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This is Info file elisp, produced by Makeinfo-1.47 from the input file elisp.texi. This file documents GNU Emacs Lisp. This is edition 1.03 of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual, for Emacs Version 18. Published by the Free Software Foundation, 675 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA Copyright (C) 1990 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation approved by the Foundation. File: elisp, Node: Disassembly, Prev: Compilation Functions, Up: Byte Compilation Disassembled Byte-Code ====================== People do not write byte-code; that job is left to the byte compiler. But we provide a disassembler to satisfy a cat-like curiosity. The disassembler converts the byte-compiled code into humanly readable form. The byte-code interpreter is implemented as a simple stack machine. Values get stored by being pushed onto the stack, and are popped off and manipulated, the results being pushed back onto the stack. When a function returns, the top of the stack is popped and returned as the value of the function. In addition to the stack, values used during byte-code execution can be stored in ordinary Lisp variables. Variable values can be pushed onto the stack, and variables can be set by popping the stack. -- Command: disassemble OBJECT &optional STREAM This function prints the disassembled code for OBJECT. If STREAM is supplied, then output goes there. Otherwise, the disassembled code is printed to the stream `standard-output'. The argument OBJECT can be a function name or a lambda expression. As a special exception, if this function is used interactively, it outputs to a buffer named `*Disassemble*'. Here are two examples of using the `disassemble' function. We have added explanatory comments to help you relate the byte-code to the Lisp source; these do not appear in the output of `disassemble'. (defun factorial (integer) "Compute factorial of an integer." (if (= 1 integer) 1 (* integer (factorial (1- integer))))) => factorial (factorial 4) => 24 (disassemble 'factorial) -| byte-code for factorial: doc: Compute factorial of an integer. args: (integer) 0 constant 1 ; Push 1 onto stack. 1 varref integer ; Get value of `integer' from the environment ; and push the value onto the stack. 2 eqlsign ; Pop top two values off stack, ; compare them, ; and push result onto stack. 3 goto-if-nil 10 ; Pop and test top of stack; ; if `nil', go to 10, ; else continue. 6 constant 1 ; Push 1 onto top of stack. 7 goto 17 ; Go to 17 (in this case, 1 will be ; returned by the function). 10 constant * ; Push symbol `*' onto stack. 11 varref integer ; Push value of `integer' onto stack. 12 constant factorial ; Push `factorial' onto stack. 13 varref integer ; Push value of `integer' onto stack. 14 sub1 ; Pop `integer', decrement value, ; push new value onto stack. ; Stack now contains: ; decremented value of `integer' ; `factorial' ; value of `integer' ; `*' 15 call 1 ; Call function `factorial' using ; the first (i.e., the top) element ; of the stack as the argument; ; push returned value onto stack. ; Stack now contains: ; result of result of recursive ; call to `factorial' ; value of `integer' ; `*' 16 call 2 ; Using the first two (i.e., the top two) ; elements of the stack as arguments, ; call the function `*', ; pushing the result onto the stack. 17 return ; Return the top element of the stack. => nil The `silly-loop' function is somewhat more complex: (defun silly-loop (n) "Return time before and after N iterations of a loop." (let ((t1 (current-time-string))) (while (> (setq n (1- n)) 0)) (list t1 (current-time-string)))) => silly-loop (disassemble 'silly-loop) -| byte-code for silly-loop: doc: Return time before and after N iterations of a loop. args: (n) 0 constant current-time-string ; Push `current-time-string' ; onto top of stack. 1 call 0 ; Call `current-time-string' with no ; argument, pushing result onto stack. 2 varbind t1 ; Pop stack and bind `t1' to popped value. 3 varref n ; Get value of `n' from the environment ; and push the value onto the stack. 4 sub1 ; Subtract 1 from top of stack. 5 dup ; Duplicate the top of the stack; ; i.e. copy the top of the stack ; and push the copy onto the stack. 6 varset n ; Pop the top of the stack, ; and bind `n' to the value. ; In effect, the sequence `dup varset' copies ; the top of the stack into the value of `n' ; without popping it. 7 constant 0 ; Push 0 onto stack. 8 gtr ; Pop top two values off stack, ; test if N is greater than 0 ; and push result onto stack. 9 goto-if-nil-else-pop 17 ; Goto 17 if `n' > 0 else pop top of stack and continue ; (this exits the while loop). 12 constant nil ; Push `nil' onto stack ; (this is the body of the loop). 13 discard ; Discard result of the body of the loop ; (a while loop is always evaluated ; for its side effects). 14 goto 3 ; Jump back to beginning of while loop. 17 discard ; Discard result of while loop ; by popping top of stack. 18 varref t1 ; Push value of `t1' onto stack. 19 constant current-time-string ; Push `current-time-string' ; onto top of stack. 20 call 0 ; Call `current-time-string' again. 21 list2 ; Pop top two elements off stack, ; create a list of them, ; and push list onto stack. 22 unbind 1 ; Unbind `t1' in local environment. 23 return ; Return value of the top of stack. => nil File: elisp, Node: Debugging, Next: Streams, Prev: Byte Compilation, Up: Top Debugging Lisp Programs *********************** There are three ways to investigate a problem in an Emacs Lisp program, depending on what you are doing with the program when the problem appears. * If the problem occurs when you run the program, you can use the Lisp debugger to investigate what is happening during execution. * If the problem is syntactic, so that Lisp cannot even read the program, you can use the Emacs facilities for editing Lisp to localize it. * If the problem occurs when trying to compile the program with the byte compiler, you need to know how to examine the compiler's input buffer. * Menu: * Debugger:: How the Emacs Lisp debugger is implemented. * Syntax Errors:: How to find syntax errors. * Compilation Errors:: How to find errors that show up in byte compilation. Another useful debugging tool is a dribble file. When a dribble file is open, Emacs copies all keyboard input characters to that file. Afterward, you can examine the file to find out what input was used. *Note Terminal Input::. For debugging problems in terminal descriptions, the `open-termscript' function can be useful. *Note Terminal Output::. File: elisp, Node: Debugger, Next: Syntax Errors, Prev: Debugging, Up: Debugging The Lisp Debugger ================= The "Lisp debugger" provides you with the ability to suspend evaluation of a form. While evaluation is suspended (a state that is commonly known as a "break"), you may examine the run time stack, examine the values of local or global variables, or change those values. Since a break is a recursive edit, all the usual editing facilities of Emacs are available; you can even run programs that will enter the debugger recursively. *Note Recursive Editing::. * Menu: * Error Debugging:: Entering the debugger when an error happens. * Infinite Loops:: Stopping and debugging a program that doesn't exit. * Function Debugging:: Entering it when a certain function is called. * Explicit Debug:: Entering it at a certain point in the program. * Using Debugger:: What the debugger does; what you see while in it. * Debugger Commands:: Commands used while in the debugger. * Invoking the Debugger:: How to call the function `debug'. * Internals of Debugger:: Subroutines of the debugger, and global variables. File: elisp, Node: Error Debugging, Next: Infinite Loops, Prev: Debugger, Up: Debugger Entering the Debugger When an Error Occurs ------------------------------------------ The most important time to enter the debugger is when a Lisp error happens. This allows you to investigate the immediate causes of the error. However, entry to the debugger is not a normal consequence of an error. Many commands frequently get Lisp errors when invoked in inappropriate contexts (such as `C-f' at the end of the buffer) and during ordinary editing it would be very unpleasant to enter the debugger each time this happens. If you want errors to enter the debugger, set the variable `debug-on-error' to non-`nil'. -- User Option: debug-on-error This variable determines whether the debugger is called when a error is signaled and not handled. If `debug-on-error' is non-`nil', then the debugger is called when an error happens. Otherwise the debugger is not called for errors. File: elisp, Node: Infinite Loops, Next: Function Debugging, Prev: Error Debugging, Up: Debugger Debugging Infinite Loops ======================== When a program loops infinitely and fails to return, your first problem is to stop the loop. On most operating systems, you can do this with `C-g', which causes quit. This works if you are not using X windows, and on Berkeley systems even if you are using X windows. On other inferior operating systems, `C-g' does not work when using X windows. This is because these systems do not allow Emacs to request a signal when input arrives from the X server. There is nothing Emacs can do about this. However, you can still stop a loop by sending Emacs the `SIGINT' signal. To do this, go to a shell in another window, use `ps' to find out the PID of the Emacs process, and then type `kill -INT PID'. Ordinary quitting gives no information about why the program was looping. To get more information, you can set the variable `debug-on-quit' to non-`nil'. Quitting with `C-g' is not considered an error, and `debug-on-error' has no effect on the handling of `C-g'. `debug-on-quit' has no effect on errors. Once you have the debugger running in the middle of the infinite loop, you can proceed from the debugger using the stepping commands. If you step through the entire loop, you will probably get enough information to solve the problem. -- User Option: debug-on-quit This variable determines whether the debugger is called when `quit' is signaled and not handled. If `debug-on-quit' is non-`nil', then the debugger is called whenever you quit (that is, type `C-g'). If `debug-on-quit' is `nil', then the debugger is not called when you quit. *Note Quitting::. File: elisp, Node: Function Debugging, Next: Explicit Debug, Prev: Infinite Loops, Up: Debugger Entering the Debugger when Some Function is Called -------------------------------------------------- To investigate a problem that happens in the middle of a program, one useful technique is to cause the debugger to be entered when a certain function is called. You can do this to the function in which the problem occurs, and then step through the function, or you can do this to a function called shortly before the problem, step quickly over the call to that function, and then step through its caller. -- Command: debug-on-entry FUNCTION-NAME This function requests FUNCTION-NAME to invoke the debugger each time it is called. It works by inserting the form `(debug 'debug)' into the function definition as the first form. Any function defined as Lisp code may be set to break on entry, regardless of whether it is interpreted code or compiled code. Even functions that are commands may be debugged--they will enter the debugger when called inside a function, or when called interactively. Primitive functions (i.e., those written in C) may not be debugged. When `debug-on-entry' is called interactively, it prompts for FUNCTION-NAME in the minibuffer. If `debug-on-entry' is called more than once on the same function, the second call does nothing. `debug-on-entry' returns FUNCTION-NAME. (defun fact (n) (if (zerop n) 1 (* n (fact (1- n))))) => fact (debug-on-entry 'fact) => fact (fact 3) => 6 ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ---------- Entering: * fact(3) eval-region(4870 4878 t) byte-code("...") eval-last-sexp(nil) (let ...) eval-insert-last-sexp(nil) * call-interactively(eval-insert-last-sexp) ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ---------- (symbol-function 'fact) => (lambda (n) (debug (quote debug)) (if (zerop n) 1 (* n (fact (1- n))))) -- Command: cancel-debug-on-entry FUNCTION-NAME This function undoes the effect of `debug-on-entry' on FUNCTION-NAME. When called interactively, it prompts for FUNCTION-NAME in the minibuffer. If `cancel-debug-on-entry' is called more than once on the same function, the second call does nothing. `cancel-debug-on-entry' returns FUNCTION-NAME. File: elisp, Node: Explicit Debug, Next: Using Debugger, Prev: Function Debugging, Up: Debugger Explicit Entry to the Debugger ------------------------------ You can cause the debugger to be called at a certain point in your program by writing the expression `(debug)' at that point. To do this, visit the source file, insert the text `(debug)' at the proper place, and type `C-M-x'. Be sure to undo this insertion before you save the file! The place where you insert `(debug)' must be a place where an additional form can be evaluated and its value ignored. (If the value isn't ignored, it will alter the execution of the program!) Usually this means inside a `progn' or an implicit `progn' (*note Sequencing::.). File: elisp, Node: Using Debugger, Next: Debugger Commands, Prev: Explicit Debug, Up: Debugger Using the Debugger ------------------ When the debugger is entered, it displays the previously selected buffer in one window and a buffer named `*Backtrace*' in another window. The backtrace buffer contains one line for each level of Lisp function execution currently going on. At the beginning of this buffer is a message describing the reason that the debugger was invoked (such as the error message and associated data, if it was invoked due to an error). The backtrace buffer is read-only and uses a special major mode, Debugger mode, in which letters are defined as debugger commands. The usual Emacs editing commands are available; thus, you can switch windows to examine the buffer that was being edited at the time of the error, switch buffers, visit files, or do any other sort of editing. However, the debugger is a recursive editing level (*note Recursive Editing::.) and it is wise to go back to the backtrace buffer and exit the debugger (with the `q' command) when you you are finished with it. Exiting the debugger gets out of the recursive edit and kills the backtrace buffer. The contents of the backtrace buffer show you the functions that are executing and the arguments that were given to them. It also allows you to specify a stack frame by moving point to the line describing that frame. (A stack frame is the place where the Lisp interpreter records information about a particular invocation of a function. The frame whose line point is on is considered the "current frame".) Some of the debugger commands operate on the current frame. The debugger itself should always be run byte-compiled, since it makes assumptions about how many stack frames are used for the debugger itself. These assumptions are false if the debugger is running interpreted. File: elisp, Node: Debugger Commands, Next: Invoking the Debugger, Prev: Using Debugger, Up: Debugger Debugger Commands ----------------- Inside the debugger (in Debugger mode), these special commands are available in addition to the usual cursor motion commands. (Keep in mind that all the usual facilities of Emacs, such as switching windows or buffers, are still available.) The most important use of debugger commands is for stepping through code, so that you can see how control flows. The debugger can step through the control structures of an interpreted function, but cannot do so in a byte-compiled function. If you would like to step through a byte-compiled function, replace it with an interpreted definition of the same function. (To do this, visit the source file for the function and type `C-M-x' on its definition.) Exit the debugger and continue execution. When continuing is possible, it resumes execution of the program as if the debugger had never been entered (aside from the effect of any variables or data structures you may have changed while inside the debugger). Continuing is possible after entry to the debugger due to function entry or exit, explicit invocation, quitting or certain errors. Most errors cannot be continued; trying to continue an unsuitable error causes the same error to occur again. Continue execution, but enter the debugger the next time any Lisp function is called. This allows you to step through the subexpressions of an expression, seeing what values the subexpressions compute, and what else they do. The stack frame made for the function call which enters the debugger in this way will be flagged automatically so that the debugger will be called again when the frame is exited. You can use the `u' command to cancel this flag. Flag the current frame so that the debugger will be entered when the frame is exited. Frames flagged in this way are marked with stars in the backtrace buffer. Don't enter the debugger when the current frame is exited. This cancels a `b' command on that frame. Read a Lisp expression in the minibuffer, evaluate it, and print the value in the echo area. This is the same as the command `M-ESC', except that `e' is not normally disabled like `M-ESC'. Terminate the program being debugged; return to top-level Emacs command execution. If the debugger was entered due to a `C-g' but you really want to quit, and not debug, use the `q' command. Return a value from the debugger. The value is computed by reading an expression with the minibuffer and evaluating it. The `r' command makes a difference when the debugger was invoked due to exit from a Lisp call frame (as requested with `b'); then the value specified in the `r' command is used as the value of that frame. The `r' also matters in certain cases of errors. For example, `wrong-type-argument' errors will use the debugger's return value instead of the invalid argument; `no-catch' errors will use the debugger value as a throw tag instead of the tag that was not found. If an error was signaled by calling the Lisp function `signal', the debugger's return value is returned as the value of `signal'. File: elisp, Node: Invoking the Debugger, Next: Internals of Debugger, Prev: Debugger Commands, Up: Debugger Invoking the Debugger --------------------- Here we describe fully the function used to invoke the debugger. -- Function: debug &rest DEBUGGER-ARGS This function enters the debugger. It switches buffers to a buffer named `*Backtrace*' (or `*Backtrace*<2>' if it is the second recursive entry to the debugger, etc.), and fills it with information about the stack of Lisp function calls. It then enters a recursive edit, leaving that buffer in Debugger mode and displayed in the selected window. Debugger mode provides a `c' command which operates by exiting the recursive edit, switching back to the previous buffer, and returning to whatever called `debug'. The `r' command also returns from `debug'. These are the only ways the function `debug' can return to its caller. If the first of the DEBUGGER-ARGS passed to `debug' is `nil' (or if it is not one of the following special values), then the rest of the arguments to `debug' are printed at the top of the `*Backtrace*' buffer. This mechanism is used to display a message to the user. However, if the first argument passed to `debug' is one of the following special values, then it has special significance. Normally, these values are passed to `debug' only by the internals of Emacs and the debugger, and not by programmers calling `debug'. The special values are: `lambda' When the first argument is `lambda', the debugger displays `Entering:' as a line of text at the top of the buffer. This means that a function is being entered when `debug-on-next-call' is non-`nil'. `debug' When the first argument is `debug', the debugger displays `Entering:' just as in the `lambda' case. However, `debug' as the argument indicates that the reason for entering the debugger is that a function set to debug on entry is being entered. In addition, `debug' as the first argument directs the debugger to mark the function that called `debug' so that it will invoke the debugger when exited. (When `lambda' is the first argument, the debugger does not do this, because it has already been done by the interpreter.) `t' When the first argument is `t', the debugger displays `Beginning evaluation of function call form:' as the top line in the buffer, to indicate that it was entered due to the evaluation of a list form at a time when `debug-on-next-call' is non-`nil'. `exit' When the first argument is `exit', it indicates the exit of a stack frame previously marked to invoke the debugger on exit. The debugger displays `Return value:' on the top line of the buffer, followed by the value being returned from the frame. `error' When the first argument is `error', the debugger indicates that it is being entered because an error or `quit' was signaled and not handled, by displaying `Signaling:' followed by the error signaled and any arguments to `signal'. For example, (let ((debug-on-error t)) (/ 1 0)) ---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ---------- Signaling: (arith-error) /(1 0) ... If an error was signaled, presumably the variable `debug-on-error' is non-`nil'. If `quit' was signaled, then presumably the variable `debug-on-quit' is non-`nil'. `nil' Use `nil' as the first of the DEBUGGER-ARGS when you want to enter the debugger explicitly. The rest of the DEBUGGER-ARGS are printed on the top line of the buffer. You can use this feature to display messages--for example, to remind yourself of the conditions under which `debug' is called. File: elisp, Node: Internals of Debugger, Prev: Invoking the Debugger, Up: Debugger Internals of the Debugger ------------------------- This section describes functions and variables used internally by the debugger. -- Variable: debugger The value of this variable is the function to call to invoke the debugger. Its value must be a function of any number of arguments (or, more typically, the name of a function). Presumably this function will enter some kind of debugger. The default value of the variable is `debug'. The first argument that Lisp hands to the function indicates why it was called. The convention for arguments is detailed in the description of `debug'. -- Command: backtrace This function prints a trace of Lisp function calls currently active. This is the function used by `debug' to fill up the `*Backtrace*' buffer. It is written in C, since it must have access to the stack to determine which function calls are active. The return value is always `nil'. In the following example, `backtrace' is called explicitly in a Lisp expression. When the expression is evaluated, the backtrace is printed to the stream `standard-output': in this case, to the buffer `backtrace-output'. Each line of the backtrace represents one function call. If the arguments of the function call are all known, they are displayed; if they are being computed, that fact is stated. The arguments of special forms are elided. (with-output-to-temp-buffer "backtrace-output" (let ((var 1)) (save-excursion (setq var (eval '(progn (1+ var) (list 'testing (backtrace)))))))) => nil ----------- Buffer: backtrace-output ------------ backtrace() (list ...computing arguments...) (progn ...) eval((progn (1+ var) (list (quote testing) (backtrace)))) (setq ...) (save-excursion ...) (let ...) (with-output-to-temp-buffer ...) eval-region(1973 2142 #<buffer *scratch*>) byte-code("... for eval-print-last-sexp ...") eval-print-last-sexp(nil) * call-interactively(eval-print-last-sexp) ----------- Buffer: backtrace-output ------------ -- User Option: stack-trace-on-error This variable controls whether Lisp automatically displays a backtrace buffer after every error that is not handled. A quit signal counts as an error for this variable. If it is non-`nil' then a backtrace is shown in a pop-up buffer named `*Backtrace*' on every error. If it is `nil', then a backtrace is not shown. When a backtrace is shown, that buffer is not selected. If either `debug-on-quit' or `debug-on-error' is also non-`nil', then a backtrace is shown in one buffer, and the debugger is popped up in another buffer with its own backtrace. We consider this feature to be obsolete and superseded by the debugger itself. -- Variable: debug-on-next-call This variable determines whether the debugger is called before the next `eval', `apply' or `funcall'. It is automatically reset to `nil' when the debugger is entered. The `d' command in the debugger works by setting this variable. -- Function: backtrace-debug LEVEL FLAG This function sets the debug-on-exit flag of the eval frame LEVEL levels down to FLAG. If FLAG is non-`nil', this will cause the debugger to be entered when that frame exits. The debug-on-exit flag is an entry in the stack frame of a function call. This flag is examined on every exit from a function. Normally, this function is only called by the debugger. File: elisp, Node: Syntax Errors, Next: Compilation Errors, Prev: Debugger, Up: Debugging Debugging Invalid Lisp Syntax ============================= It is easy to make a syntax error in an Emacs Lisp program by omitting a parenthesis. The Lisp reader will detect an error, but cannot say where the real problem is. For example, if a close parenthesis is omitted, the reader will detect an imbalance at the end of the file, but it cannot tell anything about where the close parenthesis should have been. However, you can use the following techniques to figure out where. If the problem is not simply an imbalance of parentheses, a useful technique is to try `C-M-e' at the beginning of each defun, and see if it goes to the place where that defun appears to end. If it does not, there is a problem in that defun. However, unmatched parentheses are the most common syntax errors in Lisp, and we can give further advice for those cases. * Menu: * Excess Open:: How to find a spurious open paren or missing close. * Excess Close:: How to find a spurious close paren or missing open. File: elisp, Node: Excess Open, Next: Excess Close, Prev: Syntax Errors, Up: Syntax Errors Excess Open Parentheses ----------------------- The first step is to find the defun that is unbalanced. If there is an excess open parenthesis, the way to do this is to insert a close parenthesis at the end of the file and type `C-M-b' (`backward-sexp'). This will move you to the beginning of the defun that is unbalanced. (Then type `C-SPC C-_ C-u C-SPC' to set the mark there, undo the insertion of the close parenthesis, and finally return to the mark.) The next step is to determine precisely what is wrong. There is no way to be sure of this except to study the program, but often the existing indentation is a clue to where the parentheses should have been. The easiest way to use this clue is to reindent with `C-M-q' and see what moves. Before you do this, make sure the defun has enough close parentheses. Otherwise, `C-M-q' will get an error, or will reindent all the rest of the file until the end. So move to the end of the defun and insert a close parenthesis there. Don't use `C-M-e' to move there, since that too will fail to work until the defun is balanced. Then go to the beginning of the defun and type `C-M-q'. Usually all the lines from a certain point to the end of the function will shift to the right. There is probably a missing close parenthesis, or a superfluous open parenthesis, near that point. (However, don't assume this is true; study the code to make sure.) Once you have found the discrepancy, undo the `C-M-q', since the old indentation is probably appropriate to the intended parentheses. After you think you have fixed the problem, use `C-M-q' again. It should not change anything, if the problem is really fixed. File: elisp, Node: Excess Close, Prev: Excess Open, Up: Syntax Errors Excess Close Parentheses ------------------------ To deal with an excess close parenthesis, first insert an open parenthesis at the beginning of the file and type `C-M-f' to find the end of the unbalanced defun. (Then type `C-SPC C-_ C-u C-SPC' to set the mark there, undo the insertion of the open parenthesis, and finally return to the mark.) Then find the actual matching close parenthesis by typing `C-M-f' at the beginning of the defun. This will leave you somewhere short of the place where the defun ought to end. It is possible that you will find a spurious close parenthesis in that vicinity. If you don't see a problem at that point, the next thing to do is to type `C-M-q' at the beginning of the defun. A range of lines will probably shift left; if so, the missing open parenthesis or spurious close parenthesis is probably near the first of those lines. (However, don't assume this is true; study the code to make sure.) Once you have found the discrepancy, undo the `C-M-q', since the old indentation is probably appropriate to the intended parentheses. File: elisp, Node: Compilation Errors, Prev: Syntax Errors, Up: Debugging Debugging Problems in Compilation ================================= When an error happens during byte compilation, it is normally due to an error in the program you are compiling. The compiler itself can't tell you where in the file the error occurred, so here is how to find What you should do is switch to the buffer ` *Compiler Input*'. (Note that the buffer name starts with a space, so it will not show up in `M-x list-buffers'.) This buffer contains the program being compiled, and point shows how far the byte compiler was able to read. If the error was due to invalid Lisp syntax, point shows exactly where the invalid syntax was *detected*. The cause of the error is not necessarily near by! Use the techniques in the previous section to find the error. If the error was detected while compiling a form that had been read successfully, then point is located at the end of the form. In this case, it can't localize the error precisely, but can still show you which function to check. File: elisp, Node: Streams, Next: Minibuffers, Prev: Debugging, Up: Top Reading and Printing Lisp Objects ********************************* "Printing" and "reading" are the operations of converting Lisp objects to textual form and vice versa. They use the printed representations and read syntax described in *Note Types of Lisp Object::. This chapter describes the Lisp functions for reading and printing. It also describes "streams", which specify where to get the text (if reading) or where to put it (if printing). * Menu: * Streams Intro:: Overview of streams, reading and printing. * Input Streams:: Various data types that can be used as input streams. * Input Functions:: Functions to read Lisp objects from text. * Output Streams:: Various data types that can be used as input streams. * Output Functions:: Functions to print Lisp objects as text. File: elisp, Node: Streams Intro, Next: Input Streams, Prev: Streams, Up: Streams Introduction to Reading and Printing ==================================== "Reading" a Lisp object means parsing a Lisp expression in textual form and producing a corresponding Lisp object. This is how Lisp programs get into Lisp from files of Lisp code. We call the text the "read syntax" of the object. For example, reading the text `(a . 5)' returns a cons cell whose CAR is `a' and whose CDR is the number 5. "Printing" a Lisp object means producing text that represents that object--converting the object to its printed representation. Printing the cons cell described above produces the text `(a . 5)'. Reading and printing are usually inverse operations: printing the object that results from reading a given piece of text often produces the same text, and reading the text that results from printing an object usually produces a similar-looking object. For example, printing the symbol `foo' produces the text `foo', and reading that text returns the symbol `foo'. Printing a list whose elements are `a' and `b' produces the text `(a b)', and reading that text produces a list (but not the same list) with elements are `a' and `b'. However, these two operations are not precisely inverses. There are two kinds of exceptions: * Printing can produce text that cannot be read. For example, buffers, windows, subprocesses and markers print into text that starts with `#'; if you try to read this text, you get an error. There is no way to read those data types. * One object can have multiple textual representations. For example, `1' and `01' represent the same integer, and `(a b)' and `(a . (b))' represent the same list. Reading will accept any of the alternatives, but printing must choose one of them. File: elisp, Node: Input Streams, Next: Input Functions, Prev: Streams Intro, Up: Streams Input Streams ============= Most of the Lisp functions for reading text take an "input stream" as an argument. The input stream specifies where or how to get the characters of the text to be read. Here are the possible types of input stream: BUFFER The input characters are read from BUFFER, starting with the character directly after point. Point advances as characters are read. MARKER The input characters are read from the buffer that MARKER is in, starting with the character directly after the marker. The marker position advances as characters are read. The value of point in the buffer has no effect when the stream is a marker. STRING The input characters are taken from STRING, starting at the first character in the string and using as many characters as required. FUNCTION The input characters are generated by FUNCTION, one character per call. In version 18, FUNCTION is always called with no arguments and should return a character. `t' used as a stream means that the input is read from the minibuffer. In fact, the minibuffer is invoked once and the text given by the user is made into a string that is then used as the input stream. `nil' `nil' used as a stream means that the value of `standard-input' should be used instead; that value is the "default input stream", and must be a non-`nil' input stream. Here is an example of reading from a stream which is a buffer, showing where point is located before and after: ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- This-!- is the contents of foo. ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- (read (get-buffer "foo")) => is (read (get-buffer "foo")) => the ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- This is the -!-contents of foo. ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- Note that the first read skips a space at the beginning of the buffer. Reading skips any amount of whitespace preceding the significant text. Note also that the second read skips the space which terminates the symbol `the'. It has to read this space in order to know that no more letters follow. Here is an example of reading from a stream that is a marker, initialized to point at the beginning of the buffer shown. The value of the read is the symbol `This'. ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- This is the contents of foo. ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- (setq m (set-marker (make-marker) 1 (get-buffer "foo"))) => #<marker at 1 in foo> (read m) => This m => #<marker at 6 in foo> ;; After the first space. Here we read from the contents of a string: (read "(When in) the course") => (When in) The following example reads from the minibuffer, prompting with `Lisp expression: '. (That is always the prompt used when you read from the stream `t'.) The user's input is shown following the prompt. (read t) => 23 ---------- Buffer: Minibuffer ---------- Lisp expression: `23 RET' Finally, here is an example of a stream that is a function, named `useless-stream'. Before we use the stream, we initialize the variable `useless-list' to a list of characters. Then each call to the function `useless-stream' obtains the next letter in the list: (setq useless-list (append "XY()" nil)) => (88 89 40 41) (defun useless-stream () (prog1 (car useless-list) (setq useless-list (cdr useless-list)))) => useless-stream Now we read using the stream thus constructed: (read 'useless-stream) => XY useless-list => (41) Note that the close parenthesis remains in the list. This is because the open parenthesis was read before the Lisp reader knew it had found the end of the symbol. A second attempt to read from the stream at this point would get an error due to the unmatched close parenthesis. -- Function: get-file-char This function is used internally as an input stream to read from the input file opened by the function `load'. Don't use this function yourself. File: elisp, Node: Input Functions, Next: Output Streams, Prev: Input Streams, Up: Streams Input Functions =============== This section describes the Lisp functions and variables that pertain to reading. In the functions below, STREAM stands for an input stream (see the previous section). If STREAM is `nil' or omitted, it defaults to the value of `standard-input'. An `end-of-file' error will result if an unterminated list or vector is found. -- Function: read &optional STREAM This function reads one textual Lisp expression from STREAM, returning it as a Lisp object. This is the basic Lisp input function. -- Function: read-from-string STRING &optional START END This function reads the first textual Lisp expression from the text in STRING. It returns a cons cell whose CAR is that expression, and whose CDR is an integer giving the position of the next remaining character in the string (i.e., the first one not read). If START is supplied, then reading begins at index START in the string (where the first character is at index 0). If END is also supplied, then reading stops at that index as if the rest of the string were not there. For example: (read-from-string "(setq x 55) (setq y 5)") => ((setq x 55) . 11) (read-from-string "\"A short string\"") => ("A short string" . 16) ;; Read starting at the first character. (read-from-string "(list 112)" 0) => ((list 112) . 10) ;; Read starting at the second character. (read-from-string "(list 112)" 1) => (list . 6) ;; Read starting at the seventh character, and stopping at the ninth. (read-from-string "(list 112)" 6 8) => (11 . 8) -- Variable: standard-input This variable holds the default input stream: the stream that `read' uses when the STREAM argument is `nil'. File: elisp, Node: Output Streams, Next: Output Functions, Prev: Input Functions, Up: Streams Output Streams ============== An output stream specifies what to do with the characters produced by printing. Most print functions accept an output stream as an optional argument. Here are the possible types of output stream: BUFFER The output characters are inserted into BUFFER at point. Point advances as characters are inserted. MARKER The output characters are inserted into the buffer that MARKER is in at the marker position. The position advances as characters are inserted. The value of point in the buffer has no effect when the stream is a marker. FUNCTION The output characters are passed to FUNCTION, which is responsible for storing them away. It is called with a single character as argument, as many times as there are characters to be output, and is free to do anything at all with the characters it receives. The output characters are displayed in the echo area. `nil' `nil' specified as an output stream means that the value of `standard-output' should be used as the output stream; that value is the "default output stream", and must be a non-`nil' output stream. Here is an example of a buffer used as an output stream. Point is initially located as shown immediately before the `h' in `the'. At the end, point is located directly before that same `h'. ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- This is t-!-he contents of foo. ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- (print "This is the output" (get-buffer "foo")) => "This is the output" ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- This is t "This is the output" -!-he contents of foo. ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- Now we show a use of a marker as an output stream. Initially, the marker points in buffer `foo', between the `t' and the `h' in the word `the'. At the end, the marker has been advanced over the inserted text so that it still points before the same `h'. Note that the location of point, shown in the usual fashion, has no effect. ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- "This is the -!-output" ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- m => #<marker at 11 in foo> (print "More output for foo." marker) => "More output for foo." ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- "This is t "More output for foo." he -!-output" ---------- Buffer: foo ---------- m => #<marker at 35 in foo> The following example shows output to the echo area: (print "Echo Area output" t) => "Echo Area output" ---------- Echo Area ---------- "Echo Area output" ---------- Echo Area ---------- Finally, we show an output stream which is a function. The function `eat-output' takes each character that it is given and conses it onto the front of the list `last-output' (*note Building Lists::.). At the end, the list contains all the characters output, but in reverse order. (setq last-output nil) => nil (defun eat-output (c) (setq last-output (cons c last-output))) => eat-output (print "This is the output" 'eat-output) => "This is the output" last-output => (10 34 116 117 112 116 117 111 32 101 104 116 32 115 105 32 115 105 104 84 34 10) Now we can put the output in the proper order by reversing the list: (concat (nreverse last-output)) => " \"This is the output\" "