance to destroy bacterial infection, studied Fleming's report on the mould. Florey's team successfully grew it, and were able to extract the penicillin drug from the mould and refine it. They tested it on healthy and diseased animals. In 1941 Florey used penicillin on three boys with bacterial infections and saved the lives of two of them.
In the same year the drug went into production in the United States, in time to aid the casualties of World War II, first in North Africa, and later in other zones of the war.
In Australia penicillin production began towards the end of 1943. This was done under the supervision of Percival Bazeley at the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories in Melbourne. Supplies from this source were in the battlefields of New Guinea by Christmas of that year, saving many lives. Australia was the first country in the world to make the antibiotic available to civilians.
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"Peppin Strain",252,"f\3\merino.jpg","c","0"
\IA large-framed Merino sheep developed for hot, dry conditions.\i
Peppin strain sheep are large-framed and carry heavy fleeces of medium quality wool. They are hardy animals, allowing sheep raising to extend into hot, low rainfall areas where sheep would previously have been unable to survive. The Peppin strain is able to pass on its characteristics to almost any other line it is bred with. Some 60 per cent of Australian sheep now have Peppin blood and it is also a major bloodline in South American, South African and New Zealand flocks.
The strain was developed by George Hall Peppin (1800-72), the son of an English sheep farmer who settled at Wanganella, in the Riverina district of Victoria, in 1858. After unsuccessful attempts to fatten sheep for the Melbourne market, he set about breeding sheep that were better able to cope with the low rainfall, long hot summers and coarse herbage of the local district.
Breeding work was carried on by his sons \JGeorge Peppin\j and Frederick Peppin, who by the late 1870s had developed a distinctive Wanganella type that was characterised by a sturdy large frame and a longer stapled fleece which yielded over a kilogram more wool than the older type Merino.
It took some time, however, before the new Merino strain was accepted by other sheep farmers, who preferred to stay with the fine-wool breeds.
\BDescription:\b A Merino sheep \I(Gum Tree Graphics)\i
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"Periscope Rifle",253,"f\4\1910sg.jpg","c","0"
\IA periscope arrangement for firing a rifle from a trench.\i
The periscope rifle involved attaching a framework of wood, wire and mirrors to the rifle. The rifle was placed at the edge of the trench. Below, in the trench, when the person firing the rifle looked into the lower mirror, they could, via the upper mirror, see along the sights. The device was accurate at distances to 300 metres and was used constantly by the Anzacs whenever enemy trenches were close enough.
The periscope rifle was devised in May 1915 by Lance-Corporal Beech of Sydney while a soldier in the trenches of Gallipoli. A factory to make rifles was set up on the beach.
\BDescription:\b The periscope rifle was used in trenches during WWI \I(Australian \JWar Memorial\j negative no. WDJ116164/176)\i
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"Permaculture",254,"a\4\a3_0009.jpg","c","0"
\IThe design and maintenance of sustainable environments, a concept developed in Australia.\i
Permaculture (permanent agriculture) is defined by its originator, Bill Mollison, as 'the conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems which have the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems'. Permaculture refers to land use systems which utilise resources in a sustainable way, conserve wildlife habitats and maintain the genetic diversity of wild and domestic plant and animal species. Permaculture designs coordinate and integrate plants, animals, buildings and water resources to make the best use of a site's terrain, to establish beneficial interactions and to make the most efficient use of time and resources in an environmentally benign way. It is central to permaculture design that individual elements serve many functions and that each function is attained in several ways. Permaculture designs can be adapted for urban, suburban or rural properties or for entire neighbourhoods and regions. They have been used to provide food and shelter in environments as different as outback Australia, urban localities in London, Sweden and Norway, and villages in Hawaii and the Seychelles.
The world's first permaculture village, Crystal Waters, was established in southeast Queensland in 1988. The settlement consists of 44 households with homesites, dams and roads all designed on permaculture principles. By-laws prohibit the ownership of cats and dogs, the use of dangerous chemicals, and causing erosion or degradation to the land.
\BDescription:\b Permaculture - the design and maintenance of sustainable environments. \I(Random House - photo by Ken Stepnell)\i.
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"Permanent Magnets",255,"0","g","0"
\IThe strongest magnet known was developed by \JCSIRO\j scientists.\i
\JCSIRO\j scientists have succeeded in fabricating NdFeB (neodymium-ironboron) permanent magnets. These are one of a new generation of 'hard' magnetic materials which are expected to revolutionise the design of many devices which use magnetic components, such as electric motors, wristwatches, loudspeakers, computer peripherals and medical diagnostic equipment.
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"Permanent Pleating of Wool",256,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Permanent Pleating of Woollen Fabrics
See Si-ro-set\b
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"Photovoltaic Solar Cells",257,"f\4\3_0055.jpg","c","0"
\IHigh efficiency silicon solar cells developed for electricity production.\i
A high efficiency solar photovoltaic cell capable of converting solar energy into electrical power at a rate of 24.2 per cent and efficient even in cloudy conditions was developed by Professor Martin Green of the Centre for Photovoltaic Devices and Systems at the University of New South Wales. The cell is a modification of solar cells previously developed at the Centre. These were made by using a laser to etch grooves into the top of a wafer of silicon to create 'mountains' and 'valleys' which improved the sunlight-trapping capacity of the cell. Martin Green and his colleague Dr Stuart Wenham realised that the cell's efficiency would be further improved if the grooves were filled with metal.
Initial patents for the laser-grooved cells were taken out in 1984. Cells manufactured under licence in Germany were used to power \ISpirit of Biel-Bienne,\i the winner of the 1990 World Solar Challenge Darwin to Adelaide car race (see Solar-Powered Car).
The first successful Australian installations using photovoltaic cells were Telecom's stand-alone power packages for telecommunications. In 1974 they provided the power supply for a VHF subscriber radio terminal requiring about four watts load. Because cell production costs decreased and at the same time radio equipment requiring lower power was developed, it became possible to power major high-capacity microwave radio systems. The first of these was the \JAlice Springs\j microwave radio link, installed in 1978. Solar cells have particular application in remote areas to provide electricity for refrigeration, lighting, radio, television and power tools. They also generate power for off-road vehicle refrigerators, water pumps, outback telephone grids, billboard lighting, navigation lights and security lights.
\BDescription:\b A solar-powered car in the Solar Challenge car race \I(DFAT)\i
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"Pipes",258,"0","g","0"
Pipes - See \JCement-lining Process for Pipes\j
\JHume, Walter Reginald\j
\JHume Pipe\j
\JPlastiline\j
\JPre-stressed Reinforced Concrete\j
\JRubber Ring Jointing\j
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"Plastic Lenses",259,"f\4\a4_0034.jpg","c","0"
\IAn Australian company pioneered the use of plastic for prescription lenses and lenses for sunglasses.\i
The first plastic spectacle lenses in the world were made in South Australia in 1960. The material used was CR39, a new plastic with similar refractive properties to glass which had been developed in the United States where it was being used for aircraft windshields. Its major advantage as a material for lenses is that it is only one-third the weight of glass - an important factor for people who required thick lenses in their spectacles. The lenses are made by injecting CR39 resin into ground glass moulds sealed with rubber gaskets, and then heat-curing the assembly.
The range of plastic lenses now manufactured includes safety lenses, sunglasses with a high fashion element, and spectacle lenses in a wide range of powers and designs, in either finished form ready for the frame, or semi-finished ready for processing to suit a customer's exact needs.
SOLA (Scientific Optical Laboratories of Australia) was set up near Adelaide in 1960 by Noel Roscrow to manufacture plastic lenses from CR39. By the end of the decade it had grown to occupy two buildings, making moulds for lenses in one, and casting them in the other. It began overseas operations in 1971, and by the mid-1980s had become the world's largest lens maker. SOLA has also developed Perma-Gard scratch-resistant liquid coating for its lenses and UV-Gard lenses that protect wearers' eyes from ultraviolet radiation.
\IA method of lining concrete sewer pipes with a durable plastic lining to prevent corrosion.\i
Plastiline is a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic lining which has the chemical and physical properties to protect the interior of concrete sewer pipes from the corrosive attack of chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfuric acid which are produced by bacterial action in the pipes. The lining is strong, resists abrasion, and is effective over normal temperature ranges. It is manufactured in the form of a continuous sheet with diamond-shaped keys protruding from one side. These keys are embedded in the pipe wall immediately after the pipe is spun, when the concrete is still wet, by vibrating them into the soft wall - when the concrete dries they hold the lining firmly in position. Sewerage systems using Plastilined pipes are expected to last for more than a century.
Plastiline sheeting and the method of attaching it to the pipe wall was developed by Humes Ltd, in collaboration with Melbourne's Nylex Corporation, in 1962. At the end of the same year it was used in Adelaide's sewerage system to line some 50,000 square metres of spun concrete pipes. Since then it has been used to protect sewerage systems in all mainland states of Australia, and has been exported to Japan, the Far East and the Middle East. Plastilined pipes have also been used in Singapore and Malaysia.
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"Pleuropneumonia Vaccine",261,"0","g","0"
Pleuropneumonia Vaccine - See \JBovine Pleuropneumonia Vaccine\j
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"Polilight",262,"0","g","0"
\IAn apparatus which enables reproductions of clear images of fingerprints left on surfaces like paper.\i
The Polilight is a machine which can both reveal and photograph chemically-treated fingerprints on previously difficult-to-deal-with surfaces like paper. It was developed by Australian National University forensic scientists Ron Warrender and Milutin Stoilovic. Polilight is an improvement on the previous process in which chemicals, notably ninhydrin, were used to make amino acids in the fingerprint fluorescent so that the print could be revealed by laser light. It was, however, technically very difficult to reproduce this image. In the Polilight process metal ions, in particular zinc and cadmium, are added to the ninhydrin and the result is a strongly coloured fluorescent image of the print. The image can then be both revealed and photographed in a single operation using the Polilight apparatus, a device which uses a powerful xenon lamp instead of lasers, with which it is possible to fine-tune the wavelength of light emitted to optimise the fluorescence so that high quality images are produced. The savings in time and money are significant.
Through Anutech, the commercial arm of the Australian National University, rights to manufacture and market the Polilight machine have been sold in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and Europe.
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"Poll Dorset Sheep",263,"0","g","0"
\ISheep breed developed in Australia for the fat lamb trade.\i
The Poll Dorset is a popular Australian fat lamb breed which was developed by selective breeding of the Corriedale/Dorset Horn cross and the Dorset Horn/Ryeland cross to eliminate the horns from the Dorset Horn. Selection began in 1937. The breed has been exported to Britain and the United States.
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"Polwarth Sheep",264,"0","g","0"
\IA sheep breed with high quality fleece and good carcass; developed in Victoria.\i
The Polwarth is an Australian dual-purpose sheep breed. It is three-quarters Merino and one-quarter Lincoln. The animal is hardy and suited to a range of climates and terrain. It is heavily fleeced, carrying dense, even wool of good length. The carcass is large and suitable for fat lamb production and mutton.
Polwarths originated in the 1880s in three flocks at Tarndwarncoort, Eeyeuk and Carr's Plains, near Colac in the County of Polwarth, Victoria. The name became official in 1919.
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"Pomeroy, John",265,"0","g","0"
(1872-1950)
\INew Zealand inventor living in Melbourne.\i
John Pomeroy was born in Invercargill, New Zealand, and settled in Melbourne after World War I. He is best known for inventing an exploding bullet.
His first invention, a non-slip clothes prop, was patented in 1884, when he was still a schoolboy, and earned him 50 pounds when the rights were sold to a local hardware merchant. He later devised a fountain pen which filled itself when dipped in ink, but with this was beaten into the marketplace by another inventor.
A further invention, a pneumatic cricket pad which protected a batsman against injuries from fast bowling, had limited success after being sold to a Melbourne sporting goods firm. Other appliances he invented include a blue-flame cooker, a gadget for cutting and combing the hair at the same time, a headlight dimmer, and a rabbit trap which did not hurt the rabbit.
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"Pop-top Can",266,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Presto Can, Push-button Can\b
\IDrink can which is opened by first pressing in a small button to release gas pressure and then a larger button to access the liquid.\i
The pop-top or Presto drink can is opened by pressure from the thumb. It is made with non-detachable parts, thus eliminating the litter problem associated with the ring-pull can. The pop-top can has two holes. A smaller hole, created when a small raised button is pressed in, releases gas pressure inside the can. This makes it easier to push in the larger button which then forms an opening from which the liquid can be poured or drunk. Both metal buttons are hinged to the can. Manufacture of the can ends was made possible by the development of a metal die that forms the hinge and makes the press buttons smaller than the apertures.
The Presto can end was developed for the Australian iron and steel manufacturer BHP. The steel industry had been adversely affected by the introduction of the ring-pull can, which meant that drink cans, previously all steel, now had at least one aluminium end. Steel companies throughout the world began research into an easy-to-open steel can in order to regain this market.
In 1968 BHP chairman Sir Ian McLennan produced a basic design for a press-button can end. Design consultant Mike Debenham was then called in by BHP to develop this into a product which could be produced on existing high-speed canning machinery from existing grades of tinplate and aluminium. It also had to be acceptable to the consumer on both ease of use and environmental grounds. The Presto can, released in 1973, was the result.
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"Portable Brailler",267,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Mountbatten Brailler\b
\IA portable device used to translate text and simple graphics into braille.\i
The Mountbatten Brailler is a portable device which allows the blind to key in text and simple graphics and which then prints out the results in braille. As well, information that is entered as braille can be translated into text which can be printed on a standard ink printer. Sighted people can use it to translate text into braille which can then be embossed on to paper. The brailler is battery powered and requires regular charging from the mains via a mains adaptor. It can also take its power from a car battery.
Although designed in the United Kingdom using funds from the Mountbatten Trust, the international licence to develop and manufacture the brailler was won by a Sydney company, Quantum Technology. The company then spent three years redesigning and developing the device before beginning production, and now manufactures it for the international market. The electronics and software involved are Australian.
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"Potato Cup",268,"f\4\a4_0024.jpg","c","0"
\IAn edible container for savoury foods made from potato flour.\i
The potato cup is an edible container for savoury foods. It is made from a potato flour batter which is dry baked to a crispness similar in texture to an ice cream cone. The container is suitable for take away foods such as hot chips, and if it is not eaten it will readily biodegrade, an environmental advantage over polystyrene containers. The potato cup was developed by Brisbane man Jim Ormond, who began researching the idea of an edible container in the mid 1980s.
\BDescription:\b The potato cup is made from potato flour \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Power-assisted Steering Gears",269,"0","g","0"
Power-assisted Steering Gears - See \JBishop Rotary Valve\j
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"Pre-cast Concrete Housing",270,"0","g","0"
Pre-cast Concrete Housing - See \JConcrete Building Panel\j
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"Preferential System of Voting",271,"0","g","0"
\IA system of voting which allows the voter to express his or her desire regarding the entire list of candidates.\i
The preferential system of voting allows the voter to nominate on the ballot paper the candidate of his or her second choice should it become apparent in the counting that the candidate of his or her first choice will not be elected. Should the candidate of second choice also be deemed to be unelectable, then the third choice comes into play, and so on until one candidate has an absolute majority. The candidate with the least number of first preferences is first to be eliminated, and the second preferences on the relevant ballot papers are then distributed amongst the remaining candidates.
This makes for slow counting, except where one candidate clearly dominates and achieves an absolute majority, but it does allow the voter to indicate his or her order of preference for the entire list of candidates. The system has been used in Australia since 1919 in elections to the House of Representatives and in all State lower houses except Tasmania.
\IImprovements in the mixing and discharging efficiency of pre-mixed concrete trucks were made in Australia.\i
Australian innovations in the field of pre-mixed concrete trucks include significant improvements in methods of uniformly mixing concrete in transit and the development of transit mixer trucks that could also be used as central mixers on major construction sites. Both grew out of problems experienced during the construction of the dams and tunnels of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme. Existing transit mixers were unable to mix and discharge concrete which satisfied the specifications of the Snowy Mountains Authority, which required high standards of mixing efficiency previously only possible when using large stationary mixers. The strict standards of the Authority were subsequently adopted as the Australian Standard for pre-mixed concrete, putting Australia in the forefront of premixed concrete truck technology.
Another Australian innovation was the widening of the mouth of the drum to allow faster discharging, thus enabling more efficient handling of low slump concrete.
The concept and initial technology of pre-mixed concrete and the trucks to deliver it came to Australia from the United States in the late 1930s. Australian improvements are now being exported to many parts of the world, including the United States.
\INew South Wales pioneered the use of prepaid mail.\i
The first prepaid mail in the world originated in the colony of New South Wales. It was a lettersheet with a circular embossed stamp depicting the Royal coat of arms, the motto 'Dieu et mon droit' and the word 'Sydney'; in an outer circle were the words 'General Post Office, New South Wales'. They were printed at the instigation of the Postmaster-General, James Raymond, who suggested to the Colonial Secretary a system in which the sender paid for the delivery of mail, at a rate of a penny per item. This was approved in principle, but the fee was set at a penny-halfpenny, and one shilling and threepence per dozen. Prepaid embossed sheets were introduced in New South Wales in 1838, two years before stamps were issued in Britain.
The system previously in use required the deliverer to wait for payment from the addressee.
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"Pre-stressed Reinforced Concrete",274,0,g,0
\IA high-quality concrete pipe encased in wound steel wire for added strength; used for high pressure water pipelines.\i
Pre-stressed concrete is compressed concrete strengthened with tensioned wires to increase its efficiency. Pre-stressed reinforced pipes are made by a method called the roller-suspension process. Concrete in the form of pre-cast reinforced barrels is first compressed to strengthen it. High tensile steel wires are then wound around the barrels. The result is an economical, high quality pipe suitable for high pressure pipelines. The first pipes made by this process had walls about half the thickness of the only other high pressure pipe available at the time they were introduced, an expensive American system called 'cylinder pipe'.
The method of producing pre-stressed concrete pipes was developed by two Melbourne engineers, Walter Robertson and Heaton Clark, founders of Rocla Pty Ltd. Experimental pipes made in 1926 were cast vertically with an inner and outer mould. The roller-suspension process of manufacture was introduced in the early 1940s and used for the first time to construct pipes for the Fish River and Lithgow Water Supply Lines, New South Wales, in 1944-45. In 1949 the Preload Corporation of New York became the first of several United States companies to use the process under licence.
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"Presto Can",275,"0","g","0"
Presto Can - See \JPop-top Can\j
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"Prickly Pear",276,"0","g","0"
\IAn introduced South American cactus which overran grazing and farming areas in the early twentieth century; eventually controlled by a South American moth.\i
Prickly pear,\I Opuntia stricta,\i was introduced to Australia from South America. In the mid 1850s it was grown as hedges in the Upper Hunter Valley of New South Wales, and by the 1860s was also established at a number of places in Queensland. By 1900 some four million hectares had been overrun, and the prickly pear was spreading at the rate of half a million hectares annually. Vast areas of grazing land disappeared under the cactus and some pastoral properties had to be abandoned.
In 1920 the Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board was formed and between 1920 and 1924 sent scientists to the USA, Mexico and Argentina to study the natural enemies of prickly pear. The most promising was a South American moth, \ICactoblastis cactorum,\i whose larvae tunnel in the stems and segments of the prickly pear, causing them to collapse and die. It was brought to Australia in 1925 and large numbers reared in captivity. The eggs were then released in the field; by 1930 more than three thousand million had been distributed. By 1934 the moth had destroyed nearly all the prickly pear in Queensland and New South Wales, releasing the land once again for grazing and crop production.
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"Pritchard Steam-powered Unit",277,"0","g","0"
Pritchard Steam-powered Unit - See \JSteam-Powered Car\j
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"Progressive Multifocal Lenses",278,"0","g","0"
\IAn alternative to bifocal spectacle lenses.\i
Progressive multifocal lenses have different zones for correcting near and distance vision. The transition between the zones is continuous, eliminating many of the optical and cosmetic problems associated with bifocal and trifocal lenses. The lenses were developed by the Adelaide firm Sola Optical using CAD/CAM (computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture). Sola was assisted in the areas of design and total quality management in their production by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Mathematics and Statistics in Adelaide.
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"PSZ",279,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Partially Stabilised Zirconia\b
\IOne of the toughest ceramics in the world was developed by \JCSIRO\j scientists.\i
Industrial ceramics need to be tough enough to withstand severe physical stresses and rapid temperature changes. In 1974 the \JCSIRO\j Advanced Materials Laboratory discovered a transformation toughening phenomenon in zirconia ceramics which has become the basis for a new industrial ceramics industry. PSZ, an ' alloy ' of zirconia, resists surface damage because of its high strength, mechanical reliability and toughness, and corrosion resistance.
It also has low thermal conductivity, high thermal expansion, resistance to thermal shock, low specific heat and good temperature sliding friction. It is an extremely useful material for components which are subjected to abrasion, chemical corrosion, friction and high temperatures.
PSZ ceramic components are made in Australia by Nilcra and are exported around the world.
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"Pulsar Battery",280,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Pulsar Power Pack\b
\IA lightweight, maintenance-free, fully sealed battery with an inbuilt reserve unit which can start the car if the main battery dies.\i
The Pulsar battery uses a unique method of construction in which moulded plastic frames, either containing active material or coated with insulation to act as separators, are fitted into a lightweight outer container. The plastic frames are heat-resistant and acid-proof. Each 'active' frame is divided into six sections of three positive and three negative charged elements. When two such frames are put together with plastic end panels and internal copper bus strips, as connectors, and acid added, the interaction produces twelve volts. The capacity of the battery can be increased by adding more pairs of frames, with separators, between the end plates. Once assembly is complete the battery is filled with electrolyte and sealed with a special film which allows ventilation but is also spillproof. The battery unit is maintenance-free in that it never has to be topped up with water. The internal construction is virtually free from vibration, a major cause of battery failure.
The Pulsar has several advantages over the conventional battery. It is lighter and totally sealed. Weight for weight it delivers some ninety per cent more cranking power than a standard battery. It can be produced economically - the moulded plastic frames are cheap but strong, and the standard-sized outer containers eliminate the need to produce a variety of sizes for different capacity batteries. Perhaps its major advantage is that a separate section of the battery - a group of pairs of frames - can be isolated for use only by the starter motor so that if the main battery ever dies (for example if the headlights are left on all night), a flip of the switch on top of the unit changes from the main battery to the reserve. After the car has been started the switch is changed back while the engine is still running and the vehicle's alternator recharges the whole battery.
The Pulsar was developed in Melbourne by a team headed by research physicist Bill McDowell at Dunlop (now Pacific Dunlop) which in the 1970s began looking at battery technology in general. In 1980 the Pulsar won first prize for new battery technology at the World Lead Industry Conference in Madrid. In 1986 it was awarded an Australian Design Award. Production of the battery began in Australia in May 1985. Unfortunately the local market was too small for a specialist battery such as the Pulsar and production ceased in October 1990. The Pulsar continues to be manufactured in the United States where Pacific Dunlop built a factory which commenced operations in 1988. There the battery is sold under the name 'Switch', a reference to the switch which activates the reserve unit.
\IAustralian radioastronomers have made important contributions to the study of pulsars - sources of pulses of energy.\i
Pulsars are sources of radio waves which are emitted at very regular intervals ranging from a fraction of a second to several seconds. They have been detected in our galaxy but outside the solar system and are thought to be rapidly rotating neutron stars (that is, superdense stars, postulated as the outcome of the explosion of a massive star, followed by the dispersal of much of the star as gas, and the subsequent coalescence of the protons and electrons of its atoms into a dense nugget of neutrons).
In 1960 Australian radioastronomers John Bolton, G.J. Stanley and O.B. Slee, working from the Parkes observatory, were the first to identify a powerful radio source in the constellation Taurus as the Crab Nebula pulsar, the remains of a supernova which exploded in 1054. The faintest optical object measured is the Vela pulsar. Its radio waves were first picked up in 1968 by radioastronomers associated with the University of Sydney but it was not until ten years later, using the Anglo-Australian Telescope at Siding Spring Mountain, that an optical viewing was made, the first ever of a pulsating neutron star. Using the telescope's Image Photon Counting System the faint repetitive flashes, which actually left the pulsar 1,600 years ago, were photographed. The Mills Cross telescope, near \JCanberra\j, has been responsible for the discovery of most of the other known pulsars in the southern hemisphere.
The name pulsar comes from puls(ating st)ar.
\BDescription:\b The Anglo-Australian Telescope was the first to view a pulsating neutron star \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
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"Pulsed-arc Welder",282,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Syncro-Pulse CDT (controlled drop transfer)\b
\IA welding method which allows smoother welding metal transfer and improved weld penetration and weld bead shape.\i
The welding method used in the pulsed-arc welding machine involves the melting by pulsed currents of an electrode wire to produce metal drops, one per current pulse. This permits a continuous smooth welding metal transfer. Each metal drop is roughly the same size as the electrode wire and separates cleanly from the electrode without creating a liquid metal bridge which could form splattering drops. The method allows the welding of very thin material sections. Other advantages include minimal distortion or damage to heat-treated or painted areas, less heating of work pieces and improved shaping and penetration of the weld.
The pulsed-arc welder was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Manufacturing Technology in collaboration with Welding Industries of Australia (WIA). It is available commercially, fitted with pre-programmed circuit boards for welding materials such as carbon steels and low alloy steels, stainless steels and aluminium, with options for other weld materials. The system is suitable for automation and is also marketed as a fully integrated package with a state-of-the-art robot. An automated pulsed-arc welding unit has been used with success in the welding of automotive exhaust components.
\ICause of Q fever was identified by \JMacfarlane Burnet\j as a rickettsia, since known as Coxiella burnetti.\i
Q fever is a disease with pneumonia-like symptoms which occurs around the world. Its causal agent is a rickettsia (a bacteria-like micro-organism), a parasite of sheep, cattle and goats, spread by ticks, and causing only mild infection in these animals. Humans are infected by inhaling dust containing the dried fluids of infected animals - farmers, shearers and abattoir workers are most at risk. It can spread from one human to another.
The disease was noted in Brisbane abattoir workers in 1934 and in the following year its epidemiology was investigated by Edward Derrick (later to found the Queensland Institute of Medical Research). Derrick named the disease 'Q fever', the 'Q' said to refer to the 'question' or 'query' as to its cause. \JMacfarlane Burnet\j, then working at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute supplied the answer to this question when he identified the bacterium which is the causal agent. The bacterium proved to be identical with a rickettsia isolated from a tick in the United States by H. Cox. The name of the bacterium, \ICoxiella burnetti,\i honours both men.
\BDescription:\b Shearers are at risk of Q fever \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
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"QEM*SEM",285,"0","CSIRO's QEM*SEM","miqemse.avi"
\IA computer-controlled scanning electron microscope used for analysis of the constituents of composite mineral samples.\i
QEM*SEM is a fully automated computer-controlled instrument that can identify minerals and their features in ore particles. The use of QEM*SEM technology means significant cost reductions to the minerals industry as well as improvements in the quality of mineral processing.
QEM*SEM was developed by several \JCSIRO\j divisions in the mid-1980s. QEM*SEM equipment is manufactured and marketed under license by Australian Pacific Resources(APR) Ltd. The name comes from Q(uantitative) E(valuation of) M(inerals by) S(canning) E(lectron) M(icroscopy).
\IThe first detection of a quasar - a brilliant star-like extra-galactic object - was made from Australia.\i
Quasars are thought to be the brilliant centres of distant galaxies. Although small, with diameters of less than a light year, they are massive sources of electro-magnetic radiation, giving out as much energy as hundreds of galaxies. Many of the nearest and most interesting examples of quasars are observable only from the southern hemisphere.
The first detection of a quasar was made from Australia in 1963 using the radiotelescope at Parkes, New South Wales, to pin down the position of a radio source catalogued as 3C 273. This was found to be a star-like object some 2,000 million light years away. In 1983 the brightest and most distant object known, quasar PKS 2000-330, was detected, also from Parkes.
The name quasar comes from quas(i-stell)ar (source).
\BDescription:\b The first detection of a quasar was made from the radiotelescope at Parkes, NSW \I(Random House - photo by Ken Stepnell)\i
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"Race-cam",287,"e\4\5_0044.jpg","c","0"
\IA compact, fixed camera used in car racing and other sports which transmits sound and pictures from positions inaccessible to a normal camera.\i
The race-cam is a compact and sturdy fixed camera which is used in sporting broadcasts to transmit sound and pictures from positions impossible for a camera operator to reach. The camera can be fitted to a racing car or embedded in a playing field. It has been used in car racing, cricket, golf and tennis broadcasts. In the United States a version of the race-cam is worn by baseball umpires.
The race-cam was launched by Channel Seven, Sydney, engineer Geoff Healy at the 1979 Bathurst 1000 car race. A camera mounted in a competing car sent pictures to a transmitter on the roof of the vehicle. This linked to a helicopter following the car around the circuit. The driver of the car was fitted with a microphone and contributed to the race commentary.
\BDescription:\b Race-cam is used on racing cars \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Radial Rotary Engine",288,"0","g","0"
\IA pioneering engine design which played a major part in the development of aviation in Europe.\i
The radial rotary engine had revolving cylinders attached to propeller blades and was powered by compressed air. It was invented by \JLawrence Hargrave\j in 1889 and was an entirely new direction in the development of powered flight. Hargrave's radial rotary engine is considered to be the forerunner of many of the aviation engines used before the advent of jet and turbine engines. In 1891 Hargrave tested his radial rotary engine in a fixed-wing propeller-driven monoplane model aircraft. The engine performed satisfactorily. However, problems associated with the pitch of the propeller caused Hargrave to abandon his experiments with propeller-driven flight.
It has been claimed that the Gnome radial rotary internal combustion engine, built in France by the Seguin brothers in 1908 and used to power Europe's first aeroplanes, was based on Hargrave's invention. Seguin rotary engines powered many World War I planes.
#
"Radioastronomy",289,"0","g","0"
\IAustralia is a world leader in radioastronomy, starting with the pioneering work of the \JCSIRO\j scientists at the end of World War II and culminating in the design and construction of the Australia Telescope.\i
Radioastronomy is the branch of astronomy which measures radio wave emissions, rather than light emissions, from objects in space. In particular it provides a means of studying the regions between stars and galaxies which emit little light. Radio waves were first detected in 1932 but the science of radioastronomy did not develop until after World War II, with an Australian research team from the CSIR (after 1949 the \JCSIRO\j) Division of Radiophysics leading the way.
Early research was conducted at a former radar station at Dover Heights, on the cliffs of Sydney Harbour, where the sources of noises picked up on radar receivers during World War II were investigated. The first radiotelescope in the world operated from this site and in 1946 it found that powerful radio waves came from sunspots on the Sun. In the same year R.G. Giovanelli from the CSIR Division of Physics put forward a theory of solar flares which explained the sudden brightening of parts of the Sun as movements of charged particles associated with changes in the electromagnetic field near the sunspots.
The Division of Radiophysics devised aerial systems to measure the radio waves. In 1949 J. P. Wild of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Radiophysics designed the first solar radiospectrograph and with it identified three types of solar bursts - now types I, II and III in the international standard. This instrument was forerunner to the Radioheliograph at the \JCSIRO\j Solar Observatory at Culgoora.
Astronomical discoveries resulting from radioastronomy owe much to Australian research and many discoveries have been made in Australia. Local radioastronomers were the first to pick up radio waves coming from the Sun; they were the first to make a radio picture of the Crab Nebula; and they were the first to detect quasars.
\IAn instrument which can show astronomers what is happening on the surface of the Sun; now superseded by the giant Australia Telescope.\i
The radioheliograph at the \JCSIRO\j Solar Observatory at Culgoora consists of 96 dish-shaped aerials (parabolic mirrors) connected by cable and arranged in a circle some five kilometres in diameter. The dishes follow the Sun, scanning its surface and corona to pick up radio wave emissions. It is able to simultaneously record signals from 48 different directions. The radio waves received are used to build up two-dimensional images of the Sun. The instrument was used to forecast dangerous solar and cosmic radiation for American astronauts on Moon flights.
The radioheliograph was designed and constructed by a team from the \JCSIRO\j Division of Radiophysics led by J.P. Wild. It began operations in 1967, but has now been superseded by the Australia Telescope.
\BDescription:\b The radioheliograph at Culgoora \I(\JCSIRO\j Australia)\i
\IA device which measures the profile of railway lines to detect worn rails which could cause derailments.\i
The rail profile monitoring system measures the cross-section shape of a railway line. Both sides of the rail are measured very accurately by equipment carried on test vehicles travelling at speeds up to 80 kph. A reader mounted under the carriage collects rail measurements at five per second and passes the information to electronic recording equipment inside the carriage. Annual measurements are carried out to detect worn rails which could cause derailments. It has been found to be especially useful where long trains with high axle loadings are in use, such as those which carry iron ore from Hamersley Mines in the north of Western Australia to the west coast ports.
The system is the first of its type in the world and replaces previous time-consuming inspections using hand-held instruments. Developed by \JCSIRO\j scientists it has been licensed to the Perth company Aldetec Pty Ltd, who market it under the name 'Liteslice'. The system has been exported for use in Philadelphia in the United States.
\BDescription:\b The rail profile monitoring system is used for long trains \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
#
"Rail Sleep Technology",292,"0","g","0"
Rail Sleeper Technology - See \JSteel Sleeper\j
#
"Rainmaking",293,"0","g","0"
Rainmaking - See \JCloud Seeding\j
#
"Reaper Thresher",294,"a\8\1_0061.jpg","c","0"
\IA reaping machine which cuts off and gathers only the head of grain; forerunner of the header harvester.\i
The reaper thresher is a machine for reaping grain crops. As it moves through the standing crop the stalks are drawn through a comb so that the heads come into contact with a knife which cuts them off cleanly, rather than beating them off as in the stripper and the stripper harvester. The heads are carried to the threshing drum where the grain is separated. The grain could be bagged as work proceeded. The machine was better suited to humid conditions than the stripper and stripper harvester.
The reaper thresher was invented in 1905 by three Australians, East, Charlton and Chapman, who were working at the time for the Canadian agricultural company Massey Harris. By 1910 it was being manufactured in Canada specifically for export to Australia.
The reaper thresher worked well on standing crops but, like the stripper harvester, was not able to salvage grain from flattened or tangled crops. A machine which could do this, the Header Harvester, invented by \JHeadlie Shipard Taylor\j, was originally referred to as a reaper thresher. Its name was later changed to the header to avoid confusion.
\BDescription:\b Wheat field \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Red Robin Infra-red Brooder",295,"0","g","0"
Red Robin Infra-red Brooder - See \JInfra-red Brooder\j
#
"Refrigeration",296,"0","g","0"
\IAustralians pioneered ice-making machines and processes for freezing meat.\i
The first mechanical ice-making machine was invented by Geelong publisher \JJames Harrison\j. Using a foot pump he circulated ether under pressure through a short pipe into a coil immersed in water. The ether expanded when it reached the coil, creating a cooling effect which froze the water, making the world's first artificial ice. Until this time all ice used in the preservation of food was natural, being taken from ponds in cold regions such as North America and shipped to all parts of the world in the straw-lined holds of sailing ships.
French-born \JEugene Nicolle\j concentrated on the development of shipboard refrigeration which was necessary if meat from Australia was to be exported through the heat of the tropics to European markets. In 1861 and 1863 he was granted patents for an ammonia absorption method of refrigeration, which he believed could be used to refrigerate the hold of a ship. Further experiments were funded by his partner, merchant Thomas Sutcliffe Mort, who was attracted by the potential of frozen meat sales in England. In 1867 Nicolle developed a refrigeration unit for domestic use, essentially an icebox, and in the 1870s in association with Mort marketed a small household refrigerator. The pair set up freezing works at Darling Harbour in Sydney in 1872, at Lithgow in the \JBlue Mountains\j in 1873 (from which frozen carcasses were sent by train to Sydney), and depots in the Southern Highlands of New South Wales from which chilled milk was despatched to Sydney in specially designed railway vans.
The first consignment of Australian frozen meat to reach England was carried on the \IStratleven.\i The ship was fitted with Bell and Coleman (of Glasgow) air compression and expansion refrigeration equipment and arrived in London in February 1880. However, Nicolle's ammonia expansion system, once its operating problems had been solved, eventually replaced air expansion equipment.
#
"Relaxin",297,"f\4\a4_0043.jpg","c","0"
\IMelbourne scientists have artificially produced the hormone produced by a woman's body during pregnancy which helps to make childbirth easier.\i
The hormone relaxin is a peptide, a small protein molecule made up of 56 amino acids. It is produced in the ovary during pregnancy and its chief function is to soften ligaments joining the female pelvic bones to allow the normally rigid pelvic structure to stretch apart and make childbirth easier. Relaxin also inhibits uterine contractions and so prevents the premature onset of labour. If sufficient relaxin is not present its lack may lead to pregnancy complications such as premature labour and difficult deliveries resulting in brain damaged babies.
Scientists at the \JHoward Florey\j Institute of Experimental Physiology and Medicine have succeeded in producing the hormone artificially. They began work on relaxin in 1975 and established that the structure of the hormone differed considerably between species. Using genetic engineering techniques which became available in the late 1970s following the advent of recombinant DNA they were able to isolate and characterise the genes which code for relaxin, rather than the hormone itself. By cloning a copy of the gene they were able to determine the amino acid sequence of human relaxin. It was then possible to chemically synthesise the hormone. The cloned gene could also be used to produce human relaxin.
The \JHoward Florey\j Institute has licensed patents covering the isolation, cloning and chemical synthesis of relaxin to the United States biotechnology company Genetech which will produce and market human relaxin for use in obstetrical medicine. Because of its effect on the kind of tissues found in joints, relaxin may also benefit patients with arthritis and other disorders of the connective tissue.
\BDescription:\b Relaxin is an artificially produced hormone that occurs naturally during pregnancy \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Repco Exercise Bike",298,"0","g","0"
\IAn exercise bike developed in Australia.\i
The Repco exercise bike is a stationary apparatus in the form of a bicycle in which the front wheel rotates. Fixed to the front wheel is a set of fan blades, the angle of attack of which can be altered. When the blades are 'feathered' pedalling is easy, but when they are at their maximum angle of attack pedalling at speed requires considerable effort.
The apparatus was developed by the sport and exercise division of the car component company, Repco.
#
"Repco Spinner",299,"0","g","0"
Repco Spinner - See \JSelf-twist Spinning Machine\j
#
"Ridley, John",300,"a\9\2_0060.jpg","c","0"
(1806-87)
\IFlour miller who built a successful harvesting machine which revolutionised methods of grain gathering throughout the world.\i
\JJohn Ridley\j, a flour miller from County Durham, England, arrived in Adelaide in 1839. He brought with him the machinery to set up a flour mill, including a James Watt steam engine. He settled on 120 hectares at Hindmarsh where he installed his plant, the first steam-driven flour mill in South Australia, which ground its first local flour in 1840. He then adapted the steam engine for saw-milling. By 1842 Ridley was a successful share farmer.
An acute shortage of manual labour in South Australia threatened the harvest of the bumper 1842-43 wheat crop. Troops were called out to help, including 150 soldiers from New South Wales. Ridley, perhaps inspired by a competition which sought designs for a reaping machine, set about building a working model. His first machine, which cut and removed the wheat heads, was unsuccessful in trials. His second version, similar in concept to a model designed by John Wrathall Bull, threshed the wheat with comb and beaters.
This machine was tested successfully on his farm in November 1843, where it was able to bring in the crop in one-fifth of the time normally taken. Ridley maintained that his design was derived from accounts by Pliny and Palladius of simple reaping machines used by the ancient Gauls during Roman times.
Ridley was rewarded by the South Australian government for his work. He returned to England in 1853, where he continued his interest in farm machinery and tried to adapt the stripper to English conditions.
\BDescription:\b Wheat fields \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Rising Damp Treatment",301,"0","g","0"
Rising Damp Treatment - See \JSelf-supporting Membrane\j System for Treatment of Rising Damp
#
"Road Train",302,"f\4\76_0082.jpg","c","0"
\IA prime mover coupled to several trailers for transportation in outback Australia.\i
A road train is a group of rubber-wheeled articulated motor vehicles used for transportation over long distances on unsealed outback roads. It consists of a large diesel-powered prime mover coupled to several trailers. Multi-decked vans are used for carrying cattle and sheep; refrigerated units are also hauled. Large pneumatic tyres give a smoother ride and thus minimise damage to the livestock carried. The prime mover is equipped with hydraulic brakes, the trailers with air-brakes.
This specialised use of trucks in road trains is uniquely Australian and is a response to the need to service remote outback stations as well as move stock and merchandise across those vast expanses of inland Australia which lack railway coverage.
\BDescription:\b Road trains are used for carrying sheep and cattle in outback Australia \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
#
"Rocla",303,"0","g","0"
Rocla - See \JPre-stressed Reinforced Concrete\j
\JRubber Ring Jointing\j
#
"Roller-suspension Process",304,"0","g","0"
Full Name: Roller-suspension Process of Pipe Construction - See \JPre-stressed Reinforced Concrete\j
\IA wire clothes line strung on arms of metal tubing forming a rotatable square that can be raised or lowered.\i
The Hills Hoist is a rotary clothes line fitted with a hoist operated by a crown and pinion winding mechanism, which allows the frame strung with wire to be raised and lowered. The frame rotates, giving easy access to all areas of line. Using the winding mechanism a full line of clothes can be hoisted to catch the breeze; the drying process is further facilitated by the rotation of the frame. The rotary clothes hoist has the added advantage of taking up less space than the clothes lines and props previously in use throughout the country. The addition of a canvas cover allows the hoist to be used as a large umbrella for outdoor eating and so on, a further multi-use of space.
The rotary clothes hoist was invented by Adelaide motor mechanic \JLance Hill\j in 1945 as a space-efficient replacement for the old clothes line and prop in his backyard which was being squeezed out by spreading trees. He built the first from scrap materials. In 1946 Hill formed a small firm to manufacture and market the clothes hoists. Many problems caused by the postwar scarcity of materials had to be overcome - the metal tubing which made up the standard and arms in many of the early models was recycled from the submarine boom which had stretched across Sydney Heads during the war. Such difficulties decreased when the firm acquired a tube mill which manufactured water pipe. Hills Hoist rotary clothes lines are now sold throughout Australia, Asia, Europe and North America.
At least two earlier versions of a rotary clothes hoist are known: Toyne's All Metal Rotary Clothes Hoist, patented in Melbourne in 1926, and the Coulter Patent Clothes Reel, available in Sydney in the early 1900s. Neither achieved the success of the Hills Hoist.
\BDescription:\b The Hills Hoist \I(Carrie Webster).\i
#
"Rotary Hoe",307,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Rotovator\b
\IA mechanical hoe with rotating blades, now manufactured throughout the world.\i
The rotary hoe is a mechanical cultivator with a power-driven bladed rotor which tills the soil as the machine moves through the field. It has 'L'shaped blades fixed to a small diameter rotor. The blades are set at spacings wide enough to allow cut turf and soil to pass through without clogging. A sprocket and shaft is attached to one end of the rotor so that drive can be applied. The blades trace a circular path as the rotor turns, cutting through vegetation and breaking up surface sods which become mixed with deeper soil as they continue through their arc.
In earlier methods of cultivation the power unit dragged an inert plough and energy was expended on locomotion rather than being applied directly to turning the soil. The problems of soil packing hard and wheel spin, associated with this method when using tractors, were eliminated with use of the rotary hoe.
The rotary hoe, or Rotovator, was developed by Cliff Howard. Helped by his younger brother Albert he built a prototype in 1920. In early 1922 he finished a full-size rotary hoe cultivator powered by an imported 60 hp engine, an order from a large wheat farmer. Another six machines were completed in the following year.
By 1925 hand-operated machines powered by petrol motors were on the market, as well as a smaller version that could be fitted to a Fordson tractor. However, at about this time the Fordson was withdrawn from the market, prompting Howard to produce his own tractor, the Howard DH 22, in 1927. By the end of the 1920s Howard had designed a range of special models for specific jobs. These included narrow-width hoes to suit orchard and vineyard work, a model for the Queensland sugarcane fields which cleared old cane stools and prepared the ground for replanting, and heavy-duty machines to clear rough country and destroy noxious weeds and prickly pear.
Rotary hoes manufactured by Howard's company and its subsidiaries are now sold throughout the world.
#
"Rotary Lawnmower",308,"0","g","0"
Rotary Lawnmower - See \JTwo-stroke Petrol Rotary\j
#
"Rotovator",309,"0","g","0"
Rotovator - See \JRotary Hoe\j
#
"Rowcar",310,"0","g","0"
\ISmall four-wheeled vehicle, propelled and steered by hand, which gives mobility as well as fun to children who do not have use of their legs.\i
The Rowcar was designed with the needs of spina bifida, cerebral palsy, polio and road accident child victims in mind. It is propelled by a rowing bar which works in much the same way as the bar on a railway handcar. Power is transferred to the back wheels by a link from a crank. Steering is from the same handles by a cable linkage to the front wheels. The body of the vehicle is moulded in fibreglass with a dished self-centring seat which can accept a wide range of body sizes.
The chassis of the Rowcar was designed by Burt Terry, a Melbourne engineer. The mechanics of moulding of the body were worked out by John Almond, boat-builder Graham Williams and architect Walter Colman. All four were members of the Nunawading Rotary Club. Volunteer workers made parts, and by mid-1972 the club presented the first batch of twenty cars to the Spina Bifida Association of Victoria. Mass production of the Rowcar was subsequently taken over by Cyclops Industries Pty Ltd, an Australian manufacturer of wheeled toys.
#
"Royal Flying Doctor Service",311,"f\3\36smh.jpg","c","0"
\IA medical service for remote areas of Australia which uses aircraft and radio to overcome the problems of distance and isolation.\i
The Royal Flying Doctor Service (RFDS) provides medical and dental services to isolated areas of inland Australia. RFDS aircraft not only fly doctors to patients and act as emergency ambulances but also provide regular clinics to remote areas, are used in search and rescue operations, and to drop food and supplies in times of flood and bushfire. The South Australian branch also has an ophthalmic service. The RFDS radio network is a valuable communication link for isolated places, and is also used to transmit the School of the Air. The Service operates in Queensland (from bases in Cairns, Mount Isa and Charleville), New South Wales (\JBroken Hill\j), South Australia (Port Augusta and Ceduna), Western Australia (Wyndham, Port Hedland, Carnarvon, Derby, \JKalgoorlie\j and Meekatharra), the Northern Territory (\JAlice Springs\j) and Tasmania (a limited service from Hobart). It is funded by donations and government grants.
The idea grew out of a suggestion put to \JJohn Flynn\j in 1917 by a Victorian medical student, Clifford Peel, that air transport could be used to provide fast access to medical services for people in remote areas. (Peel, as a member of the Australian Flying Corps, was killed a few days before the end of World War I.) For the project to be feasible it was necessary to develop a reliable, low cost, easy-to-operate method of communication so that the service could be contacted. This was provided by Alfred Traeger who, at the instigation of Flynn developed the Pedal Wireless between 1924 and 1927. The first flying doctor base was established by the Australian Inland Mission (AIM) of the Presbyterian Church of Australia at Cloncurry in Queensland. The service began in 1928; Dr K. St Vincent Welch was the first flying doctor, using a DH50 aircraft.
\BDescription:\b First RFDS Planes \I(Fairfax Photo Library)\i
#
"Rubber Ring Jointing",312,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Rubber Ring Jointing for Concrete Pipes\b
\IInterlocking rubber ring jointing system for concrete pipes; now used around the world.\i
The use of rubber ring joints for reinforced concrete pipelines was pioneered in Australia. The rubber rings are interlocking and eliminate rigidity at the joints. They are more effective and economical than previously used methods.
The system was developed in the early 1930s by the Melbourne firm Rocla Pty Ltd, and was first used in the construction of a pipeline at Hamilton, Victoria. The system is now used worldwide.
#
"Rubella",313,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Rubella, Link With Deformities Recognised\b
\IA Sydney ophthalmologist was the first to recognise that rubella in a pregnant woman could cause blindness or deformities in her child.\i
Rubella, also known as German measles, is a relatively mild disease in adults and children. However the virus which causes rubella can cross from an infected mother to her child in the womb and cause it serious harm. This can happen only between the sixth and the twelfth weeks of pregnancy. The virus prevents the correct development of the eyes, ears and heart, and sometimes other organs, causing blindness, deafness and other serious defects.
The connection between rubella and blindness in babies was made by Dr Norman McAlister Gregg, a Sydney ophthalmologist. At the time, 1939, there was a rubella epidemic in Australia. Gregg was able to link the unusually high number of babies being brought to him with cataracts with rubella infection contracted by their mothers in early pregnancy. Gregg presented his findings in a paper in 1941, but it took ten years for his important discovery to be fully accepted around the world. In 1943 Dr Charles Swann, in Adelaide, announced that deafness in children was associated with rubella in pregnancy.
As a result of Gregg's work, women of child-bearing age are now routinely vaccinated against rubella.
#
"Rust-free Wheat",314,"0","g","0"
Rust-free Wheat - See \JFederation Wheat\j
#
"Safety Fuse For Bottled Gas",315,"f\4\a1_0033.jpg","c","0"
\IA safety device which cuts off the gas if there is a fault in the supply line.\i
The gas safety fuse for use with bottled gas immediately cuts off the gas supply if a fault develops in the supply line. For example, if the line was destroyed by fire, the fuse would come into action, preventing an explosion. The fuse will not allow the gas to flow again until the fault has been rectified.
The gas safety fuse was invented by Geoff Foster and was launched in Australia in 1988.
\BDescription:\b This safety fuse is used for bottled gas \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Sarich, Ralph",316,"0","g","0"
\IInventor of the orbital engine, a new concept in internal combustion engines.\i
\JRalph Sarich\j was born in 1938 near Perth, Western Australia, of Yugoslav parents. After qualifying as a fitter and turner and studying engineering subjects at night school he formed his own engineering company, which developed new agricultural equipment including an orchard spray and an earthmoving scoop. With members of this company he began the work which resulted in the Orbital Engine.
In 1973, following his appearance with the orbital engine on the ABC television show 'The Inventors' he was approached by BHP with the result that the Orbital Engine Company Pty Ltd, a joint venture between Sarich Technologies Trust and BHP, was formed to develop the engine. This company has subsequently signed licensing agreements with a number of major automotive and marine groups, most importantly with Ford of America which is developing new-era engines for an all-new car project. Other companies to sign licence agreements which give access to the orbital combustion process two-stroke technology of Orbital Engine Company include General Motors, Outboard Motor Corporation (OMC), and Fiat of Italy. Orbital Engine Company is building a manufacturing plant in Michigan, USA, which will produce 250,000 engines a year. The company holds some 540 patents.
#
"SCATS Traffic Control System",317,"f\4\a4_0051.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Sydney Coordinated Adaptive\b
\IA computer-based area traffic signal control system able to continuously adapt to changing traffic flow.\i
SCATS is a computerised traffic signal control system which coordinates traffic flow on an area basis by regulating the movement of vehicles and pedestrians through intersections with traffic lights. Traffic flow is monitored at selected sets of lights by detectors in the road surface. The system can adjust to unexpected jams and where necessary automatically adjust signal timings. Emergency vehicles leaving a station in the central business district can select one of a number of preset routes and send the signal back to the SCATS computers so that the way can be cleared by using traffic lights. SCATS can also be adapted to give priority to public transport - Melbourne's trams, for example, are fitted with transmitters which activate detector loops in the road to give the approaching tram signal priority.
SCATS works at three levels. At the bottom is the local controller - a microcomputer housed in a metal box at each controlled intersection - which switches traffic signals according to need and passes information about traffic flow on to the next level, the regional computer. The local controller also responds to network coordination requirements from the regional computer. The regional computer coordinates up to 120 controlled intersections. It is continually assessing the information it receives and selecting the optimum operating strategy. A central computer monitors the operation of each regional computer. In the event of equipment failure SCATS has inbuilt, flexible, fixed-time signal operation plans in each local controller.
An Australian study found that SCATS saved 20 per cent in travel time, gave 40 per cent reduction in stops and a 12 per cent saving in fuel use.
The system was developed by the New South Wales Roads and Traffic Authority and went into operation in Sydney in 1974. It is used in most Australian capitals and has been exported to New Zealand, China (Shanghai), Ireland (Dublin), Singapore, Malaya (Kuala Lumpur) and the United States (Detroit). The name comes from S(ydney) C(oordinated) A(daptive) T(raffic) S(ystem).
\BDescription:\b SCATS is used to save travel time, among other things \I(Carrie Webster)\i
#
"Scientific Instruments",318,"0","g","0"
Scientific Instruments - See \JAtomic Absorption Spectrophotometer\j
\JFlame Ionisation Detector\j
\JGravity Gradiometer\j
\JMultiple Monochromator\j
\JNephelometer\j
\JPermanent Magnets\j
\JSequenator\j
\JSHRIMP\j
\JUltra-micro Balance\j
#
"Scrimber",319,"f\4\5_0075.jpg","c","0"
\IA structual wood product made of reconstituted low-grade timber bound together with polymers.\i
Scrimber is a composite board made out of small diameter timber from young trees, such as the thinnings from radiata pine plantations. After the bark is removed the young green logs are crushed between rollers in the scrimming mill to form long interconnected webs of strands in which much of the original fibre orientation is maintained. These are dried and, after the addition of a binding resin, are reconstituted to form long sections of wood. They are then hot-pressed to cure the resin and develop strength. Because the initial fibre orientation is largely preserved the properties of the reconstituted wood are closer to those of wood than to normal particleboard. The reconstituted wood has uniform and predictable strength and attains between 60 and 70 per cent of the strength of knot-free parent wood. It can thus be used for structural purposes and can also be worked in the same way as conventional timber.
A further advantage is that it can be produced in straight lengths up to 1.2 metres wide, 124 millimetres thick and 12 metres long, measurements difficult to get from trees.
The process was invented by J.D. Coleman of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Chemical and Wood Technology, and developed in conjunction with Repco Corporation Ltd (now known as Rafor Ltd). It is marketed under the name 'Scrimber'. A partnership between the South Australian Timber Corporation and the South Australian State Government Insurance Commission, Scrimber International, has established a plant on a commercial scale at Mount Gambier. Using radiata pine from the extensive forests of the area it produces large structural beams, such as were previously mainly supplied by imports. At the same time a valuable commercial outlet is provided for pine thinnings which are unsuitable for milling.
Scrimber technology is being marketed internationally with good prospects in South-East Asia and North America.
\BDescription:\b Transporting pine logs \I(DFAT)\i
#
"SeaCat",320,"0","g","0"
SeaCat - See \JWave-piercing Catamaran\j
#
"Seal For Wheel-bearings",321,"0","g","0"
\IWaterproof and dustproof seal for wheel bearings.\i
A waterproof and dustproof no-maintenance seal for wheel bearings which will prolong the life of wheels and wheel bearings. It was invented in 1990 by Sydney mechanic Barry Ryan after the wheels fell off a boat-trailer he was towing.
#
"Self-firing Rifle",322,"f\4\1910se.jpg","c","0"
\ITwo versions of self-firing rifles were used to deceive the enemy while the Anzacs withdrew from the trenches of Gallipoli.\i
Self-firing rifles, by providing sporadic firing, were used to create the subterfuge of apparently manned trenches while soldiers withdrew. Two versions were devised by the Anzacs at Gallipoli. One involved the use of two tins. An upper tin was filled with water which gradually dripped through a hole into a lower tin, which, when it became heavy enough, overbalanced and caused the rifle to discharge by pulling a string attached to the trigger. The second version was a variation on this and involved a candle which burned through a string, thus releasing a weight attached to the trigger.
Both versions were used with great success during the Anzac withdrawal from the Gallipoli Peninsula.
\BDescription:\b First brigade signals section landing at Gallipoli, morning of 25th April 1915 \I(Australian \JWar Memorial\j negative no. P35/01/01)\i
\IA knife that is subjected to sharpening abrasions each time it is withdrawn from its storage sheath.\i
The Wiltshire Staysharp Knife range incorporates a sharpening sheath. The knife is stored in the sheath between uses, and when withdrawn is subject to a sharpening abrasion.
The system was developed by the Wiltshire Cutlery Company, an offshoot of the Wiltshire File Company founded by industrialist Sir Frederick Munro Wiltshire. The Staysharp system was patented worldwide, and the product has been successful in a number of countries.
\BDescription:\b The Wiltshire Staysharp Knife \I(Carrie Webster)\i
#
"Self-supporting Membrane",324,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Self-supporting Membrane System for Treatment of Rising Damp\b
\IA grout-filled polythene envelope inserted into an existing wall to form a damp-proof course.\i
The Drystat self-supporting membrane system for the treatment of rising damp requires the cutting of a transverse slot at the lowest practicable level between the brick courses of the wall to be treated. A row of polythene envelopes is inserted into the slot, with joins overlapping. The envelopes are then filled under pressure with a non-shrinking, fast-setting mortar. This procedure supports the wall throughout its entire thickness and therefore eliminates the risk of wall settlement. When the mortar has set the edge of the envelope is cut away, leaving a double polythene damp-proof course with mortar in between.
The Drystat self-supporting membrane damp-proof course was developed by Dick J. Van Dommelen and Chris Greenup early in 1979. It won the gold medal in the architectural section of the International Exhibition of Inventions and New Techniques in Geneva, Switzerland, in December 1979.
\IA method of producing two-ply woollen yarn by twisting each strand separately and then letting them untwist around each other.\i
The Repco self-twist spinning system is a high-speed machine which forms a continuous thread from individual fibres of wool by independently twisting two pieces of yarn in the same direction and then letting them unwind and twist around each other. The machine has rollers which not only rotate but also move rapidly from side to side. As the strands are carried forward by the rotation of the rollers the side to side motion causes them to twist, imparting alternate sections of 'S' and 'Z' twists (that is, the direction of the twist is first in one direction and then in the opposite direction). The two twisted strands are then combined and twist around each other to form a stable two-ply yarn. Finally the two-ply yarn is given an additional one-way twist for added strength. The yarn produced by this system is particularly suitable for weaving into lightweight fabric.
The Repco self-twist spinner is ten to fifteen times faster than conventional spinning systems. The machine has lower operating costs than previously used systems, is quieter, and takes up less floor space. Although limited by the fact that the yarn made is suitable only for weaving, and not for knitting, significant quantities of self-twist yarn are still produced in Australia. Further spinning research led to the development of the Selfil Spinner and Sirospun.
The self-twist spinner was invented by David Henshaw, a physicist with the \JCSIRO\j Division of Textile Industry, who first thought of the idea in 1960. With colleagues Gordon Walls, who was responsible for the design of the rollers, and Basil Ellis, Henshaw arranged with Repco Limited to build several machines to \JCSIRO\j specifications. Repco further refined the machine and the company gained the licence to make the machine commercially. The Repco self-twist spinning machine won the 1971 Prince Philip Prize for industrial design, an award organised by the Industrial Design Council of Australia.
\BDescription:\b The Repco spinner \I(\JCSIRO\j Australia)\i
#
"Selfil Spinner",326,"0","g","0"
\IA spinning machine which produces a yarn with a core of wool which is wrapped in synthetic strands.\i
The Selfil spinner wraps two continuous strands of synthetic yarn around a core of wool. The woollen core is prepared for the first synthetic strand by means of rollers which while rotating to carry the woollen core forward also reciprocate (that is, the top roller moves to one side and the bottom roller moves an equal distance in the opposite direction) twisting the wool first one way and then the other. The alternating twisting this produces in the wool causes the synthetic strand to wrap around it when the two are brought into contact. The second synthetic strand is then wrapped around the core in the opposite direction to the first. This is done by drawing the thread through reciprocating rollers to two discs rotating in the same direction, thus building up twist in the thread. The second synthetic strand is introduced at the point where the thread is released from the discs. This allows the thread to unwind, and causes the second synthetic strand to wrap around it.
The Selfil spinner produces a thread strengthened by the synthetic strands while retaining all the qualities of wool. The yarn has fewer knitting faults, better stability, and is easier to cut and make up. Fabric made from this yarn is warm, does not snag, and because of its synthetic content, some 20 per cent, it has greater resistance to pilling than wool.
The Selfil spinner was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Textile Industry and the Repco Machinery Company. It was launched at the International Textile Machine Exhibition in Milan, 1975. In the same year it received the Prince Philip Prize for industrial design.
#
"Sequenator",327,"0","g","0"
\IAn instrument for rapidly determining the amino-acid sequence of proteins.\i
The sequenator is an instrument which is used to determine the sequence of amino-acids in a protein, and thus its double helix code. It was invented in the 1960s by Swedish-born Australian Dr Pehr Olaf Edman at St Vincent's Hospital in Melbourne. The machine was not patented by Edman and has been developed overseas. Australia now imports sequenators from the United States.
#
"Shearing, Chemical",328,"0","g","0"
Shearing, Chemical - See \JBiological Wool Harvesting\j
#
"Shears, Mechanised",329,"f\2\72014.jpg","c","0"
\IPower-driven shears which could remove more of the fleece than hand clipping.\i
Mechanised shears consist of a handpiece with a comb and reciprocating cutter which is driven by power transmitted from a stationary engine. The advantages of mechanised shears over hand shears are that they take more of the fleece, are less tiring to use, and an inexperienced shearer can shear faster with less damage to the sheep.
The mechanised shears patented by Robert Savage and emigrant Englishman Frederick York Wolseley in 1877 were driven by the friction from a large wheel on an overhead shaft. In the first public demonstration they were pitted against a champion blade shearer. The blade shearer finished first, but the superiority of the mechanised shears was proved when they were able to take a further kilogram of wool from the hand-shorn sheep. The first mechanised handpieces were made commercially at the R.P. Park engineering works in Melbourne. The foreman there, Herbert Austin, made suggestions for improvements to the shears, and took out several patents. In 1889 Wolseley returned to England where he set up the Wolseley Sheep Shearing Co. Pty Ltd. Four years later he was joined by Austin, also English-born, and the men became known for their association with the design and manufacture of motor cars.
In 1888, Dunlop Station, near Bourke, New South Wales, became the first property in the world to shear an entire wool clip with machines, despite initial opposition by the shearers to adopting the new methods. The difficult job of persuading shearers to change from blades to machines was undertaken in large part by blade champion Jim Davidson, one of the 1888 Dunlop shearers, who was convinced of the value of mechanised shears. As the leading advocate of their use he patiently demonstrated them in sheds all over Australia.
Several earlier innovative but unsuccessful attempts had been made in Australia to develop shearing machines. The first, by Melbourne inventor James Bolton Higham, was patented in 1868. It had a semi-circular plate with a serrated edge. A two-bladed cutter revolved on the plate. It was designed to operate by steam, water or compressed air-power sources which at that time were unreliable or difficult to transport.
Another machine was patented by J.E.A. Gwynne in 1870. Although considered too complicated, it did incorporate several important advantages, the main one being the flexible joint between the shear and the shaft. The machine was powered by hand - an assistant turned a large wheel connected by a rope drive to a smaller pulley.
\IA strong, easily manoeuvrable, quiet and wobble-free furniture castor.\i
The Shepherd castor is a domed inclined wheel incorporating an oil trap to keep working parts permanently lubricated, the whole encased in a close-fitting dustproof cover. It allows easy mobility in any direction, is firmly mounted to eliminate wobble and is quiet and smooth in operation. It was invented by Melbourne oil company engineer George Shepherd who wanted chairs that could be moved with ease, even by an occupant who remained seated in the chair. Existing furniture castors wobbled, did not align themselves when rolled, had mechanisms which were poorly lubricated and thus subject to friction and wear, were likely to jam if dust or lint caught in the fork and as well tended to become embedded in carpet. Shepherd set out to eliminate all these faults. His first design was of an inclined wheel with the pivot housed inside the wheel. Although satisfied that his approach was practical-in operation it was far better than earlier castors - the product was far larger than Shepherd wanted and he dubbed it the 'flying saucer'.
His next version, a castor 10 cm in diameter, was an inclined domed wheel which gave room for a longer bearing. It had an oil trap to keep the moving parts lubricated and a domed cover to protect them from dust. Further refinements were delayed by the outbreak of World War II, and it was not until 1946 that the first castors, 7.5 cm models, went on the market. Modifications and improvements continued. The number of moving parts was reduced from eight to three plus a cotter pin and the diameter was gradually reduced to the smallest practicable size.
There are now a variety of Shepherd castors, ranging from a 5 cm version designed for lightweight furniture carrying loads of less than 27 kilos, to a castor fitted with a brake for use on hospital beds - when the brake is locked into position the bed will not move. The Shepherd castor has been an international success - the most popular version is the 6.5 cm castor which is sold throughout the world.
#
"SHRIMP",331,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Sensitive High-mass-resolution Ion Microprobe\b
\IAn analytical instrument for use in geology which can date tiny segments of individual crystals in rock.\i
SHRIMP was developed in the 1980s by scientists from the Research School of Earth Sciences at the Australian National University. Its particular use is in accurately dating rocks that cannot be dated by isotopic methods or from the fossil record. SHRIMP has been used to date the oldest known terrestrial material, Western Australian zircons, to an age of between 4270 and 4282 million years and to date areas of significant mineral deposits in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia.
#
"Shrink-proofing Process",332,"0","g","0"
Full Name: Shrink-proofing Process for Wool - See \JChlorine-Hercosett Process\j
\JSi-ro-fix\j
\JSirolan-BAP\j
#
"Si-ro-fix",333,"0","g","0"
\IA resin treatment for shrink-proofing wool.\i
A method for shrink-proofing wool by treatment with resin was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Textile Industry. The treatment, called Si-ro-fix, reduced felting, and in 1953 it was applied commercially to socks. Because the process involved a flammable solvent its use did not become widespread and it was superseded by a combined chlorination and polymer treatment.
#
"Sir-Ro-Mark",334,"f\4\72011.jpg","c","0"
\IA scourable wool branding fluid developed by the \JCSIRO\j.\i
Si-Ro-Mark is a scourable branding fluid. It uses lanolin, a by-product of the wool scouring process, as a medium for selected non-fading pigments. The brand is weatherproof, but can be completely removed in the scouring process. The fluid can be applied by branding iron or by the Baa-Brand Branding System.
Si-Ro-Mark was developed by the \JCSIRO\j and released in 1954. In some States its use is now compulsory; more than 90 per cent of Australia's sheep are today branded with Si-Ro-Mark.
Sheep are branded every year after shearing. The brands must be durable but removable. They cannot be burned on as is the case with cattle. The removal of sheep branding products from raw wool has long been of concern to the wool industry as many types of fluids, ranging from paint to sump oil and tar, were used to brand. Such brands were often non-scourable and the stained wool had to be manually removed from the shorn fleece. The cost disadvantage of these practices could amount to two per cent of the total value of the clip.
\BDescription:\b A shorn fleece \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
#
"Si-ro-set",335,a4_0004.jpg,c,0
\IA method of permanently setting pleats and creases in woollen fabrics by temporarily changing the chemical structure of the wool fibre.\i
The Si-ro-set process of permanent pleating of woollen fabrics involves the application of a chemical reagent, bisulphite, which, by temporarily changing the structure of the wool fibre, produces a reaction which causes the wool to become plastic and thus enables the crease to be durably set. The crease is then set by steam-pressing, a process which also removes the chemical reagent. The permanent creases or pleats will return to the fabric after each wash.
The Si-ro-set process was released in 1957, at a time when the pure wool market was under a considerable challenge from synthetic fabrics which offered advantages of easy care, including heat-set permanent pleats and creases. The process was invented by Dr Arthur Farnworth of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Textile Industry. Within six months of its release eighteen Australian firms were licenced to use the process, and its adoption overseas soon followed. Si-ro-set is still widely used, despite the development of other methods of permanent pleating.
\BDescription:\b Permanent pleating in a kilt \I(Tanya Hamilton)\i
#
"Signalling Mirror",336,"f\4\flydoc.jpg","c","0"
\IA signalling mirror with a sight to aid the direction of the flashed signal to its object.\i
A signalling mirror fixed with a sight which allowed the operator to deliver a flashed signal directly to an object, such as an aircraft, by lining it up in the sight. It was based on the heliograph, a signalling device which used a movable mirror to flash beams of light.
The signalling mirror was invented by \JTom Roberts\jon during World War II. After the war the mirrors were used in outback Australia to guide Flying Doctor pilots to the best landing places.
\BDescription:\b The signalling mirror is used in outback Australia to help land Flying Doctor planes \I(Gum Tree Graphics)\i
#
"Siratac",337,"f\4\1_0051.jpg","c","0"
\IA computerised management system for cotton crops directed primarily at insect pest control.\i
Siratac is a computerised management system for cotton crops which takes the guesswork out of pest prediction. Information about insect samples collected during the early growth of the cotton plant is fed into the computer. Based on this the farmer is told the development rate of the insects, the development rate of the crop and its likely fruiting performance and yield, what fertiliser is needed, and when and if spraying is necessary. Much expensive aerial spraying can thus be avoided, and the development of insecticide resistance is minimised.
Siratac also enables the farmer to accurately irrigate land to conserve water use and maximise its effect on the crop. The use of Siratac to make management decisions affecting about one-third of Australia's total cotton production has resulted in higher profits, in large part due to the decreased spraying of chemical pesticides. Another benefit is the growth of a substantial database of information on the crop growth and development, and insect abundance, damage and control.
Siratac was developed jointly by the \JCSIRO\j and the New South Wales Department of Agriculture at the Myall Vale Agricultural Research Station, near Narrabri, north-western New South Wales. The name comes from C(SIR)O, Department of Agriculture (TAC)tics for cotton growing. It is available commercially via a non-profit company, Siratac Limited.
\BDescription:\b Loading a cotton module \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Sirex Wasp, Biological Control of",338,0,g,0
\IThe Sirex wasp, a threat to Australia's softwood plantations, has been controlled by biological means.\i
The Sirex wood wasp \I(Sirex noctilio),\i an accidental introduction from the northern hemisphere, was found to be infecting radiata pine plantations close to Melbourne in 1961. The wasp is a woodborer; the female lays eggs in holes it bores, and at the same time introduces the spores of a fungus stored in abdominal pockets on the insect. The tunnelling larvae feed on the growing fungus and the combined effect of these activities can kill the tree. The adult female automatically picks up the fungus spores when emerging from the wood and thus spreads it and the wasp further afield.
Following research by the \JCSIRO\j and the Forestry Commissions of Victoria and Tasmania, a number of wasps parasitic on Sirex were released, with limited success. In the early 1970s, based on further \JCSIRO\j research, female Sirex wasps were infected with a parasitic nematode which rendered them sterile. Logs and dead trees were inoculated with the nematode to spread it amongst the wasp population. This measure, coupled with the thinning of pine plantations to remove unhealthy trees attractive to the wasp, has checked its spread and it is no longer considered a serious threat.
#
"Siroash",339,"f\3\2_0070.jpg","c","0"
\IGauge for on-line determination of ash in coal slurries to enable production of a consistent product.\i
Siroash is a coal slurry gauge for use at coal preparation plants. It consists of a radioisotope immersion probe linked to a computer system which provides, via a visual display unit, a continuous analysis of the levels of solids and ash in coal slurry streams. This enables control room staff to adjust operating conditions to produce a consistent product and has led to a 10 per cent increase in output.
The radioisotope technique used in the Siroash analyser was developed and patented by a group which worked first with the Australian Atomic Energy Commission and since 1982 with the \JCSIRO\j Divisions of Mineral Physics and Mineral Engineering. Its commercial launch in 1986 followed a four-month demonstration of trial equipment at the Oaky Creek Coal Pty Ltd coal preparation plant. Commercial production of the Siroash gauge has been licensed to Australian Mineral Development Laboratories (Amdel Ltd).
\BDescription:\b Mining coal \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Sirofloc",340,"0","Sirofloc is a significant advance in water treatment","msiroflo.avi"
\IA water treatment which employs a reusable magnetic agent, rather than a filter, to clarify and decolorise water.\i
The Sirofloc process for the clarification of potable water and industrial wastewater uses magnetite (iron oxide) as an adsorbent or clarifying agent. Particles are magnetised, causing them to rapidly collect into a conglomerate and then settle as a sludge, which can be removed for disposal. The adsorbent can be reused.
The process was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Chemical and Wood Technology in collaboration with Austep Pty Ltd. In 1988 a Sirofloc plant was commissioned for the Yorkshire Water Authority at Redmires in Britain; another plant has been commissioned for the Taiwan Water Authority. Sirofloc technology has also been applied to sewage treatment at the Malabar plant of the Sydney Water Board to reduce pollutants from the ocean outfall.
\BViddescription:\b Sirofloc process (CSIRO Australia)
#
"Sirolan-BAP",341,"f\4\blanket.jpg","c","0"
\IA water-soluble, polymer-based, shrink-proofing process for woollen fabric.\i
The Sirolan-BAP process is the main form of shrink-proofing of wool in fabric form. It involves the use of polyurethane pre-polymers which are applied in admixture with water-dispersible polyacrylates by continuous padding machines. When dried the resins form bonds between fibres. This prevents the fibres from moving, therefore they will not shrink when washed.
Sirolan-BAP was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Textile Industry, based on innovative chemistry which made the polyurethane pre-polymer water soluble. It was launched in 1977 and has been of considerable value to institutions like hospitals which use large numbers of blankets - these can now be of boilable shrink-proof wool rather than of cotton, as previously used. This is an important factor for institutional fire safety as cotton is a highly flammable material, whereas wool is not.
\BDescription:\b Sirolan-BAP is a process for shrink-proofing wool e.g. for woollen blankets \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Siroscour",342,"f\4\5_0074.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Jet Scouring Machine\b
\IA wool scouring system which uses a series of jets to remove unwanted matter from wool without entangling the fibres.\i
In the Siroscour scouring machine the wool is carried on a conveyor and perforated drum arrangement under a series of hot detergent jets. It continues on through rollers, where most of the detergent is squeezed out. The procedure is repeated three times, then the wool is rinsed and dried. This method of scouring wool removes grease, dirt, sweat salts, branding fluid and other unwanted matter from the fleece without damaging or entangling the fibres. Effluent disposal costs are also reduced.
Previous methods of scouring used earlier this century involved totally immersing the fleece in a hot detergent or alkaline soap solution, and agitating it by mechanical rakes while it moved through a series of tanks and rollers to a final water rinse. This resulted in considerable fibre entanglement.
The Siroscour process was developed by the \JCSIRO\j in the early 1960s and continues to be developed with current research directed at minimising water use and reducing contaminant discharge. Equipment based on Siroscour technology is manufactured and marketed world-wide under licence by Melbourne chemical engineering contractors Process Design and Fabrication Pty Ltd. The first Siroscour plant started operations in Melbourne in 1988.
\BDescription:\b Making sheepskin jackets \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Sirosmelt",343,"f\4\2_0084.jpg","c","0"
\IA high-intensity smelting process carried out in small-scale, energy-efficient furnaces.\i
The Sirosmelt process is carried out in relatively small reactors which deliver fuel and air below the surface of the molten slag through simple air-cooled lances. The submerged flame supplies the required heat and the large volume of combustion gases supplies the intense stirring needed for the rapid mixing of the reactants. The process is particularly suitable where air can be used for combustion of the fuel and where volatile components are to be recovered from the molten bath (for example the removal of toxic volatiles during the smelting of copper). The Sirosmelt process can be used for the smelting of concentrates mined at remote sites, or for secondary smelting operations around existing smelters. It can be used for the smelting of copper, tin, zinc, nickel and other metals. Production is increased and energy use reduced.
Sirosmelt was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Mineral Engineering in the mid-1980s and has since been licensed for commercial use in Australia. A version of the process known as Isasmelt was developed for the direct smelting of lead from concentrate at Mount Isa Mines Ltd.
\BDescription:\b The Sirosmelt process is used during the smelting of copper \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Sirospun",344,"f\2\2_0077.jpg","c","0"
\IA process that combines spinning and twisting of yarn into one operation.\i
Sirospun is a process for producing two-strand worsted weaving yarn (that is, firmly twisted yarn spun from combed, long staple wool) in which the spinning and twisting are combined into a single operation, thereby offering significant savings in time and money.
The Sirospun process involves feeding separated strands together onto one spindle in such a way as to trap small amounts of alternating twist in each of the strands while the two are twisted together. Surface fibres are caught between the two strands, rather than remaining on the surface where they would be worn away, weakening the yarn and hampering weaving. The wool yarns produced in this way thus have a greater number of fibres in their cross section, making them stronger than conventionally spun yarns and thereby able to be spun at higher spindle speeds such as those normally restricted to synthetics. The process also incorporates a simple break-out device which halts the mechanism if one strand breaks or the supply material for one strand runs out, thus preventing the production of a section of thin yarn which would be difficult to detect automatically and would create a fault in the woven fabric.
Conventional wool-spinning technology involves spinning two single yarns separately on a ring spinning frame and then, on a second machine, twisting these about each other. Ring spinning equipment can be simply modified to incorporate the Sirospun process. Production per spindle from modified machines is about twice that for a single yarn.
The Sirospun process was developed in the 1970s by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Textile Industry. The success of the process in producing very fine quality wool suitable for lightweight fabrics led the Australian Wool Corporation and the International Wool Secretariat to launch promotional campaigns such as 'Cool Wool' and 'Trans-seasonal Wool' to extend the wool market into spring and summer. More than 150,000 of the special spindles developed by the \JCSIRO\j have been fitted to machines around the world, making them capable of producing more than 30 million kilograms of yarn each year. This has the added benefit of increasing the market for Australian wool.
\BDescription:\b Australian Wool Corporation display \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Sirotem",345,"f\4\1_0049.jpg","c","0"
\IA device for use in mineral exploration and geological mapping.\i
Sirotem is a transient electromagnetic mineral exploration instrument which is capable of detecting conductive layers up to 500 metres below the surface. The instrument operates by utilising the electrical conducting properties of mineral ore bodies. It is used in mineral exploration and geological mapping.
Sirotem was developed in 1977 by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Mineral Physics. The name comes from (C)SIRO T(ransient) E(lectro) M(agnetics).
\BDescription:\b Sirotem is used in mineral exploration - here we see bauxite mining \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Sirotherm",346,"f\4\6_0025.jpg","c","0"
\IAn economical large-scale water desalination process.\i
The Sirotherm method provides industry with a cheap large-scale method for removing salt from effluents and slightly brackish water. Processes such as distillation and reverse osmosis, which remove water from salt, were considered unsuitable for large scale use because of the enormous amount of either heat or mechanical energy required. The Sirotherm process uses the opposite approach. Tiny beads of polymer resin trap undesirable minerals, such as salt, in the water, binding them to the bead by a process of ion exchange. Heat or electricity is used to flush the salt ions from the resin beads, which can then be reused. Water with salt levels of up to 3000 ppm can be reduced to below 500 ppm, the accepted limit for human consumption.
The Sirotherm process was developed in the 1950s by a \JCSIRO\j team led by Dr Don Weiss in collaboration with ICI Australia Ltd. Successful laboratory trials were completed by 1968 and in 1970 pilot plants were set up to treat bore water in Perth and sewage effluents in Melbourne and Tokyo. The first commercial plant began operating early in 1976 at the Osborne Park ICI plant in South Australia. It provides a pre-treatment for water for domestic use, reducing the salinity six-fold before it enters a conventional demineralisation plant.
The Sirotherm process is now used internationally to recycle sewage effluent for industrial use, to treat municipal water supplies and to make underground water suitable for drinking for communities in arid regions.
\BDescription:\b The Sirotherm process is used to make underground water suitable for drinking for communities in arid regions \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Slide Raft",347,"0","g","0"
\IAn inflatable escape slide which becomes a life raft if aircraft emergency landings take place in the sea.\i
This emergency evacuation slide raft inflates in a matter of seconds to provide a cushioned route from the aircraft to the ground. If the emergency landing is in water, the escape slide can be detached from the aircraft and used as a life raft. The slide rafts are generally stored in panels under the doors. Their operation is triggered when the doors are opened in an emergency situation. They are automatically inflated from pressurised gas bottles.
The slide raft was devised in 1965 by Jack Grant, Operations Safety Superintendent for Qantas. Sea trials were held in Barbados, Honolulu and Sydney. It was accepted by the United States Federal Aviation Administration and British Air Registration Board. Slide rafts are now standard equipment on all major world airlines. Jack Grant was awarded the Cumberland Trophy by the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators for his outstanding contribution to air safety around the world.
#
"Sludge Treatment",348,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Alternating Aerobic/Anaerobic Completely Mixed Activated Sludge System (AAA-CMAS)\b
\IAn energy-efficient system for treating sewage sludge.\i
The AAA-CMAS system differs from conventional sludge treatments in that it uses an oxygen probe rather than a timer to control the alternating aerobic and anaerobic phases of the treatment and in allowing continuous flow of the influent and effluent. The process eliminates the need for separate reactors for the aerobic and anaerobic stages, which results in a smaller final volume of sludge and completely removes nitrogen. The process can also be modified to include a chemical treatment for removing phosphorus.
The AAA-CMAS sludge treatment system was developed in the mid-1980s by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Chemical and Wood Technology in collaboration with Melbourne University's Department of Microbiology. The first plant was installed at Brushy Creek in Victoria.
#
"Smith, John McGarvie",349,"0","g","0"
(1844-1918)
See \JAnthrax Vaccine\j
#
"Smith, Maria Ann",350,"f\3\a4_0019.jpg","c","0"
(1801?-70)
\IOrchardist who cultivated the first \JGranny Smith\j apple.\i
Maria Smith was born in Sussex, England. She became an orchardist in the Sydney suburb of Eastwood where by chance she developed the \JGranny Smith\j apple. It is now grown commercially around the world.
\BDescription:\b The \JGranny Smith\j apple \I(Carrie Webster)\i
#
"Smith, Robert Bowyer",351,"0","g","0"
(1838-1919)
\ISouth Australian farmer who invented the stump jump plough.\i
Smith began his working life as an apprentice engineer with a farm implement firm, where he rose to the position of foreman before taking up farming on a holding of scrubland on Yorke Peninsula, South Australia. Here the problems associated with ploughing land which still contained stumps and roots and rocks led to the development of the stump-jump plough.
In 1876, with the help of his brother, blacksmith Clarence Herbert Smith, he made the 'Vixen', the first working model of the stump-jump plough. Acceptance by the farming community was slow and Robert could not afford to maintain the patent, which in 1878 fell into the public domain. Among those to take advantage of his invention was his brother Clarence, who built up a successful agricultural machinery manufacturing business based on his own version of the plough. Robert Bowyer Smith was eventually rewarded by the South Australian government, which gave him 500 pounds, a gold medal and a grant of 260 hectares of land.
#
"Smooth Speech Technique",352,"0","g","0"
\IA technique for stutter control developed in Australia.\i
Stuttering is thought to stem from a lowered capacity for efficient control of the speech motor system. The smooth speech technique gives the stutterer a simplified way of speaking which allows that system to function within its limitations. It involves speaking in continuous breath phrases which are co-ordinated with a comfortable respiratory rate. Each phrase is characterised by continuous airflow and continuous articulatory movement.
Unlike an early, 'prolonged speech' technique smooth speech does not require constant vocalisation, but the stream of words within a breath phrase must sound continuous. Smooth speech is initially used at a very slow rate which sounds slurred and imprecise. Normal rates are reached within one week and, with a further two weeks of intensive practice, which sounds natural and is not readily distinguishable from normal fluency. The smooth speech technique was developed in the 1970s at Sydney's Prince Henry Hospital in a specialised stuttering treatment unit headed by Professor Gavin Andrews. It evolved from an earlier technique known as prolonged speech, the fluency enhancing effects of which were first realised in 1965 in California, in which the normal durations of sounds and syllables were stretched. The smooth speech technique is used in treatment facilities throughout Australia and is recognised internationally.
#
"Smut, Control Of",353,"0","g","0"
Smut, Control Of - See \JDry Wheat Pickler\j
#
"Snail and Slug Killer",354,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Defender\b
\IMetaldehyde-based product lethal to snails and slugs.\i
This product, first marketed under the brandname Defender, consists of small pellets made of a mixture of metaldehyde, bran and green colouring. The pellets are scattered in gardens to kill snails and slugs.
The product dates from 1937 and results from a fortuitous observation by Les Vaughan of large numbers of dead snails around empty packets that had once contained metaldehyde, then used by doctors to sterilise hypodermic needles. The snail killer was initially distributed from a produce store run by the Vaughan brothers in the northern suburbs of Sydney. It quickly grew into a successful business.
#
"Solar Cooling",355,"f\4\5_0061.jpg","c","0"
\IAir conditioning systems powered by solar energy have been developed.\i
Developmental work on solar air conditioning was carried out at the University of Queensland in the 1960s. Large-scale systems have been installed in a few public buildings in northern Queensland and in Victoria. Present energy pricing policies, however, means that these installations cannot compete economically with air conditioning systems powered by conventional energy sources.
\BDescription:\b The University of QLD - developmental work on solar cooling was carried out here in the 1960s \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Solar Desalination",356,"0","g","0"
\IThe \JCSIRO\j is trialling the use of solar energy for water distillation.\i
The \JCSIRO\j has constructed large-scale pilot solar distillation plants. An average solar plant can produce 1,200 litres of pure water per square metre by the evaporation and condensation of saline water.
#
"Solar Radiospectograph",357,"0","g","0"
Solar Radiospectograph - See \JRadioheliograph\j
#
"Solar Water Heating",358,"0","g","0"
\IAustralia pioneered the development of water heating systems powered by solar energy.\i
In 1953 a research group led by R. N. Morse at the \JCSIRO\j's Central Experimental Workshops in Maribyrnong, Victoria, constructed a prototype solar water heater. A report on its design and construction presented in 1955 was one of the seminal pieces of work in the area of solar water heater design. The research and development which continued at the \JCSIRO\j Division of Mechanical Engineering in Highett, Victoria, laid the foundations for the solar water heating industry.
During the 1960s solar hot water heaters were installed in many government-owned houses in the Northern Territory and by 1970 Darwin had become well known internationally as a centre for the application of this technology.
Greater efficiency became possible with the development of selective surface coatings by Beasley Industries in collaboration with the \JCSIRO\j. These systems and components are now exported and licensed for use overseas. The largest Australian manufacturer of solar water heaters, Solarhart, pioneered a close-coupled mains pressure unit which incorporates thermosiphon flow between the collectors and the storage cylinder. It uses a black chrome selective surface on steel absorbers, has low-iron glass covers and incorporates an anti-freeze heat transfer fluid which enables the unit to withstand freezing conditions. By 1985 it was estimated that solar collectors operating in Australia generated energy for heating equivalent to about five per cent of annual hydroelectric power generation.
Solar heating technology can be adapted to very large-scale use. In 1978 the Victorian Solar Energy Research Committee installed a 160 square metre pilot unit at the University of Melbourne swimming pool. The unit contributes almost half the hot water needed to maintain a year-round pool temperature of 25 to 27 degrees Celsius.
The first published report on a domestic solar water heater dates from 1941; it appeared in the \ICane Growers Quarterly Bulletin.\i It described a simple system with a 20 square metre collector and 40 gallons storage which the author, Bates, had built and installed near Cairns. It was estimated to provide domestic hot water for 300 days a year in the northern Queensland climate.
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"Solar-Powered Car",359,"f\4\3_0059.jpg","c","0"
\IA car powered by Australian-developed photovoltaic cells won the 1990 Solar Challenge car race.\i
The Swiss \ISpirit of Biel-Bienne,\i powered by Australian-developed laser-grooved photovoltaic cells, won the 1990 World Solar Challenge car race from Darwin to Adelaide. The vehicle took 46 hours 23 minutes to make the 3,000 km Journey (an average speed of 64.8 kmh).
The efficiency of the cells meant that the small batteries powering the car were constantly being recharged, even when conditions were cloudy. The cells for the \IBiel\i car were manufactured under licence by Telefunken System Technik in Germany on a pilot line in preparation for commercial production. The Australian cells are the cheapest to produce.
\BDescription:\b Solar Challenge Car Race \I(DFAT)\i
\IFly trap which utilises solar radiation to attract and kill the buffalo fly.\i
The solar-powered fly trap resembles a greenhouse with curtain-like barriers over the entrance. It is made of a plastic which exploits solar radiation to heat up the interior of the trap. When cattle enter the trap the flies are brushed off their backs by the barriers. The flies are then attracted by the light at the top of the trap where they quickly dry up in the heat and die. If cattle pass through twice daily the flies are killed off before they can reproduce (they need to remain on their host for about two days before they lay eggs in the cattle's dung). Prototypes of the fly trap have been fitted in domes above cattle races in milking sheds and smaller devices for use in paddocks are being developed.
The solar-powered fly trap was developed by the CSIRO Division of Entomology. It is specifically aimed at the blood-sucking buffalo fly, a pest of northern Australia. A single beast can carry up to 6,000 insects, which cause the animal immense irritation and, because of interruption to grazing, result in losses in milk production of up to ten per cent.
\BDescription:\b The solar-powered fly trap kills buffalo fly on cattle \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
\IAustralia is a world leader in the use of solar-powered telecommunication systems.\i
The world's first major solar-powered telecommunications trunk link was installed by Telecom in 1979 on the 580 km telecommunications route between \JAlice Springs\j and \JTennant Creek\j, in the Northern Territory. The introduction of solar power on the \JKalgoorlie\j to Leonora link, in Western Australia, and the Mossman to Coen link, in far north Queensland, followed. In 1983 Telecom completed the longest solar-powered broadband telecommunications link in the world. Called the Kimberley Microwave System it consists of more than 40 microwave repeater stations spanning a distance of 1,595 km between Port Hedland and Kununurra and provides 2,500 telephone customers in the remote north of Western Australia with up-to-date, high quality, telecommunications facilities.
The first use of solar power by Telecom was the 1974 installation of a solar-powered VHF radiotelephone system on a farm at Wilkatana, near Port Augusta, South Australia. In 1976 solar power was used to operate telephone repeater stations in the Pilbara in Western Australia. In 1977 Telecom installed Australia's first solar-powered telephone exchange at Glen Valley, in the rugged Victorian Alps providing radiotelephone connections to twenty customers. A communications system for thirteen islands in Torres Strait was completed in 1980 and includes sixteen solar-powered public telephones. Other individual solar-powered public telephone booths have been installed at Breona, northern Tasmania, and on Cape Barren Island in Bass Strait.
Australia, a country of vast distances and isolated communities, as well as lots of sunshine, is particularly suitable for the practical application of solar power for telecommunications.
#
"Solkraft",362,"0","g","0"
\IA high-speed vessel with a unique hull form based on aircraft lift principles.\i
The Solkraft is a vessel which is able to plane at high speed. Its planing ability is achieved solely by the forward speed of the craft in association with the unique hull design which is derived from aircraft lift principles. It has the advantage over other advanced forms of marine craft, such as hydrofoils and aircushion vehicles, in that it does not have the complicating factors of separate lift fans, flexible skirts and foil systems.
The hull form of the Solkraft was designed and developed in Australia. Ferry boats using the Solkraft hull design operate on the Brisbane River.
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"Sonobuoy",363,"0","g","0"
Sonobuoy - See \JBarra Sonobuoy\j
#
"Split Nut",364,"0","g","0"
\IA nut capable of withstanding very high tension.\i
An extremely simple design, the split nut is made in two halves, tapered at the end and separated by a small gap. In contrast to a conventional nut where tightening tends to force the thread to expand the nut, when the split nut is tightened, the cone shaped ends are forced against a tapered washer. The small gap between the two halves of the nut allows it to close very tightly around the thread and to withstand a tension of up to 27 tonnes.
The split nut was invented by Pat Williams and won a gold medal at the annual Geneva inventions exhibition.
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"Sport",365,"0","g","0"
Sport - See \JAutomatic Totalisator\j
\JCotton, Frank Stanley\j
\JErgometer, Selecting Athletes\j
\JJulius, Sir George Alfred\j
\JRace-Cam\j
\JSuper Sopper\j
\JSurf-Lifesaving Reel\j
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"Spring-tine Drill Cultivator",366,"0","g","0"
\IMachine which combined cultivation, sowing and harrowing into one operation.\i
This machine combined the hopper and sowing mechanism of a seed drill, which sows seed and fertiliser together, with cultivator tines, which prepare the seedbed and buried the seed. In a single operation it cultivated the soil, thereby controlling weeds and producing a seedbed, drilled in the seed and fertiliser in rows, and then harrowed the soil to bury uncovered grain and kill germinating weeds.
Drills on the machines ranged in size from 12 rows, which sowed a width of about two metres, to 24 rows which sowed a four and a half metre width. There was a 20 cm space between rows. The first machines handled only wheat, oats and barley. Later refinements led to drills able to sow a range of seeds including rice, maize, sorghums, linseed, field peas, some types of bean and, with attachments, the fine seeds of pasture grasses, clover and lucerne.
The machine was invented in 1916 by Raimond Ash Squire, a farmer-grazier from Quirinidi, New South Wales. Agricultural equipment manufacturer H.V. McKay bought the patent and immediately put the machine into production at his Sunshine plant in Victoria.
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"Spun Concrete Pipe",367,"0","g","0"
Spun Concrete Pipe - See \JHume Pipe\j
#
"Steam-Powered Car",368,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Pritchard Steam Car\b
\IA practical steam car which incorporates modern technology into a long-established concept.\i
The Pritchard steam car was driven by a steam power unit which, although based on earlier units, was redesigned to eliminate problems, especially those concerned with the time taken to build up steam. It differed from earlier steam car projects in its arrangements for a quick response of the thermostat controlling the boiler feed pump and injector. The boiler could run on petrol, kerosene, diesel or renewable fuels such as vegetable alcohol. The unit used electric ignition for the boiler fuel and took about 45 seconds to operate from a cold start. It used two litres of water to generate steam. This was condensed in a radiator and reused.
The steam generator supplied steam to drive the engine proper. This was a two-cylinder one-stroke engine with steam inlets at both the top and the bottom of the cylinders so that the piston was driven on both the upstroke and the downstroke. This cycle gave it as many power strokes as a conventional eight-cylinder four-stroke engine.
As the car engine had high torque at low speeds it did not need a gear box or automatic transmission. It was very quiet in operation.
The Pritchard steam car was developed in the 1970s by Melbourne man Ted Pritchard. It attracted great interest both locally and in the United States because of its low pollution emission levels. In 1970 the Australian government gave support to further development of the project, and although the prototype engine reached a high level of technical sophistication it was not considered to be commercially viable and did not go into production.
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"Steel Sleeper",369,"f\4\a4_0081.jpg","c","0"
\ISteel railway sleepers, more efficient and economical than timber and concrete.\i
The Australian-designed steel sleeper section has allowance for a greater depth of rail than earlier European designs. This gives it improved track stability. It also has a wider top, which reduces rail-bearing stress, as well as greater base area width and internal bearing area. which reduce ballast contact pressure. It was developed by BHP.
\BDescription:\b Steel sleepers are more efficient than timber ones \I(Carrie Webster)\i
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"Stockwhip",370,"f\4\70088.jpg","c","0"
\IA long whip of woven hide used to control stock.\i
The stockwhip is usually made from kangaroo hide. The thong is between two and three metres long with a 'cracker' of cord or horsehair attached to the end. To 'crack', the end of the whip must travel at more than the speed of sound, that is, at more than 1,230 kmh. Drovers or stockmen on horseback can control a mob of sheep or cattle with the sound of the cracking whip, and seldom have need to actually strike an animal.
The Australian stockwhip is unlike whips used in other parts of the world. It was invented in the early days of pastoral activity and, with the other local developments of the Austalian cattle dog, the Kelpie sheepdog and the Australian stockhorse, was an essential element in the droving teams that overlanded large mobs of stock around the continent.
\BDescription:\b A farmer using a stockwhip to round up cattle \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
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"Storage Battery",371,"0","g","0"
\IInnovative forerunner of the lead acid battery.\i
This electrical storage battery had a negative electrode of copper and a positive electrode of lead amalgamated with mercury, in a solution of copper sulphate. The liquid changed colour when the battery was charged. It was invented by \JHenry Sutton\j and described in his paper to the Royal Society of London in 1881.
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"Stripper",372,"a\8\1_0061.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Bull-Ridley Stripper, Ridley Stripper\b
\IA machine which strips the dry grain head from the stalk and deposits it in a box ready for winnowing.\i
The stripper consists of a horizontal projecting comb mounted in front of a set of rotating beaters which are driven by belts connected to the wheel axles. At the rear is a box-like container. As the stripper moved through the crop its projecting comb caught the heads of wheat which were drawn through to the rotating beaters where they were threshed and fed into the box. The contents of the box, a mixture of grain and chaff, were later separated in a stationary winnower. The first machines were pushed through the crop by horses attached to a pole at the rear. In later versions the tailshaft was eliminated and horses pulled the stripper from the front, with the farmer controlling it from a seat at the side. A stripper pulled by a bicycle and suitable for light crops was developed in the 1910-20 period.
The stripper was designed to deal with the mature crop. It threshed grain directly from the standing crop and so was particularly effective in hot dry areas where the grain heads ripened on the stalk and became dry and brittle, with the grain ready to drop. The machine could harvest at five times the manual rate and dealt quickly and profitably with large areas of sparse low-yielding wheat, an important point in times of poor grain prices. To add to its attraction, the stripper could be manufactured inexpensively in small local engineering works.
The first stripper was made by South Australian flour miller \JJohn Ridley\j in 1843. Gathering in the grain at that time could only be done by hand, using either the scythe and sickle or the rake and cradle, and entailing an enormous amount of manual labour. The situation came to a head in 1842-43 when the settlers were faced with harvesting a bumper crop of some 9,300 hectares. A prize was offered for the invention of a machine which could handle future harvests. A model incorporating a comb and beaters was submitted by John Wrathall Bull and received favourable comment. It was probably based on Bull's concept that Ridley's machine was built. Neither man took out a patent; both are now credited with the invention.
The stripper revolutionised methods of grain harvesting not only in Australia, but throughout the world. Some 10,000 machines were sold in the first forty years. It became possible for South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales to export wheat in the nineteenth century, despite the depletion of their small rural workforces by the rush to the Victorian Goldfields. Strippers remained popular with Australian farmers until the early twentieth century, when they began to be superceded by H.V. McKay's stripper harvester.
\BDescription:\b A wheat field \I(DFAT)\i
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"Stripper Harvester",373,"a\9\2_0060.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Sunshine Stripper Harvester\b
\IA harvesting machine which could strip, thresh, winnow and bag grain in one continuous operation.\i
The stripper harvester combines the comb and beater concept, as pioneered by the highly successful Stripper, with a winnower and a bagging mechanism. Grain stalks were separated by the projecting comb at the front of the machine. The heads were then stripped from the stalks by a five-bladed beater and threshed in a drum. The mixture of chaff and grain which resulted was carried by a belt-driven slatted elevator to be dropped onto vibrating riddles for winnowing. Air from a rotary fan blew any unthreshed heads back to the drum for more treatment; chaff and straw were blown out under the machine. The separated grain passed through the top riddle. Small bits of chaff and dirt were sieved out, and the grain was then carried in a metal cup-type conveyor up an elevator chute to a hopper under which a bag waited. The whole operation took place while the machine was in motion through the crop. The stripper harvester did not cut a greater area per day than the stripper, but it released the farmer from the tiring and dirty job of winnowing. In so doing it greatly reduced the labour requirements of harvesting.
The machine was invented by Hugh Victor McKay. He conceived the idea in 1882, when only seventeen years old. Helped by his brothers, he built the prototype from scrap parts in a bark and slab blacksmith's shop on the family farm at Drummartin, Victoria. The wheels and axles came from a disused back-delivery reaper, the comb (which they trimmed to about half its length) from an old stripper, and the riddles from an old winnower. Many of the tools and parts they fashioned themselves. The machine was not ready for the 1883 crop, but a hectare of grain was left standing and it was on this, in February 1884, that McKay gave his first field trial. McKay took out a patent and the first five machines were made in 1885 by the \JBallarat\j plough-making firm of Calman and Garde for that year's harvest. Ten years later an improved version, the Sunshine harvester, was released. This had a peg drum, which involved the grain head being drawn through a cylinder and a revolving drum fitted with pegs. Material from the beaters went to the peg drum for extra threshing before being dropped on the riddles for cleaning.
Although demand for the stripper harvester began fairly slowly, by 1910 it was replacing the popular and much cheaper stripper as the most common harvesting implement in the country. The export market, which started with the sale of 50 machines to Argentina in 1902, grew steadily, and by the outbreak of World War I more than 10, 000 machines had been bought by overseas companies. Versions of the Sunshine harvester are still manufactured.
\BDescription:\b A wheat field \I(DFAT)\i
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"Stump-jump Plough",374,"0","g","0"
\IA plough that can ride over stumps and roots instead of being caught and damaged by them.\i
The ploughshare of the stump-jump plough is loosely suspended from the frame by a single bolt. If the share strikes an obstacle it is able to ride over it. The share is brought back into position by a weight on the end of a lever, which forces it to re-enter the soil and allows the farmer to continue ploughing in a straight furrow. The first version, completed in 1876, was a three-furrow plough nicknamed the 'Vixen'.
The stump-jump plough was a direct response to the problems faced by farmers trying to plough straight furrows in partially cleared ground. Its invention is credited to Robert Bowyer Smith, a farmer from Kalkabury, in the mallee country of South Australia. He is said to have been inspired by the breaking of one of the bolts holding the arm carrying the mouldboard of his plough as he worked rough, stumpy ground. He continued with the damaged plough and to his surprise found that not only did it still work efficiently, but that the missing bolt allowed the share the freedom to ride over obstacles.
The stump-jump plough eliminated the time-consuming task of removing rocks and the stumps and roots of felled trees before ploughing could commence and so dramatically changed the processes of clearing and cultivating. It became possible to cultivate thousands of hectares of mallee land in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales which had previously been considered untillable. The plough found export markets, and was used in the rough sagebrush country of the west of the United States.
\BFull Name: Subterranean Clover, Use in Pasture Improvement\b
\IA fodder plant which adds nitrogen to the soil, use of which made possible the development of much barren land for both sheep and wheat.\i
Subterranean clover, \ITrifolium subterraneum,\i is an annual legume used for pasture improvement in temperate areas of Australia. It is a fodder plant and also improves the quality of the soil by adding nitrogen. It was especially useful in areas where the introduction of sheep and cattle grazing caused soil erosion and the degradation of indigenous pastures.
A weed of the Mediterranean region, subterranean clover was probably an accidental introduction arriving in hay with livestock on ships or as an impurity in imported seeds. Its worth as a pasture improvement crop was recognised by English-born South Australian nurseryman Amos W. Howard, who in 1889 found it in his own and his neighbour's pastures at Mount Barker, near Adelaide. From 1907 on he publicised it as a pasture species and developed a small trade in its seed. Subterranean clover buries its seed pods, and the burrs cannot be threshed by flailing, so it was not until after these problems had been overcome, in the 1920s, that a good supply of clean seed became available. By this time farmers in southern and western Australia were aware of the value of superphosphate and the 'sub and super' combination - subterranean clover fertilised with superphosphate - led to marked increases in pasture productivity, and therefore in livestock carrying capacity. In 1931 a study by the CSIR (after 1949 called \JCSIRO\j) showed that the live weight-gain of sheep grazed on these pastures was three times better than on natural grasses.
In 1927 P.D. Forrest commercialised an early-maturing strain of subterranean clover, the Dwalganup strain. This variety enabled the improvement of pastures in lower rainfall areas of Western Australia. In the 1940s subterranean clover was introduced into the southern wheat belt, where it lessened soil erosion and eliminated bare fallowing. Use of the clover has led to the development of more than eight million hectares of poor land which was previously of no productive value.
\BDescription:\b Subterranean Clover made it possible to develop once barren land for sheep \I(Random House - photo by Ken Stepnell)\i
\IA sugarcane harvesting machine which cuts the cane and chops it into lengths ready for the mill.\i
Massey-Ferguson's mechanised sugarcane harvester is mounted on a tractor but is independently powered. It has two sets of cutters. The topper removes and discards the leafy heads. At ground level gathering walls guide the cane to the base cutter which slices through the thick stalks. These are dragged onto a conveyor and carried to a chopper where they are cut to a short uniform length. The chopped cane then moves up an elevator to be deposited through a chute into a storage bin ready for transport to the mill.
Earlier Australian mechanised sugarcane harvesters, such as the Falkiner Harvester, were unable to deal with the dense Queensland crop which the forces of wind and rain often reduced to a tangled mass of twisted stalks. Until the 1960s almost all of this crop was cut by hand. However, this chopper-harvester, developed by Ken Gaunt for Massey-Ferguson (Australia) Limited, was able to eliminate this dirty and arduous job. A prototype tested in 1958 was well received by growers, and in the following year six harvesters were put into the Queensland fields to operate under a variety of conditions. The machine went into production in 1961 at the Massey-Ferguson plant at Sunshine, Victoria. The Australian sugarcane crop is now cut almost entirely by these mechanical harvesters, which are also widely used in overseas sugar-growing regions.
\BDescription:\b Sugarcane harvesting \I(DFAT)\i
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"Sunshine Header Harvester",377,"0","g","0"
Sunshine Header Harvester - See \JHeader Harvester\j
#
"Sunshine Stripper Harvester",378,"0","g","0"
Sunshine Stripper Harvester - See \JStripper Harvester\j
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"Super Sopper",379,"0","g","0"
\IA device used to remove excess water from sports fields.\i
The Super Sopper consists of a perforated metal drum covered on the outside with a jacket of absorbent polyurethane foam. The drum turns on a hollow axle into which is set a large trough. On top of the drum is a roller which can be adjusted to press against the foam. When the Super Sopper is rolled over wet grass moisture is soaked up by the absorbent foam. The water is squeezed from the foam by pressure from the roller on the top. It then drains through the perforations of the drum and is collected in the trough below. The trough is emptied either by removing a cap from the end of the hollow axle or via a flexible pipe fitted to the axle.
The Super Sopper was invented in 1974 by Sydney inventor Gordon Withnall. It is used on tennis courts and bowling greens and cricket, golf, football and baseball fields around the world.
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"Supernovas, Detection Of",380,"0","g","0"
\IAustralian astronomers pioneered the study of supernovas - the giant magnetic shells of stars that exploded thousands of years ago.\i
In the past most investigations into supernovas have been carried out using the Mills Cross telescope, near \JCanberra\j in association with the nearby observatory at Mount Stromlo. This work will now be taken over by the powerful Australia Telescope.
In 1987 its Parkes telescope picked up signals from a supernova which exploded in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a nearby galaxy. Codenamed 1987a, it is the first nearby supernova since 1604 and its signals were detected by radioastronomers within two days of the optical flare being seen. These signals should reach a maximum intensity a century after the explosion. With its ability to discern fine detail the Australia Telescope will be able to see the supernova remnant growing in size from virtually nothing to a final extent of a hundred light years or so. The Australia Telescope will also investigate the remains of old supernovas in our galaxy.
In 1978 the Anglo-Australian Telescope at Siding Spring identified the star SS433 with a radio source at the centre of the supernova remnant W30.
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"Surf-lifesaving Reel",381,"0","g","0"
\BAlso Lifesaving Reel; Surf-reel\b
\IA large reel on which a rope is wound to rescue swimmers in difficulty.\i
The surf-lifesaving reel consists of a large reel on which a rope, called a surf-line, is wound. When swimmers get into difficulty the surf-line is attached to a lifesaver wearing a special belt who, as the rope on the reel is played out, swims to their aid. The lifesaver and the person rescued are pulled to safety by rewinding the surf-lifesaving reel.
The surf-lifesaving reel was based on a model made by Lyster Ormsby, first captain of the Bondi Surf Bather's Lifesaving Club. The first reel was built in 1906 by G.H. Olding, who also claimed to be its inventor. The first person in the world to be rescued by a lifesaving reel was a boy who got into difficulties at Bondi Beach in January 1907. He gave his name as Charlie Smith, and was later to become the aviator Sir Charles \JKingsford Smith\j.
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"Surface Tension Meter",382,"0","g","0"
\IA strong, low-cost device for measuring surface tension.\i
The ability to measure surface tension precisely is important in a range of industries including the manufacture of paints, glues, soaps, detergents, perfumes and other toiletries. The surface tension meter uses the principle that when a glass plate is lowered into a liquid, the surface tension forces between the glass and liquid exert a force on the plate, changing its apparent weight. When the plate is removed from the liquid, the surface tension forces are reversed. The difference between the apparent weight of the glass plate when it enters and when it leaves the liquid gives a measure of the surface tension of the liquid.
The surface tension meter was invented in the late 1970s by John Ralston of the Department of Applied Chemistry at the Swinburne Institute of Technology. It is a robust, low-cost instrument which has been commercialised and sold internationally. The surface tension meter also functions as a milligram balance and can be used to measure density.
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"Surfoplane",383,"f\5\surfmat.jpg","c","0"
\IA rubberised surfoplane, corrugated and designed scientifically to do all the work of a surfboard.\i
Dr Ernest Smithers (1900û72) invented the revolutionary surfoplane in 1934. It introduced many people to a cheap and thrilling sport, and was used as an aid in saving lives, as each one could support six men clinging to it.
Smithers spent eight years developing the surfoplane and had made hundreds of different types before coming up with the right one. The surfoplane was 35 inches long by 27 and was designed to support the heaviest person. An advantage of the surfplane over the surfboard was its light weight.
Dr Ernest Smithers was an achiever in his day. He won the 3 mile running race at Queensland, the Canberra Cup for Golf, a Sydney University Blue for Sport, and he managed the Sydney Speedway and boxing at the showground. Smithers had a medical practice in Sydney and was married three times. In 1952 he moved to the South Coast of New South Wales.
\IThank you very much to Alison Lee for supplying the information and photograph.\i
\BDescription:\b The surfoplane \I(Alison Lee)\i
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"Sutherland's Constant",384,"0","g","0"
\IAdvances in calculating the viscosity of gases were made by an Australian scientist.\i
In 1893 William Sutherland published a paper on gaseous viscosities in which he showed the derivation of his equation relating viscosity to temperature. Sutherland's constant is still widely used in viscosity calculations.
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"Sutton, Henry",385,"0","g","0"
(1856-1912)
\IProlific and versatile inventor who made many pioneering discoveries while working in isolation far from the main centres of technology in Europe and North America.\i
Sutton was born in a tent on the \JBallarat\j goldfields. By the age of ten his observations of the flutter of insect wings led to his theory on the flight of birds which was published a decade later in the 1878 annual report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain. As a 14 year old he invented an 'ornithopter', a manoeuvrable clockwork flying machine. In 1870 he invented an electric motor, which later became known as the 'Gramme' motor as it was re-invented in Belgium by Professor Gramme. Gramme's Dynamo was responsible for the rapid development of the electricity industry when it became the standard electric motor for factories after being presented to the French Academy in 1871.
In 1876, less than a year after Alexander Graham Bell developed and patented the first telephone Sutton had invented, but did not patent, more than twenty new versions of the device were installed in the \JBallarat\j School of Mines, and used to link the Sutton family music store and warehouse. Sixteen of the telephones were subsequently patented by others overseas. Bell visited \JBallarat\j to inspect this system.
Sutton designed, built and drove two internal combustion motor vehicles fitted with carburettors of his own invention. His other inventions include the world's first portable radio (with a range of some 500 metres), an electric storage battery, and a mercury vacuum pump, further developed by others, which was widely used to make lamp bulbs. Independently of Thomas Edison he developed an incandescent globe in the late 1870s. Sutton devised the first theoretically feasible television, the Telephane, and was also a pioneer in the processes of photoengraving and colour photography.
Although his inventions were many, Sutton took out only two patents, believing that his work should be for the free use of all mankind. Most of his inventions were subsequently patented by others.
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"Synroc",386,"f\5\1_0063.jpg","c","0"
\IA method of immobilising high-level nuclear waste in a synthetic rock for the long periods needed for the decay of the radioactivity in the waste to safe levels.\i
Synroc is a highly stable ceramic matrix into which long-life nuclear fission products, such as high-level wastes from nuclear power stations, which generate electricity, can be incorporated. It is a synthetic rock composed of three titanate minerals - hollandite, zirconite and perovskite - plus rutile and a small amount of metal alloy. These are combined into a slurry to which is added a portion of high-level liquid nuclear waste. The mixture is dried, calcined at 750 degrees Celsius to produce a powder, and then compressed in a bellows-like stainless steel container at temperatures of between 1150 and 1200 degrees Celsius. The result is a cylinder of hard, dense, black synthetic rock. The Synroc cylinder is then loaded into a disposal canister.
Synroc has the properties required to immobilise high-level nuclear waste for extremely long periods. A nuclear power station generating electricity produces about one tonne per year of high-level waste. The only other product comparable to Synroc is a French-produced stable glass known as borosilicate glass. Synroc has advantages over borosilicate glass in that it is exceptionally resistant to groundwater leaching (that is, the dissolving of the nuclear waste into the groundwater); it is able to withstand higher loadings of heat-producing radioactive waste; it can survive underground for much longer periods; and it can be buried in a wider range of geological environments and to a greater depth - up to four kilometres - where underground temperatures are very high. In neutron irradiation tests Synroc has withstood a simulated 100,000 years of high-level nuclear waste contamination.
Synroc was developed in 1978 by a research team under Professor Ted Ringwood at the Australian National University in \JCanberra\j. A full-scale Synroc demonstration plant was commissioned in 1988 and is located at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation Research Establishment at the Lucas Heights Research Laboratories in Sydney. This shows, on a non-radioactive basis, the steps involved in Synroc fabrication. There is as yet no commitment to build a radioactive Synroc plant. Australia is collaborating with the United Kingdom, Japan and Italy in the development and testing of Synroc.
\BDescription:\b Ranger Uranium Mine \I(DFAT)\i
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"T-VASIS Visual Landing System",387,"0","g","0"
\IA set of light patterns on either side of a runway which, according to the configuration seen by the pilot, instantly shows if the plane is on the correct landing approach.\i
The T-VASIS visual landing system is a simple and accurate aircraft landing aid. It consists of 28 light sources, each in the form of a light projector, which are located next to the runway and produce closely controlled beams of light. There are two components to the layout of the lights: wing bars of lights arranged symmetrically at right angles to the runway, and a line of leg lights running parallel to the runway, each unit of which is fitted with blades which provide a sharp cut-off to the top or bottom of the beam, depending on the position of the viewing pilot. If the aircraft is on an approach path which is too low, lights will be seen above the wing bar in the form of a 'T'. If the aircraft is flying too high the lights seen will form an inverted 'T'. The more an aircraft deviates from the correct approach, the greater the number of lights visible in the bar of the 'T'. In addition all the leg lights are fitted with red filters to provide a gross undershoot signal. From an aircraft on a correct approach the view should be of two sets of white lights at either side of the runway.
The Department of Civil Aviation and the Aeronautical Research Laboratories began work on the T-VASIS visual landing system in 1956. Although several systems were developed elsewhere in the 1950s, only two apart from the T-VASIS system received endorsement from the International Civil Aviation Authority, and both had problems with siting, indistinct colour indicators and a general lack of accuracy. The T-VASIS system is used principally in Australia, New Zealand and South-East Asia. It won the 1971 Prince Philip Design Award and in 1972 a Diploma of Honour awarded by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale. The T-VASIS system has been produced commercially since the early 1960s with two Victorian companies manufacturing almost all the equipment.
#
"Tait Process",388,"0","g","0"
Tait Process - See \JCement-lining Process for Pipes\j
\IProlific inventor of agricultural machinery, especially the header wheat harvester on which modern world harvesting practice is based.\i
Taylor was born at Henty, New South Wales. He first tackled the problem of harvesting grain from tangled, damaged and storm flattened crops in 1911. By 1913 he had a workable machine, and took out patents. He further developed the machine until in 1915 he was able to interest leading agricultural equipment manufacturer H.V. McKay in its production. McKay secured patent rights to the machine in March 1916, under an agreement which provided that Taylor was to supervise production of the machine for at least two years. Within weeks Taylor was working at McKay's Sunshine plant. The first six machines, called 'Taylor headers', were ready for the 1916-17 harvest. In later versions the name 'Sunshine Header Harvester' was used. The machine is the basis of modern world harvesting practice.
Taylor stayed with McKay's firm for 38 years. During that time he adapted his header to suit different crops and conditions. He developed a rice header and a self-propelled auto header. Other inventions include a one operation pea harvester, a pasture renovating machine and a bagging machine.
\IA method for reducing fly-ash emissions from coal-burning industries.\i
Air-borne ash produced by coal-burning industries can be a serious source of air pollution. The removal of relatively large ash particles (about 10 microns in size) can be effected by passing chimney exhaust gases through electrostatic precipitators. The electrically charged ash particles can be collected on plates with the opposite electrical charge and shaken off into large hoppers. However, this method is not efficient for trapping particles less than 5 microns in size. In 1965 a team led by Dr Edmund Potter of the \JCSIRO\j Division of Mineral Chemistry began researching a method for removing this fine fly-ash. They discovered that the addition to flue gases of minute quantities of TEA (triethylamine), a common industrial chemical, caused the very fine particles to clump together. They could then be collected by the electrostatic precipitator. The addition of TEA also enabled a stronger electrical field to be maintained, thereby improving the cost-effectiveness of the precipitation process.
The benefits of TEA were first demonstrated under industrial conditions at the Berrima cement works powerhouse of Southern Portland Cement. The legal requirement for 98.5 per cent removal of fly-ash was achieved by adding eight parts per million of TEA. The fine ash could be completely eliminated from the flue gases by increasing the amount of TEA to twenty parts per million.
\BDescription:\b BHP \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Tea-tree Oil",392,"f\5\a4_0070.jpg","c","0"
\IOils distilled from the tea-tree are used as germicides, anti-fungicides, solvents and in perfumes.\i
Oils distilled from the tea-tree \I(Melaleuca\i species) from the east coast of Australia are used as germicides, fungicides, solvents and in perfumery. The species most widely used is \IM. alternifolia.\i The leaves and terminal branchlets are boiled and the oil separated from the condensed steam and oil-enriched vapour. It is sold in pharmacies and health food shops and is useful in the treatment of infected fingernail beds, coral cuts, tinea, some types of boils, mouth ulcers and all kinds of cuts and abrasions. The oil was first marketed in the 1920s for dental and surgical use. During World War II it was added to machine oils in munitions factories to reduce infections arising from injuries, especially abrasions to the hands by metal filings and turnings.
Tea-tree oil has also performed well in acne treatment trials. It does not have the common side effects of skin scaling, dryness and irritation associated with the currently used benzyl peroxide, and is also relatively cheap to produce.
The Aborigines were aware of the medicinal properties of tea trees. For coughs and colds leaves were crushed and inhaled - the weeping tea tree \I(M. Ieucadendron),\i rich in cineol, was a widely used species. Infusions of leaves were applied to pains, sores and burns, and strips of papery tea tree bark served as bandages and bedding. In the mid-nineteenth century Baron von Mueller, government botanist in Victoria, advised the planting of bottlebrush tea tree \I(M. squarrosa)\i and weeping tea tree 'for subduing malarial vapours' in swamps. The leaves of broom honey-myrtle \I(M. uncinata)\i were chewed for catarrh.
\BDescription:\b Tea-trea oil has many uses \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Tebbutt's Comet",393,"0","g","0"
\IComet discovered by Australian astronomer John \JTebbutt\j.\i
\JTebbutt\j's Comet appeared in May 1861 as a faint nebulous object in motion across the skies of the southern hemisphere. It is one of the finest comets on record and at one stage had a tail which could be traced for over one hundred degrees. The earth passed through the tail in June 1861.
The comet was discovered by John \JTebbutt\j.
#
"Tebbutt, John",394,"0","g","0"
(1834-1916)
\IAstronomer; made accurate observations of comets and minor planets in the southern hemisphere and discovered \JTebbutt\j's Comet.\i
John \JTebbutt\j was born at Windsor, New South Wales. Encouraged by his teacher at the local parish school he developed an interest in astronomy at an early age. He began serious observations with a marine telescope which he bought in 1853 and with this in 1861 discovered the comet which now bears his name. In the following year, using a three and a quarter inch refracting telescope, he observed Encke's Comet. He also discovered the Great Comet of 1881.
\JTebbutt\j contributed numerous papers to scientific journals. Astronomical observations from the southern hemisphere were rare at the time of \JTebbutt\j's work and his observations were much in demand for orbit computation.
See \JTebbutt's Comet\j
#
"Telephane",395,"0","g","0"
\BAlso telephotographer\b
\IForerunner of television devised by \JHenry Sutton\j to transmit the running of the Melbourne Cup to \JBallarat\j.\i
The telephane was an apparatus which its inventor \JHenry Sutton\j hoped would transmit moving images of the running of the Melbourne Cup from Melbourne to \JBallarat\j, more than 100 kilometres away. It was designed in 1885, but was not then built. The system incorporated the recently developed devices of the Kerr effect, the Nipkow disc (used forty years later by Scotsman John Logie Baird) and the selenium photocell. The device did not have a screen - instead the viewer was required to look into a hole at the end of a long tube. Light at the opposite end of the tube was focused through two polarisers to the Kerr cell, carrying a pair of electrodes supplied with signals from the transmitters.
Unfortunately the telephane predated the invention of radio, and Sutton's proposed means of signal transmission - the telegraph line - was unable to handle the amount of information required for high resolution picture reproduction.
Details of Sutton's television were published in scientific journals in England, France in 1880 and the United States in 1910. Many of the principles employed by Sutton, such as the synchronisation of both transmitter and receiver, were incorporated into the television designed and demonstrated by John Logie Baird in the 1920s.
#
"Telephone Research",396,"0","g","0"
Telephone Research - See \JDivision Bells\j
\JSutton, Henry\j
\JSolar-Powered Telecommunications Systems\j
DRCS\b
#
"Textile Industry",397,"0","g","0"
Textile Industry - See \JChlorine-Hercosett Process\j
\JMechanical Yarn Splicer\j
\JSelf-twist Spinning Machine\j
\JSelfil Spinner\j
\JSirolan-BAP\j
\JSiroscour\j
\JSi-ro-fix\j
\JSirospun\j
#
"Thalidomide",398,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Thalidomide, Link with Birth Deformities Recognised\b
\ISydney doctor William \JMcBride\j made the link between the drug thalidomide and birth deformities.\i
Thalidomide, a sedative, was used to treat nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy until it was discovered that it could affect the normal growth of the foetus. Sydney doctor William Griffith \JMcBride\j began investigating the effects of thalidomide while serving as honorary obstetrician and gynaecologist at Crown Street Women's Hospital and in 1961 submitted a paper which confirmed the link between the use of the drug and limb deformities in newborn babies. These findings allowed the parents of affected children around the world to claim damages from the pharmaceutical manufacturers who produced thalidomide.
#
"Threlfall, Sir Richard",399,"0","g","0"
(1861-1932)
\IPhysicist and chemical engineer; invented the gravity gradiometer, a delicate measuring instrument.\i
Richard Threlfall was born in Lancashire in England and arrived in Australia in 1886 to take up a position as the first professor of physics at the University of Sydney. There he invented a rocking microtome, valuable in biological study, and with his student and friend J.A. Pollock developed a quartz thread torsion balance for use as a gravity meter (see Gravity Gradiometer).
Threlfall was one of the few local supporters of \JLawrence Hargrave\j in his attempts to design a heavier-than-air flying machine. In 1898 Threlfall returned to England to work as a consulting engineer. During World War I he served on the Admiralty's Board of Invention and Research.
#
"Thrust Bearing",400,"0","g","0"
Thrust Bearing - See \JMichell Thrust Bearing\j
#
"Totalisator",401,"0","g","0"
Totalisator - See \JAutomatic Totalisator\j
#
"Tote",402,"0","g","0"
Tote - See \JAutomatic Totalisator\j
#
"Tower Crane",403,"0","g","0"
Tower Crane - See \JFavelle Favco Crane\j
#
"Trace Element Research",404,"f\5\71020.jpg","c","0"
\IPioneering work in identifying and remedying trace element deficiencies in soil has been carried out in Australia.\i
The important discoveries of trace element deficiencies were made mainly by agricultural scientists who worked for the \JCSIRO\j or State Departments of Agriculture. They led to many parts of the country, particularly large areas of South Australia and Western Australia being identified as deficient in trace elements. It was also established that such deficiencies were associated with long-recognised problems in the farming of introduced crops and animals.
The work of Dr A.J. Anderson of the \JCSIRO\j showed that a deficiency of molybdenum, which is essential for the fixation of nitrogen by legumes, consistently occurred on soils derived from sedimentary rocks in Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia, New South Wales and Western Australia. Its application was the first step in a chain of changes which led to profitable crop and animal farming on these soils in temperate high rainfall areas. In Western Australia many pathological conditions were found in animals grazing on copper deficient pastures. These included 'steely wool' and enzootic ataxia (swayback) in sheep and 'falling disease' in cattle.
Rehabilitation by the application of specific trace elements has converted much of the areas identified into prosperous farmland.
\IInventor of the tranceiver powered by a pedal-operated generator which was used by the Royal Flying Doctor Service.\i
Traeger was born at Dimboola, Victoria, a farmer's son. At the age of twelve he made a telephone receiver. In the early 1920s he became interested in radio and obtained an amateur operator's licence. He built his first transmitter-receiver and later formed Traeger Tranceivers Pty Ltd.
In 1926 he began working for the Reverend \JJohn Flynn\j, and was given the specific task of developing a suitable transceiver for the flying doctor service. After the first set was installed in the Queensland outback in 1929 Traeger divided his time between the field, where he taught radio operating and Morse code, and his workshop, where he continued to improve and refine the sets.
Traeger also designed a turbine-driven car and used solar power to convert salt water into fresh water. He was awarded an OBE in 1944.
The TRESS system of telegraph transmission was based on the use of automatic switching equipment and reperforator/transmitter machines, and relied on the presence of teleprinters in all large post offices. The vast expanses of Australia meant that 'point-to-point' systems such as those used over short distances in Europe were unsuitable. Instead Australian engineers drew upon the experience of Western Union (USA) whose 'reperforating machine' stored on tape messages to be forwarded to nominated post offices.
In the TRESS system telegrams were transmitted by teleprinter from regional post offices to the Chief Telegraph Office in capital cities where they were automatically stored temporarily on perforated tape. As soon as there was a free line to the designated destination of the telegraph the stored message was switched automatically to that line and retransmitted from an automatic tape transmitter. The telegram was received by teleprinter. It was then delivered by hand. Intrastate messages needed to be switched only once, interstate messages twice.
TRESS removed the need for manual operators along the route of the telegraph - only two, one each at the sending and receiving end, were required - a significant cost-saving. The other major advantage of the new system was that it cut the transmission time of a telegraph to less than one-fifth of that previously taken. The use of teleprinters in the TRESS system hastened the end of Morse telegraphy. The last Morse telegraph message sent by land line in mainland Australia was in 1963.
TRESS was developed by engineers R. Kerr, P. Bethell, D. Richardson, B. Edwards and J. Coghill from the Postmaster-General's department (PMG). The system, first proposed in 1953, was ready for installation in 1958 but was delayed by opposition from the Telegraphists and Postal Clerks' Union on the grounds of changed working conditons and redundancies. TRESS came into service in Adelaide in 1959 and by mid-1960 was in use in all mainland States.
The name comes from T(eleprinter) Re(perforating) S(witching) S(ystem).
#
"Tropical Legumes",407,"f\4\72069.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Tropical Legumes, Use in Pasture Improvement\b
\IThe use of tropical legumes dramatically improved the cattle-carrying capacity of vast areas of nitrogen-deficient land in Queensland.\i
A range of tropical legumes was used to make barren nitrogen-deficient Queensland plains carry pasture for cattle. Legumes are used for pasture improvement because they have the ability to obtain the nitrogen they need for their nutrition from the air via special bacteria which live in nodules in their roots.
Studies of pastures that could be suitable for the infertile soils of north-eastern Australia were conducted by a team from the \JCSIRO\j Division of Plant Industry led by Welsh research agronomist Dr J. Griffith Davies. As no tropical pasture legumes were known to be in use anywhere in the world the team had to find wild legumes that could be domesticated for the Queensland conditions. Townsville stylo was found to be one legume with the appropriate qualities. The right kinds of nitrogen-fixing bacteria were then located overseas and imported with their host legumes. South American legumes combined with grasses from America were also used successfully. A new legume, Siratro, developed in 1960 by Mark Hutton, dramatically improved livestock-carrying capacity of northern pastures and became a valuable export.
\BDescription:\b The use of tropical legumes improved the cattle-carrying capacity of vast areas of nitrogen-deficient land in Queensland \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
#
"Twinsplicer",408,"0","g","0"
Twinsplicer - See \JMechanical Yarn Splicer\j
#
"Two-stroke Petrol Rotary",409,"f\5\a4_0090.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Two-stroke Petrol Rotary Lawnmower - Also \JVicta\j\b
\IA lightweight lawnmower with sufficient power in its rotary-action blades to deal with long thick grass.\i
The \JVicta\j two-stroke petrol lawnmower incorporates a disc fitted with rotary cutting blades mounted on a lightweight frame on wheels and powered by a small two-stroke petrol engine. The blades rotate at high speed in a horizontal plane. They are shaped to throw the cut grass into a catcher back onto the lawn. When the blades wear out they can be replaced by new ones. The disc holding the blades can be raised or lowered according to the height of the grass to be cut.
The mower was developed in the early 1950s by Mervyn Victor Richardson and is thought by some to be based on the heavier 'Mowhall' rotary mower invented in 1946 by Sydney engineer Walter Hall. Richardson wanted a machine that was cheaper and lighter than the existing cumbersome cylinder-type power mowers. His first version was of a cylinder type, and although it sold well, Richardson was not satisfied because he felt it was underpowered. His next version used rotary blades and had the power he wanted. Not only did it easily cut through tough grasses such as paspalum and weeds such as Paddy's lucerne, it was also able to shave a lawn as closely as a cylinder type mower, and could cut up to the edges of fences, trees and flower beds.
Richardson's \JVicta\j rotary lawnmower was an immediate success. In 1953 he set up a family company to manufacture his product: in the first year they made 100, by the fourth, 60,000. \JVicta\j is now the largest motor mower manufacturer in the world and exports to most parts of the world.
\BDescription:\b The \JVicta\j lawnmower \I(Carrie Webster)\i
\IA two-wheel drive two-wheel steer motorcycle designed for high-speed long-distance off-road racing.\i
This is a two-wheel drive, two-wheel steer, motorcycle which is driven and steered hydraulically. A two-stroke air-cooled engine drives a fully automatic no-step transmission which in turn powers a hydraulic turbine system. This directly drives both wheels and enables the rider to steer from both ends simultaneously. The bike is intended for dirt racing and it is claimed that it is not only faster and safer in a competition environment but also inherently more stable in normal road use.
The motorcycle was designed by Victorian engineer Ian Drysdale, who developed it between 1980-90.
#
"Ultra-Micro Balance",411,"0","g","0"
\IThe world's first balance capable of weighing to one thousand-millionth of a gram.\i
The ultra-micro balance can weigh to one thousand-millionth of a gram. The first instrument was constructed in about 1906 by Bertram Dillon Steele, senior lecturer in chemistry at the University of Melbourne, who later became the foundation professor of chemistry in Brisbane, and Kerr Grant, who later became professor of physics at Adelaide University. The balance enabled British chemist Sir William Ramsay to determine the atomic mass of radon from the extremely small amount available.
#
"Ultrasound",412,"f\5\ultra.jpg","c","0"
\IDiagnostic ultrasound techniques pioneered in Australia are used around the world for the examination of human organs and developing foetus.\i
The diagnostic use of ultrasound is based on the fact that high-frequency sound waves bounce off tissues of different densities at different rates. The ultrasonic waves pass through fluids, for example, but bounce off bone. A particular organ can be examined by directing waves at it and then visually recording the reflections of those waves. Ultrasound is most useful in examining the foetus of a pregnant woman and can reveal the size, position and sometimes the sex of the baby, as well as identify abnormalities such as spina bifida, hydrocephaly and certain other congenital disorders.
Ultrasound is also used to look at human veins, check for gall and kidney stones and to examine other areas, such as the cardiac valves, and to detect breast and ovarian cysts. Unlike X-rays, ultrasound examinations can be repeated as often as needed for as far as is known sound waves have no adverse effect on tissues exposed to them.
In the 1950s and early 1960s Australian scientists pioneered the medical application of ultrasonic waves. In 1961 George Kossoff and David Robinson built their first scanner at the Ultrasonics Institute within the Commonwealth Health Department. Their work resulted in the first commercially practical water path ultrasonics (which involved immersing the organ to be investigated in water to facilitate sound wave transmission). They also helped to design the transducer (the part that is moved over the body) and the method of displaying the image.
In 1975 Ausonics, part of the Nucleus group, won the contract for the manufacture and marketing of ultrasonic diagnostic equipment as developed by Kossoff and his colleagues. The first was an automated ultrasound machine used in breast imaging which Ausonics marketed under the name Octoson. In 1984 Ausonics launched a compact, portable ultrasound system for use in cardiology and general radiology. This is a real-time machine which produces a moving image from which still photographs are taken.
All Ausonic products are made in Australia and exported worldwide. The Ultrasonics Institute team, in collaboration with Ausonics, continues to be involved in the research and development of ultrasonic equipment.
\BDescription:\b A picture taken during an ultrasound of a developing foetus \I(Nelson Hamilton)\i
#
"Utility",413,"f\5\74042.jpg","c","0"
\BAlso Coupe-utility; Utility Truck\b
\IThe utility grew out of the adaptation by Australian farmers of the basic motor car into a vehicle which could also be used to carry farm loads.\i
The utility is a vehicle with an enclosed cabin, similar in comfort and design to the front of a passenger car, and at the back a rectangular tray which has fixed sides, a tailgate and often a removable tarpaulin cover. The utility grew out of the demand by Australian farmers for a vehicle which combined the comfort of a passenger car with the carrying capacity of a small truck. For years they had been adapting old passenger cars into utilitarian runabouts to carry anything from pigs to bales of hay to supplies from the local store.
In 1930 this need was brought to the attention of Ford Australia who decided to produce such a vehicle. The first utility was designed in 1933 in Geelong by Lewis Brandt, chief body engineer for Ford Australia. A unique feature of the design was that the rear of the cabin, the bed of the tray and the side panels were all pressed from a single piece of metal. A year later the first production-line Ford utility was assembled in Geelong; other companies, such as General Motors and Vauxhall, soon followed with their own models.
The utility is now also produced in the United States by both General Motors and Ford, and similar vehicles are also manufactured in South Africa. The utility is firmly established in Australian vehicle manufacturers' ranges and new model sedans are often followed by the release of a matching utility. It is by far the most popular vehicle amongst Australian farmers.
Ironically Lewis Brandt, the originator of the 'ute', was killed in a road accident in 1987 while driving to the filming of a documentary about the development of the utility. The vehicle he was driving was a fully restored 1933 coupe utility.
\BDescription:\b A Ford utility \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
#
"Vaccine to Increase Lambing",414,"f\5\twins.jpg","c","0"
\ILamb-twinning vaccine which stimulates the ovary to produce two eggs instead of one.\i
Immunisation with the vaccine to increase lambing causes the immune system of the ewe to produce an unnatural type of antibody which neutralises the activities of sex hormones normally circulating in the blood. This stimulates the ovary to produce two eggs instead of one. Lambing rates were thus increased by more than 25 per cent as treated ewes produced more twins than usual.
The technique was developed by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Animal Production with Glaxo Australia Pty Ltd. It was extensively field-tested in Australia and New Zealand by Glaxo and towards the end of 1983 it began production of the immunogen which is marketed under the name 'Fecundin'.
\BDescription:\b A merino ewe stands with newly born twins \I(\JCSIRO\j Australia)\i
#
"Vegemite",415,"f\5\a4_0028.jpg","c","0"
\IA nutritious concentrated yeast extract used as spread.\i
Vegemite is made from brewers yeast which is processed, concentrated and refined. The resultant dark coloured spread is an extremely rich source of vitamin B, being four to five times more concentrated than yeast, the natural source of the vitamin B complex.
Vegemite was developed in 1922 by food technologist Dr Cyril P. Callister for the Fred Walker Company, a Melbourne-based manufacturer and distributor of processed food products. (The company was later bought by Kraft.) The spread was released the following year under the brand name Vegemite, but made little market impact. It was relaunched in 1928 under the new brand name Pawill, a word play on the name of a rival spread - 'if Marmite...then Pawill'. Public acceptance, however, remained slow. Walker returned to the original name and with a vigorous promotion campaign eventually set Vegemite on the road to success.
\BDescription:\b Vegemite
#
"Victa Airtourer",416,"0","g","0"
Victa Airtourer - See \JAirtourer\j
#
"Victa Mower",417,"0","g","0"
\JVicta\j Mower - See \JTwo-stroke Petrol Rotary\j Lawnmower
\IA low-cost, high-speed microchip with a range of potential uses in electronic equipment.\i
The VLSI/FFT microchip uses very-large-scale-integration technology, a technology which facilitates the concentration of many thousands of semiconductor devices on a single integrated circuit. It is designed to carry out the mathematical procedure known as fast Fourier transforms, which is used in searching for patterns in large volumes of complex information, and is able to perform five times faster than any known competitor. The fast Fourier transforms method is used in areas such as communications and computer-based voice recognition. The VLSI/FFT chip will be used in a wide range of electronic equipment, from that used in laboratory and engineering machinery to mining, telecommunications and remote sensing. It also has potential for use in consumer items such as videos and hi-fi equipment.
The microchip was developed in the mid-1980s by researchers from the \JCSIRO\j Division of Radiophysics in collaboration with Austek Microsystems Pty Ltd.
The name comes from V(ery) L(arge) S(cale) I(ntegration) F(ast) F(ourier) T(ransforms).
\IPhysicist who invented the atomic absorption spectrophotometer.\i
Alan Walsh was born in Lancashire, England in 1916. He is noted for his development of scientific instruments while working in the \JCSIRO\j Chemical Physics Division. They include the Multiple Monochromater, which he invented in 1949 and the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, which he began working on in the early l950s.
Among the many honours Walsh received for his atomic absorption spectrophotometer was the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in London in 1976. He was knighted in the following year.
#
"Water Desalination",420,"0","g","0"
Water Desalination - See \JSirotherm\j
#
"Water Filter Systems",421,"0","g","0"
Water Filter Systems - See \JMemtec\j
#
"Water Heater",422,"0","g","0"
\BFull Name: Water Heater, Universal Indoor/Outdoor Model\b
\IGas and electric water heaters which can be installed indoors or outdoors are an Australian innovation.\i
The temperate climate in the populated areas of Australia has allowed water heaters to be shifted outdoors and specific designs have evolved for outdoor installation.
The indoor/outdoor models were developed by the Water Heater Division staff of Rheem Australia Pty Ltd, a company formed in 1939 by the Rheem Manufacturing Company USA and Australian steel manufacturer BHP. In 1973 the company became all-Australian when BHP bought out the overseas interests, and in 1986 it took over the total business of its American parent company.
The wave-piercing passenger catamaran is of fully welded alloy construction. The engines are contained in the hulls along with the fuel. Over the hulls is the vehicle deck. Above the vehicle deck is a high superstructure containing passenger areas and the wheelhouse. This is built as a self-contained unit and supported on anti-vibration mountings to isolate it from engine and jet noise and vibration.
The wave-piercing design of the commercial catamaran grew out of racing sailing catamaran technology and was developed by Robert Clifford and marine architect Philip Hercus of International Catamarans Pty Ltd, Battery Point, Tasmania. They initially developed wave-piercing boats for the North Queensland tourist run to the \JGreat Barrier Reef.\j
A giant wave-piercing catamaran, \ISeaCat Tasmania,\i is used on Bass Strait crossings. Five have been sold to Britain and in 1989 the first of these, the 74-metre \IHoverspeed Great Britain,\i built for the Channel run, broke the 38-year speed record from New York to Portsmouth. It takes about 35 minutes for the Channel crossing, about half the time taken by other cross-Channel ferries. A smaller version, the SeaJet, is used on the Circular Quay to Manly run on Sydney Harbour.
\BDescription:\b Catamaran \I(DFAT)\i.
#
"Wiltshire Staysharp Knife",425,"0","g","0"
Wiltshire Staysharp Knife - See \JSelf-sharpening Knife\j
#
"Wind-driven Electrical Generators",426,0,g,0
\BAlso Dunlite\b
\IWind-driven electrical generators have brought urban comforts to outback Australia.\i
A highly efficient wind-driven electrical generator was developed by the Adelaide-based Dunlite company. It offered many outback farms and stations an alternative to noisy internal combustion-driven machines for the generation of their electrical supplies. The Dunlite revolutionised outback life in Australia, allowing domestic lighting, television, radio and most of the home aids of urban Australia. Many Dunlite units have been exported and are now found in many countries around the world.
#
"Windmills",427,"f\5\73094.jpg","c","0"
\IAll-steel circular windmill developed as a source of power for lifting underground water to the surface.\i
The all-steel circular windmill with curved galvanised iron sails and an angle-iron frame was developed in the 1880s by agricultural equipment designer James Alston (1815-1943).
The design is still used today by Australian windmill manufacturers. It is stronger and gives much more power than earlier models which used wooden frames and wooden or canvas sails. Alston's design was put into production in 1893 by Melbourne windmill manufacturing firm John Danks and Son Pty Ltd. It found an immediate market, pumping to the surface artesian water from the recently discovered vast underground aquifers.
\BDescription:\b A windmill \I(Waltzing Matilda Enterprises)\i
#
"Windsor Harvester",428,"0","g","0"
\IA tree-felling machine for thinning pine plantations; the operator can perform all functions without leaving the cover of a protected cabin.\i
The Windsor Harvester has an articulated boom at the front which is fitted with a clamp and a felling head. The clamp grips the tree, and the curved shears of the felling head slice through the trunk near ground level. Still firmly gripped by the clamp, the severed tree is then lifted into place on top of the harvester by the boom. There curved delimbing blades clamp around the trunk and slide along it, removing and discarding branches. When this is done another blade swings down and lops off the top of the tree. The trunks are rolled into a tray at the side of the machine where they stack horizontally. The tray can hold up to two tonnes (about twelve logs). When this capacity is reached the operator releases them to drop in a pile.
Use of the Windsor Harvester reduced tree damage caused by felling and has increased productivity. It was specifically designed for use on small diameter trees during thinning operations in pine plantations. The harvester was developed jointly by a research group at the \JCSIRO\j Division of Forest Research led by Bill Kerruish, APM Forests Pty Ltd, and Bob Windsor, of R.L. Windsor and Son Pty Ltd, the firm which now manufactures the harvester commercially. It has been used in Australia and in Canada.
\IAn airless-flow method of packaging wine in a plastic bag fitted with a dispensing tap, the whole being contained in a cardboard carton.\i
The wine dispenser cask consists of a laminated plastic inner sack which collapses around the wine remaining in the bag after a quantity has been withdrawn. As no airspace is created there is no spoilage by air contact after the bag has been tapped. The bag is fitted with a plastic dispensing tap and is held by a rigid outer cardboard box. The dispenser cask is economical to manufacture, and is lightweight, compact and easily transportable. It found immediate overseas markets, and is now also used for packaging fruit juice and mineral water.
The development of the wine cask is attributable to several Australian wine companies. First to market wine using the bag-in-box method was the South Australian company Angoves, which in 1965 released the forerunner of the modern cask, the result of research begun in the early 1960s. This early version did not have a dispensing tap, but was instead fitted with a simple resealable plastic spout. The second company to contribute was Penfolds Wines, which in association with C.H. Malpas of the Geelong firm Diemoulders developed the 'Penfolds Table Cask', released in 1967. This cask used the same airless flow principle of the collapsible inner sack, as pioneered by Angoves, but the sack was held in a cylindrical metal container incorporating a tap. The Wynns company was also involved, in particular in the development of the dispensing tap. They released wine in a dispenser cask in 1969.
\BDescription:\b Wine dispenser cask
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"Wire Galvanising",430,"f\5\1_0037.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Wire Galvanising, High-speed Process - Also AWI Gas Wiping Process\b
\IA high-speed process for galvanising wire.\i
In the 1960s Australian Wire Industries perfected a process for zinc coating galvanised wire which cut production time up to four-fold. The AWI system uses a combination of smooth river gravel pebbles and coke oven gas (from BHP Steelworks) to wipe off the surplus zinc. The presence of hydrogen sulfide in the gas eliminates the problem of the formation of zinc oxide which can cause irregularities and deterioration of the coating. In general, conventional plant can be upgraded to use the gas wiping process. The introduction of vertical pad wiping and quenching systems gives a particularly bright finish to the wire.
Conventional zinc coating methods involve immersing the wire in a bath of molten zinc and removing the surplus by passing the wire through a layer of charcoal impregnated with oil.
The AWI process has been acknowledged as an important advance in wire making and has been licensed overseas.
\BDescription:\b BHP Steelworks \I(DFAT)\i
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"Withnall, Gordon",431,"0","g","0"
Withnall, Gordon - See \JRed Robin Infra-red Brooder\j
\JSuper Sopper\j
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"Wool Press, Improvements",432,"0","g","0"
\IThe introduction of the rack and pinion device, with subsequent refinements, resulted in a range of efficient and inexpensive wool presses.\i
The fitting of wool presses with a rack and pinion meant that at the turn of a handle pressure could be applied to a steel plate called a monkey, and the fleeces compressed into a bale which was then ready to be sewn up.
One of the best known names involved in improving wool presses was Christian Koerstz (1850-1930). In partnership with a patent holder, Frederick Mason, Koerstz began manufacturing inexpensive presses in Sydney in 1887. He produced a range for both the large and small sheep owner. His 'Improved Selectors', operated by one man, could handle the pressing of wool from 20,000 sheep.
Before the development of such wool presses long bales had to be tramped down into short bales by shed hands. This method was replaced by an arrangement of wire ropes and a steel plate (the monkey) to force the fleece down, but the compressing process still required much brute strength. An early version of a wool press with a rack and pinion was patented in Queensland in 1877.
The new presses could be operated by one or two men; this led to great changes in shearing and baling procedures, because small graziers now built their own woolsheds instead of taking their sheep to large landholders for shearing.
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"Wool Product Technology",433,"0","g","0"
Wool Product Technology - See \JChlorine-Hercosett Process\j
\JSiroscour\j
\JSi-ro-fix\j
\JSirolan-BAP\j
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"Wool Shears, Mechanised",434,"0","g","0"
Wool Shears, Mechanised - See \JShears, Mechanised\j
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"Wool Treatment",435,"0","g","0"
Wool Treatment - See \JSiroscour\j
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"Worm-killing Drugs",436,"f\5\d_0070.jpg","c","0"
\BFull Name: Worm-killing Drugs for Sheep and Cattle\b
\IThe discovery that phenothiazine was a safe and effective worm-killing drug was of significant economic importance to Australian farmers.\i
In 1939 Dr H.M. Gordon of the CSIR (after 1949 known as the \JCSIRO\j) McMaster Laboratories discovered that a heterocyclic compound called phenothiazine could be used as a safe and effective worm-killing drug. The compound had already been patented in Germany and in the United States, but Gordon's research into its properties established that it could be used to control infestations of intestinal worms in sheep and cattle, a serious problem in Australia. An industrial synthesis of the drug was developed and manufactured locally.
\BDescription:\b Worm-killing drugs for sheep and cattle was an Australian discovery \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"X-ray Crystallography",437,"0","g","0"
\IA technique for determining the structure of crystalline substances using X-rays.\i
X-ray crystallography is a technique which enables the molecular structure of a substance to be determined from the diffraction patterns which form when an X-ray beam passes through it. Sir William Henry Bragg and his son Sir \JWilliam Lawrence Bragg\j won the 1915 Nobel prize for their pioneering work in X-ray crystallography.
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"Xerography",438,"0","g","0"
\IA dry-copy imaging process, the forerunner of Xerox copying, was developed in Sydney.\i
Xerography is a method of photographic copying. An electrostatic image is formed on a selenium-coated surface when it is exposed to an optical image. The surface is then dusted with a dark resinous powder and the particles adhere to the charged region. The image so formed is transferred to a sheet of charged paper and fixed by heating.
In 1907 Professor O.U. Vonwiller, of the Department of Physics at the University of Sydney, published research on the photoconductivity of selenium which enabled the later development of Xerox copying. He showed that amorphous selenium would conduct electricity induced by light even though it was normally an electrical insulator.
In 1937 the first xerographic process was invented in the United States by Chester Carlson. It reproduced black and white line images well but was unsuitable for photographs or radiographic images which contained areas of grey. A major advance was achieved in 1953 when Ken Metcalfe and Bob Wright, at the Defence Standards Laboratory in Adelaide, invented a process based on liquid developers which contained very fine pigment particles. The process not only enabled continuous tones to be reproduced but also enabled the subsequent development of many new xerographic applications. In particular, multicolour images can be made by overprinting successive images on the same photoconductive surface using a series of differently coloured liquid developers.
By 1967 the Defence Standards Laboratory had patented about 30 innovations in xerography using liquid developers and the process has been licensed for use in Australia and overseas. One Australian licensee has developed a rapid and economical checking of half-tone colour separations for colour printing before the printing plates are made.
