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All drawings appearing in this Recommendation have been done in Autocad.
Recommendation E.5071)
MODELS FOR FORECASTING INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC
1 Introduction
Econometric and time series model development and forecasting requires
familiarity with methods and techniques to deal with a range of different
situations. Thus, the purpose of this Recommendation is to present some of the
basic ideas and leave the explanation of the details to the publications cited in
the reference list. As such, this Recommendation is not intended to be a complete
guide to econometric and time series modelling and forecasting.
The Recommendation also gives guidelines for building various forecasting
models: identification of the model, inclusion of explanatory variables,
adjustment for irregularities, estimation of parameters, diagnostic checks, etc.
In addition the Recommendation describes various methods for evaluation of
forecasting models and choice of model.
2 Building the forecasting model
This procedure can conveniently be described as four consecutive steps.
The first step consists in finding a useful class of models to describe the
actual situation. Examples of such classes are simple models, smoothing models,
autoregressive models, autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models or
econometric models. Before choosing the class of models, the influence of
external variables should be analyzed. If special external variables have
significant impact on the traffic demand, one ought to include them in the
forecasting models, provided enough historical data are available.
The next step is to identify one tentative model in the class of models
which have been chosen. If the class is too extensive to be conveniently fitted
directly to data, rough methods for identifying subclasses can be used. Such
methods of model identification employ data and knowledge of the system to
suggest an appropriate parsimonious subclass of models. The identification
procedure may also, in some occasions, be used to yield rough preliminary
estimates of the parameters in the model. Then the tentative model is fitted to
data by estimating the parameters. Usually, maximum likelihood estimators or
least square estimators are used.
The next step is to check the model. This procedure is often called
diagnostic checking. The object is to find out how well the model fits the data
and, in case the discrepancy is judged to be too severe, to indicate possible
remedies. The outcome of this step may thus be acceptance of the model if the fit
is acceptable. If on the other hand it is inadequate, it is an indication that
new tentative models may in turn be estimated and subjected to diagnostic
checking.
In Figure 1/E.507 the steps in the model building procedure are
illustrated.
Figure 1/E.507 - CCITT 64250
3 Various forecasting models
The objective of S 3 is to give a brief overview of the most important
forecasting models. In the GAS 10 Manual on planning data and forecasting methods
[5], a more detailed description of the models is given.
3.1 Curve fitting models
In curve fitting models the traffic trend is extrapolated by calculating
the values of the parameters of some function that is expected to characterize
the growth of international traffic over time. The numerical calculations of some
curve fitting models can be performed by using the least squares method.
The following are examples of common curve fitting models used for
forecasting international traffic:
Linear: Yt = a + bt
(3-1)
Parabolic: Yt = a + bt + ct2
(3-2)
Exponential: Yt = aebt
(3-3)
Logistic: Yt = eq \f( M,1 + aebt) (3-4)
1) The old Recommendation E.506 which appeared in the Red Book was split into two
Recommendations, revised E.506 and new E.507, and considerable new material was added
to both.
Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507 PAGE1
Gompertz: Yt = M(a)bt (3-5)
where
Yt is the traffic at time t,
a, b, c are parameters,
M is a parameter describing the saturation level.
The various trend curves are shown in Figures 2/E.507 and 3/E.507.
The logistic and Gompertz curves differ from the linear, parabolic and
exponential curves by having saturation or ceiling level. For further study see
[10].
FIGURE 2/E.507 - T0200660-87
FIGURE 3/E.507 - T0200670-87
3.2 Smoothing models
By using a smooth process in curve fitting, it is possible to calculate
the parameters of the models to fit current data very well but not necessarily
the data obtained from the distant past.
The best known smoothing process is that of the moving average. The degree
of smoothing is controlled by the number of most recent observations included in
the average. All observations included in the average have the same weight.
In addition to moving average models, there exists another group of
smoothing models based on weighting the observations. The most common models are:
- simple exponential smoothing,
- double exponential smoothing,
- discounted regression,
- Holt's method, and
- Holt-Winters' seasonal models.
For example, in the method of exponential smoothing the weight given to
previous observations decreases geometrically with age according to the following
equation:
eq \o(\s\up4(^),mt) = (1 - a)Yt + aeq \o(\s\up4(^),m)t-1 (3-6)
where:
Yt is the measured traffic at time t,
mt is the estimated level at time t, and
a is the discount factor [and (1 - a) is the smoothing parameter].
The impact of past observations on the forecasts is controlled by the
magnitude of the discount factor.
Use of smoothing models is especially appropriate for short-term
forecasts. For further studies see [1], [5] and [9].
3.3 Autoregressive models
If the traffic demand, Xt, at time t can be expressed as a linear
combination of earlier equidistant observations of the past traffic demand, the
process is an autoregressive process. Then the model is defined by the
expression:
Xt = F1Xt-1 + F2Xt-2 + . . . + FpXt-p + at (3-7)
where
at is white noise at time t;
Fk, k = 1, . . . p are the autoregressive parameters.
The model is denoted by AR(p) since the order of the model is p.
By use of regression analysis the estimates of the parameters can be
found. Because of common trends the exogenous variables (Xt-1, Xt-2, . . . Xt-p)
usually strongly correlated. Hence the parameter estimates will be correlated.
Furthermore, significance tests of the estimates are somewhat difficult to
perform.
Another possibility is to compute the empirical autocorrelation
coefficients and then use the Yule-Walker equations to estimate the parameters
[Fk]. This procedure can be performed when the time series [Xt] are stationary.
If, on the other hand, the time series are non stationary, the series can often
be transformed to stationarity e.g., by differencing the series. The estimation
procedure is given in Annex A, S A.1.
3.4 Autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models
An extention of the class of autoregressive models which include the
moving average models is called autoregressive moving average models (ARMA
models). A moving average model of order q is given by:
Xt = at - q1at-1 - q2at-2 . . . - qqat-q (3-8)
PAGE20 Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507
where
at is white noise at time t;
[qk] are the moving average parameters.
Assuming that the white noise term in the autoregressive
models in S 3.3 is described by a moving average model, one obtains
the so-called ARMA (p, q) model:
Xt = F1Xt-1 + F2Xt-2 + . . . + FpXt-p + at - q1at-1 - q2at-2 . . . - qqat-q(3-
9)
The ARMA model describes a stationary time series. If the time series is
non-stationary, it is necessary to difference the series. This is done as follow:
Let Yt be the time series and B the backwards shift operator, then
Xt = (1 - B)dYt (3-10)
where
d is the number of differences to have stationarity.
The new model ARIMA (p, d, q) is found by inserting equation (3-10) into
equation (3-9).
The method for analyzing such time series was developed by G. E. P. Box
and G. M. Jenkins [3]. To analyze and forecast such time series it is usually
necessary to use a time series program package.
As indicated in Figure 1/E.507 a tentative model is identified. This is
carried out by determination of necessary transformations and number of
autoregressive and moving average parameters. The identification is based on the
structure of the autocorrelations and partial autocorrelations.
The next step as indicated in Figure 1/E.507 is the estimation procedure.
The maximum likelihood estimates are used. Unfortunately, it is difficult to find
these estimates because of the necessity to solve a nonlinear system of
equations. For practical purposes, a computer program is necessary for these
calculations. The forecasting model is based on equation (3-9) and the process of
making forecasts l time units ahead is shown in S A.2.
The forecasting models described so far are univariate forecasting models.
It is also possible to introduce explanatory variables. In this case the system
will be described by a transfer function model. The methods for analyzing the
time series in a transfer function model are rather similar to the methods
described above.
Detailed descriptions of ARIMA models are given in [1], [2], [3], [5],
[11], [15] and [17].
3.5 State space models with Kalman Filtering
State space models are a way to represent discrete-time process by means
of difference equations. The state space modelling approach allows the conversion
of any general linear model into a form suitable for recursive estimation and
forecasting. A more detailed description of ARIMA state space models can be found
in [1].
For a stochastic process such a representation may be of the following
form:
Xt+1 = FXt + Zt + wt (3-11)
and
Yt = HXt + nt (3-12)
where
Xt is an s-vector of state variables in period t,
Zt is an s-vector of deterministic events,
F is an sxs transition matrix that may, in general, depend on t,
wt is an s-vector of random modelling errors,
Yt is a d-vector of measurements in period t,
H is a dxs matrix called the observation matrix, and
nt is a d-vector of measurement errors.
Both wt in equation (3-11) and nt in equation (3-12) are additive random
sequences with known statistics. The expected value of each sequence is the zero
vector and wt and nt satisfy the conditions:
E eq \b\bc\[(wtw\s(T,j)) = Qt dtj for all t, j, (3-13)
E eq \b\bc\[(ntn\s(T,j)) = Rt dtj for all t, j,
where
Qt and Rt are nonnegative definite matrices,2)
and
dtj is the Kronecker delta.
2) A matrix A is nonnegative definite, if and only if, for all vectors z, zTAz │ 0.
Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507 PAGE1
Qt is the covariance matrix of the modelling errors and Rt is the covariance
matrix of the measurement errors; the wt and the nt are assumed to be
uncorrelated and are referred to as white noise. In other words:
E eq \b\bc\[(nt w\s(T,j)) = 0 for all t, j, (3-14)
and
E eq \b\bc\[(nt X\s(T,0)) = 0 for all t. (3-15)
Under the assumptions formulated above, determine Xt,t such that:
eq E \b\bc\[((Xt,t - Xt)T(Xt,t - Xt)) = minimum, (3-16)
where
Xt,t is an estimate of the state vector at time t, and
Xt is the vector of true state variables.
The Kalman Filtering technique allows the estimation of state variables
recursively for on-line applications. This is done in the following manner.
Assuming that there is no explanatory variable Zt, once a new data point becomes
available it is used to update the model:
Xt,t = Xt,t-1 + Kt(Yt - HXt,t-1) (3-17)
where
Kt is the Kalman Gain matrix that can be computed recursively [18].
Intuitively, the gain matrix determines how much relative weight will be
given to the last observed forecast error to correct it. To create a k-step ahead
projection the following formula is used:
Xt+k,t = FkXt,t (3-18)
where
Xt+k,t is an estimate of Xt+k given observations Y1, Y2, . . ., Yt.
Equations (3-17) and (3-18) show that the Kalman Filtering technique leads
to a convenient forecasting procedure that is recursive in nature and provides an
unbiased, minimum variance estimate of the discrete time process of interest.
For further studies see [4], [5], [16], [18], [19] and [22].
The Kalman Filtering works well when the data under examination are
seasonal. The seasonal traffic load data can be represented by a periodic time
series. In this way, a seasonal Kalman Filter can be obtained by superimposing a
linear growth model with a seasonal model. For further discussion of seasonal
Kalman Filter techniques see [6] and [20].
3.6 Regression models
The equations (3-1) and (3-2) are typical regression models. In the
equations the traffic, Yt, is the dependent (or explanatory) variable, while time
t is the independent variable.
A regression model describes a linear relation between the dependent and
the independent variables. Given certain assumptions ordinary least squares (OLS)
can be used to estimate the parameters.
A model with several independent variables is called a multiple regression
model. The model is given by:
Yt = ▀0 + ▀1X1t + ▀2X2t + . . . + ▀kXkt + ut (3-19)
where
Yt is the traffic at time t,
▀i, i = 0, 1, . . ., k are the parameters,
Xit, ie = 1, 2, . . ., k is the value of the independent variables at time
t,
ut is the error term at time t.
Independent or explanatory variables which can be used in the regression
model are, for instance, tariffs, exports, imports, degree of automation. Other
explanatory variables are given in S 2 "Base data for forecasting" in
Recommendation E.506.
Detailed descriptions of regression models are given in [1], [5], [7],
[15] and [23].
3.7 Econometric models
Econometric models involve equations which relate a variable which we wish
to forecast (the dependent or endogenous variable) to a number of socio-economic
variables (called independent or explanatory variables). The form of the
equations should reflect an expected casual relationship between the variables.
Given an assumed model form, historical or cross sectional data are used to
estimate coefficients in the equation. Assuming the model remains valid over
time, estimates of future values of the independent variables can be used to give
forecasts of the variables of interest. An example of a typical econometric model
is given in Annex C.
PAGE20 Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507
There is a wide spectrum of possible models and a number of methods of
estimating the coefficients (e.g., least squares, varying parameter methods,
nonlinear regression, etc.). In many respects the family of econometric models
available is far more flexible than other models. For example, lagged effects can
be incorporated, observations weighted, ARIMA residual models subsumed,
information from separate sections pooled and parameters allowed to vary in
econometric models, to mention a few.
One of the major benefits of building an econometric model to be used in
forecasting is that the structure or the process that generates the data must be
properly identified and appropriate causal paths must be determined. Explicit
structure identification makes the source of errors in the forecast easier to
identify in econometric models than in other types of models.
Changes in structures can be detected through the use of econometric
models and outliers in the historical data are easily eliminated or their
influence properly weighted. Also, changes in the factors affecting the variables
in question can easily be incorporated in the forecast generated from an
econometric model.
Often, fairly reliable econometric models may be constructed with less
observations than that required for time series models. In the case of pooled
regression models, just a few observations for several cross-sections are
sufficient to support a model used for predictions.
However, care must be taken in estimating the model to satisfy the
underlying assumptions of the techniques which are described in many of the
reference works listed at the end of this Recommendation. For example the number
of independent variables which can be used is limited by the amount of data
available to estimate the model. Also, independent variables which are correlated
to one another should be avoided. Sometimes correlation between the variables can
be avoided by using differenced or detrended data or by transformation of the
variables. For further studies see [8], [12], [13], [14] and [21].
4 Discontinuities in traffic growth
4.1 Examples of discontinuities
It may be difficult to assess in advance the magnitude of a discontinuity.
Often the influence of the factors which cause discontinuties is spread over a
transitional period, and the discontinuity is not so obvious. Furthermore,
discontinuities arising, for example, from the introduction of international
subscriber dialling are difficult to identify accurately, because changes in the
method of working are usually associated with other changes (e.g. tariff
reductions).
An illustration of the bearing of discontinuities on traffic growth can be
observed in the graph of Figure 4/E.507.
Discontinuities representing the doubling - and even more - of traffic
flow are known. It may also be noted that changes could occur in the growth trend
after discontinuities.
In short-term forecasts it may be desirable to use the trend of the
traffic between discontinuities, but for long-term forecasts it may be desirable
to use a trend estimate which is based on long-term observations, including
previous discontinuities.
In addition to random fluctuations due to unpredictable traffic surges,
faults, etc., traffic measurements are also subject to systematic fluctuations,
due to daily or weekly traffic flow cycles, influence of time differences, etc.
4.2 Introduction of explanatory variables
Identification of e y variables for an
econometric model is probably the most difficult aspect of
econometric model building. The explanatory variables used in an
econometric model identify the main sources of influence on the
variable one is concerned with. A list of explanatory variables is
given in Recommendation E.506, S 2.
Figure 4/E.507 - CCITT 34721
Economic theory is the starting point for variable selection. More
specifically, demand theory provides the basic framework for building the general
model. However, the description of the structure or the process generating the
data often dictate what variables enter the set of explanatory variables. For
instance, technological relationships may need to be incorporated in the model in
order to appropriately define the structure.
Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507 PAGE1
Although there are some criteria used in selecting explanatory variables
[e.g., eq \x\to(R)2, Durbin-Watson (D-W) statistic, root mean square error
(RMSE), ex-post forecast performance, explained in the references], statistical
problems and/or availability of data (either historical or forecasted) limit the
set of potential explanatory variables and one often has to revert to proxy
variables. Unlike pure statistical models, econometric models admit explanatory
variables, not on the basis of statistical criteria alone but, also, on the
premise that causality is, indeed, present.
A completely specified econometric model will capture turning points.
Discontinuities in the dependent variable will not be present unless the
parameters of the model change drastically in a very short time period.
Discontinuities in the growth of telephone traffic are indications that the
underlying market or technological structure have undergone large changes.
Sustained changes in the growth of telephone demand can either be captured
through varying parameter regression or through the introduction of a variable
that appears to explain the discontinuity (e.g., the introduction of an
advertising variable if advertising is judged to be the cause of the structural
change). Once-and-for-all, or step-wise discontinuities, cannot be handled by the
introduction of explanatory changes: dummy variables can resolve this problem.
4.3 Introduction of dummy variables
In econometric models, qualitative variables are often relevant; to
mea impact of qualitative variables, dummy
variables are used. The dummy variable technique uses the value 1
for the presence of the qualitative attribute that has an impact on
the dependent variable and 0 for the absence of the given
attribute.
Thus, dummy variables are appropriate to use in
the case where a discontinuity in the dependent variable has taken
place. A dummy variable, for example, would take the value of zero
during the historical period when calls were operator handled and
one for the period for which direct dial service is available.
Dummy variables are often used to capture seasonal effects in
the dependent variable or when one needs to eliminate the effect of
an outlier on the parameters of a model, such as a large jump in
telephone demand due to a postal strike or a sharp decline due to
facility outages associated with severe weather conditions.
Indiscriminate use of dummy variables should be discouraged
for two reasons:
1) dummy variables tend to absorb all the explanatory power during
discontinuties, and
2) they result in a reduction in the degrees of freedom.
5 Assessing model specification
5.1 General
In this section methods for testing the significance of the parameters and
also methods for calculating confidence intervals are presented for some of the
forecasting models given in S 3. In particular the methods relating to regression
analysis and time series analysis will be discussed.
All econometric forecasting models presented here are described as
regression models. Also the curve fitting models given in S 3.1 can be described
as regression models.
An exponential model given by
Zt = aebt . ut (5-1)
may be transformed to a linear form
ln Zt = ln a + bt + ln ut (5-2)
or
Yt = ▀0 + ▀1Xt + at (5-3)
where
Yt = ln Zt
▀0 = ln a
▀1 = b
Xt = t
at = ln ut (white noise).
5.2 Autocorrelation
A good forecasting model should lead to small autocorrelated residuals. If
the residuals are significantly correlated, the estimated parameters and also the
PAGE20 Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507
forecasts may be poor. To check whether the errors are correlated, the
autocorrelation function rk, k = 1, 2, . . . is calculated. rk is the estimated
autocorrelation of residuals at lag k. A way to detect autocorrelation among the
residuals is to plot the autocorrelation function and to perform a Durbin-Watson
test. The Durbin-Watson statistic is:
D-W = eq \f(\i\su(t=2,N, ) (et - et-1)2,\i\su(t=1,N, ) e\s(t2)) (5-4)
where
et is the estimated residual at time t,
N is the number of observations.
5.3 Test of significance of the parameters
One way to evaluate the forecasting model is to analyse the impact of
different exogenous variables. After estimating the parameters in the regression
model, the significance of the parameters has to be tested.
In the example of an econometric model in Annex C, the estimated values of
the parameters are given. Below these values the estimated standard deviation is
given in parentheses. As a rule of thumb, the parameters are considered as
significant if the absolute value of the estimates exceeds twice the estimated
standard deviation. A more accurate way of testing the significance of the
parameters is to take into account the distributions of their estimators.
The e correlation coefficient (or
coefficient of determination) may be used
as a criterion for the fitting of the equation.
The multiple correlation coefficient, R2, is given by:
eq R2 = \f(\i\su(i=1,N, )(\o(\s\up4(^),Yj) - \x\to(Y))2,\i\su(i=1,N,
)(Yi - \x\to(Y))2) (5-5)
If the multiple correlation coefficient is close to 1 the fitting is
satisfactory. However, a high R2 does not imply an accurate forecast.
In time series analysis, the discussion of the model is carried out in
another way. As pointed out in S 3.4, the number of autoregressive and moving
average parameters in an ARIMA model is determined by an identification procedure
based on the structure of the autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation
function.
The estimation of the parameters and their standard deviations is
performed by an iterative nonlinear estimation procedure. Hence, by using a time
series analysis computer program, the estimates of the parameters can be
evaluated by studying the estimated standard deviations in the same way as in
regression analysis.
An overall test of the fitting is based on the statistic
QN-d = eq \i\su(i=1,N, ) ri2 (5-6)
where ri is the estimated autocorrelation at lag i and d is the number of
parameters in the model. Wh n the model is adequate, QN-d is approximately
chi-square distributed with N - d degrees of freedom. To test the fitting, the
value QN-d can be compared with fractiles of the chi-square distribution.
5.4 Validity of exogenous variables
Econometric forecasting models are based on a set of exogenous variables
which explain the development of the endogenous variable (the traffic demand). To
make forecasts of the traffic demand, it is necessary to make forecasts of each
of the exogenous variables. It is very important to point out that an exogenous
variable should not be included in the forecasting model if the prediction of the
variable is less confident than the prediction of the traffic demand.
Suppose that the exact development of the exogenous variable is known
which, for example, is the case for the simple models where time is the
explanatory variables. If the model fitting is good and the white noise is
normally distributed with expectation equal to zero, it is possible to calculate
confidence limits for the forecasts. This is easily done by a computer program.
On the other hand, the values of most of the explanatory variables cannot
be predicted exactly. The confidence of the prediction will then decrease with
the number of periods. Hence, the explanatory variables will cause the confidence
interval of the forecasts to increase with the number of the forecast periods. In
these situations it is difficult to calculate a confidence interval around the
forecasted values.
If the traffic demand can be described by an autoregressive moving average
model, no explanatory variables are included in the model. Hence, if there are no
explanatory variable in the model, the confidence limits of the forecasting
values can be calculated. This is done by a time series analysis program package.
Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507 PAGE1
5.5 Confidence intervals
Confidence intervals, in the context of forecasts, refer to statistical
constructs of forecast bounds or limits of prediction. Because statistical models
have errors associated with them, parameter estimates have some variability
associated with their values. In other words, even if one has identified the
correct forecasting model, the influence of endogenous factors will cause errors
in the parameter estimates and the forecast. Confidence intervals take into
account the uncertainty associated with the parameter estimates.
In causal models, another source of uncertainty in the forecast of the
series under study are the predictions of the explanatory variables. This type of
uncertainty cannot be handled by confidence intervals and is usually ignored,
even though it may be more significant than the uncertainty associated with
coefficient estimates. Also, uncertainty due to possible outside shocks is not
reflected in the confidence intervals.
For a linear, static regression model, the confidence interval of the
forecast depends on the reliability of the regression coefficients, the size of
the residual variance, and the values of the explanatory variables. The 95%
confidence interval for a forecasted value YN+1 is given by:
eq \o(\s\up4(^),Y)N(1) - 2eq \o(\s\up4(^),s) YN+1 eq \o(
\s\up4(^),Y)N(1) + 2eq \o(\s\up4(^),s)(5-7)
where eq \o(\s\up4(^),Y)N(1) is the forecast one step ahead and só is the
standard error of the forecast.
This says that we expect, with a 95% probability, that the actual value of
the series at time N + 1 will fall within the limits given by the confidence
interval, assuming that there are no errors associated with the forecast of the
explanatory variables.
6 Comparison of alternative forecasting models
6.1 Diagnostic check - Model evaluation
Tests and diagnostic checks are important elements in the model building
procedure. The quality of the model is characterized by the residuals. Good
forecasting models should lead to small autocorrelated residuals, the variance of
the residuals should not decrease or increase and the expectation of the
residuals should be zero or close to zero. The precision of the forecast is
affected by the size of the residuals which should be small.
In addition the confidence limits of the parameter estimates and the
forecasts should be relatively small. And in the same way, the mean square error
should be small compared with results from other models.
6.2 Forecasts of levels versus forecasts of changes
Many econometric models are estimated using levels of the dependent and
independent variables. Since economic variables move together over time, high
coefficients of determination are obtained. The collinearity among the levels of
the explanatory variables does not present a problem when a model is used for
forecasting purposes alone, given that the collinearity pattern in the past
continues to exist in the future. However, when one attempts to measure
structural coefficients (e.g., price and income elasticities) the collinearity of
the explanatory variables (known as multicollinearity) renders the results of the
estimated coefficients unreliable.
To avoid the multicollinearity problem and generate benchmark coefficient
estimates and forecasts, one may use changes of the variables (first difference
or first log difference which is equivalent to a percent change) to estimate a
model and forecast from that model. Using changes of variables to estimate a
model tends to remove the effect of multicollinearity and produce more reliable
coefficient estimates by removing the common effect of economic influences on the
explanatory variables.
By generating forecasts through levels of and changes in the explanatory
variables, one may be able to produce a better forecast through a reconciliation
process. That is, the models are adjusted so that the two sets of forecasts give
equivalent results.
6.3 Ex-post forecasting
Ex-post forecasting is the generation of a forecast from a model estimated
over a sub-sample of the data beginning with the first observation and ending
several periods prior to the last observation. In ex-post forecasting, actual
values of the explanatory variables are used to generate the forecast. Also, if
forecasted values of the explanatory variables are used to produce an ex-post
forecast, one can then measure the error associated with incorrectly forecasted
PAGE20 Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507
explanatory variables.
The purpose of ex-post forecasting is to evaluate the forecasting
performance of the model by comparing the forecasted values with the actuals of
the period after the end of the sub-sample to the last observation. With ex-post
forecasting, one is able to assess forecast accuracy in terms of:
1) percent deviations of forecasted values from actual values,
2) turning point performance,
3) systematic behaviour of deviations.
Deviations of forecasted values from actual values give a general idea of
the accuracy of the model. Systematic drifts in deviations may provide
information for either re-specifying the model or adjusting the forecast to
account for the drift in deviations. Of equal importance in evaluating forecast
accuracy is turning point performance, that is, how well the model is able to
forecast changes in the movement of the dependent variable. More criteria for
evaluating forecast accuracy are discussed below.
6.4 Forecast performance criteria
A model might fit the historical data very well. However, when the
forecasts are compared with future data that are not used for estimation of
parameters, the fit might not be so good. Hence comparison of forecasts with
actual observations may give additional information about the quality of the
model. Suppose we have the time series, Y1, Y2, . . . ., YN, YN+1, . . . ., YN+M.
The M last observations are removed from the time series and the model
building procedure. The one-step-ahead forecasting error is given by:
eN+t = YN+t - eq \o(\s\up4(^),Y)N+t-1(1) t = 1, 2, . . . , M(6-1)
where
eq \o(\s\up4(^),Y)N+t-1(1) is the one-step-ahead forecast.
Mean error
The mean error, ME, is defined by
ME = eq \f(1,M) \i\su(t=1,M, )eN+t (6-2)
ME is a criterium for forecast bias. Since the expectation of the
residuals should be zero, a large deviation from zero indicates bias in the
forecasts.
Mean percent error
The mean percent error, MPE, is defined by
MPE = eq \f(100,M) \i\su(t=1,M, ) \f( en+t, YN+t) (6-3)
This statistic also indicates possible bias in the forecasts. The
criterium measures percentage deviation in the bias. It is not recommended to use
MPE when the observations are small.
Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507 PAGE1
Root mean square error
The root mean square error, RMSE, of the forecast is defined
as
RMSE = eq \b\bc\[(\f(1,M) \i\su(t=1,M, )e\s(2,N+t))\s\up12(1/2) (6-4)
RMSE is the most commonly used measure for forecasting precision.
Mean absolute error
The mean absolute error, MAE, is given by
MAE = eq \f(1,M) \i\su(t=1,M, ) \x\le\ri(eN+t) (6-5)
Theil's inequality coefficient
Theil's inequality coefficient is defined as follows:
U = eq \b\bc\[(\i\su(t=1,M, ) \f(e\s(2,N+t),Y\s(2,N+t)))\s\up20(1/2)(
6-6)
Theil's U is preferred as a measure of forecast accuracy because the error
between forecasted and actual values can be broken down to errors due to:
1) central tendency,
2) unequal variation between predicted and realized changes, and
3) incomplete covariation of predicted and actual changes.
This decomposition of prediction errors can be used to adjust the model so
that the accuracy of the model can be improved.
Another quality that a forecasting model must possess is ability to
capture turning points. That is, a forecast must be able to change direction in
the same time period that the actual series under study changes direction. If a
model is estimated over a long period of time which contains several turning
points, ex-post forecast analysis can generally detect a model's inability to
trace closely actuals that display turning points.
7 Choice of forecasting model
7.1 Forecasting performance
Although the choice of a forecasting model is usually guided by its
forecasting performance, other considerations must receive attention. Thus, the
length of the forecast period, the functional form, and the forecast accuracy of
the explanatory variables of an econometric model must be considered.
The length of the forecast period affects the decision to use one type of
a model versus another, along with historical data limitations and the purpose of
the forecasting model. For instance, ARIMA models may be appropriate forecasting
models for short-term forecasts when stability is not an issue, when sufficient
historical data are available, and when causality is not of interest. Also, when
the structure that generates the data is difficult to identify, one has no choice
but to use a forecasting model which is based on historical data of the variable
of interest.
The functional form of the model must also be considered in a forecasting
model. While it is true that a more complex model may reduce the model
specification error, it is also true that it will, in general, considerably
increase the effect of data errors. The model form should be chosen to recognize
the trade-off between these sources of error.
Availability of forecasts for explanatory variables and their reliability
record is another issue affecting the choice of a forecasting model. A superior
model using explanatory variables which may not be forecasted accurately can be
inferior to an average model whose explanatory variables are forecasted
accurately.
When market stability is an issue, econometric models which can handle
structural changes should be used to forecast. When causality matters, simple
models or ARIMA models cannot be used as forecasting tools. Nor can they be used
when insufficient historical data exist. Finally, when the purpose of the model
is to forecast the effects associated with changes in the factors that influence
the variable in question, time series models may not be appropriate (with the
exception, of course, of transfer function and multiple time series models).
7.2 Length of forecast period
For normal extensions of switching equipment and additions of circuits, a
forecast period of about six years is necessary. However, a longer forecast
period may be necessary for the planning of new cables or other transmission
media or for major plant installations. Estimates in the long term would
necessarily be less accurate than short-term forecasts but that would be
acceptable.
In forecasting with a statistical model, the length of the forecast period
is entirely determined by:
PAGE20 Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507
a) the historical data available,
b) the purpose or use of the forecast,
c) the market structure that generates the data,
d) the forecasting model used,
e) the frequency of the data.
The historical data available depends upon the period over which it has
been collected and the frequency of collection (or the length of the period over
which data is aggregated). A small historical data base can only support a short
prediction interval. For example, with 10 or 20 observations a model can be used
to forecast 4-5 periods past the sample (i.e. into the future). On the other
hand, with 150-200 observations, potentially reliable forecasts can be obtained
for 30 to 50 periods past the sample - other things being equal.
Certainly, the purpose of the forecast affects the number of predicted
periods. Long range facility planning requires forecasts extending 15-20 or more
years into the future. Rate change evaluations may only require forecasts for 2-3
years. Alteration of routing arrangements could only require forecasts extending
a few months past the sample.
Stability of a market, or lack thereof, also affect the length of the
forecast period. With a stable market structure one could conceivably extend the
forecast period to equal the historical period. However, a volatile market does
not afford the same luxury to the forecaster; the forecast period can only
consist of a few periods into the future.
The forecasting models used to generate forecasts do, by their nature,
influence the decision on how far into the future one can reasonably forecast.
Structural models tend to perform better than other models in the long run, while
for short-run predictions all models seem to perform equally well.
It should be noted that while the purpose of the forecast and the
forecasting model affect the length of the forecast, the number of periods to be
forecasted play a crucial role in the choice of the forecasting model and the use
to which a forecast is put.
ANNEX A
(to Recommendation E.507)
Description of forecasting procedures
A.1 Estimation of autoregressive parameters
The empirical autocorrelation at lag k is given by:
rk = eq \f( vk,v0) (A-1)
where
vk = eq \f( 1, N - 1) N-kt = 1 (Xt - \x\to(X)) (Xt+k - \x\to(X)) (A-2)
and
eq \x\to(X) = eq \f(1,N) \i\su(t=1,N, ) Xt (A-3)
N being the total number of observations.
The relation between [rk] and the estimates [eq \o(\s\up4(^),F)k] of [Fk]
is given by the Yule-Walker equations:
eq \a\al(r1 = \o(\s\up4(^),F)1 + \o(\s\up4(^),F)2r1 + . . . +
\o(\s\up4(^),F)prp-1 ,r2 = \o(\s\up4(^),F)1r1 + \o(\s\up4(^),F)2r2 . . .
\o(\s\up4(^),F)prp-2,.,.,.,rp = \o(\s\up4(^),F)1rp-1 + \o(\s\up4(^),F)2rp-2 + . . . +
\o(\s\up4(^),F)p) (A-4)
Hence the estimators [eq \o(\s\up4(^),F)k] can be found by solving this
system of equations.
For computations, an alternative to directly solving the equations is the
following recursive procedure. Let
[eq \o(\s\up4(^),F)k, j]j be estimators of the parameters at lag j = 1, 2, . . .,
given that the total number of parameters are k. The estimators [eq
\o(\s\up4(^),F)k+1, j]j are then found by
eq \o(\s\up4(^),F)k+1, k+1 = \f(rk+1 \i\su(j=1,k, ) \o(\s\up4(^),F)k;j r
k+1-j,1 - \i\su(j=1,k, ) \o(\s\up4(^),F)k;j rj) (A-5)
eq \o(\s\up4(^),F)k+1, j = \o(\s\up4(^),F)kj - \o(\s\up4(^),F)k+1, k+1
\o(\s\up4(^),F)k,k-j+1 j = 1, 2, . . ., k (A-6)
Defining eq \o(\s\up4(^),F)p, j = \o(\s\up4(^),F)j, j = 1, 2, . . ., p,
forecast of the traffic demand at time t+1 is expressed by:
eq Xt+1 = \o(\s\up4(^),F)1Xt + \o(\s\up4(^),F)2Xt-1 + . . . +
\o(\s\up4(^),F)pXt-p (A-7)
Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507 PAGE1
A.2 Forecasting with ARIMA models
The forecast l time units ahead is given by:
eq \a\ac(\o(\s\up4(^),X)t(l) = \o(\s\up4(^),F)1 [Xt+l-1] +
\o(\s\up4(^),F)2 [Xt+l-2] ,+ . . . + \o(\s\up4(^),F)p[Xt+l-p], + [at+l] -
\o(\s\up4(^),q)1 [at+l-1],- \o(\s\up4(^),q)2[at+l-2] - . . . - \o(\s\up4(^),q)q[at+l-q])
(A-8)
where eq \o(\s\up4(^),[X)j]= eq \a\al(\o(\s\up4(^),X)t(j -t) if j > t,Xj
if j ú t) (A-9)
[aj] = eq \a\al(0 if j > t ,Xj - \o(\s\up4(^),X)j if
j ú t) (A-10)
which means that [Xj] is defined as a forecast when j > t and otherwise as an
actual observation and that [aj] is defined as 0 when j > t since white noise has
expectation 0. If the observations are known (j ú t), then [aj] is equal to the
residual.
ANNEX B
(to Recommendation E.507)
Kalman Filter for a linear trend model
To model telephone traffic, it is assumed that there are no deterministic
changes in the demand pattern. This situation can be modelled by setting the
deterministic component Zt to zero. Then the general state space model is:
Xt+1 = Xt + wt (B-1)
Yt = HXt + nt
where
Xt is an s-vector of state variables in period t,
Yt is a vector of measurements in year t,
j is an sxs transition matrix that may, in general, depend on t,
and
wt is an s-vector of random modelling errors,
nt is the measurement error in year t.
For modelling telephone traffic demand, adapt a simple two-state, one-data
variable model defined by:
Xt+1 = eq \b\bc\[(\a(xt+1,\o(\s\up4(╖),x)t+1)) = eq \b\bc\[(\a(1
0,1 1)) eq \b\bc\[(\a(xt,\o(\s\up4(╖),x)t)) + eq
\b\bc\[(\a(wt,\o(\s\up4(╖),w)t)) (B-2)
and
yt = xt + nt (B-3)
where
xt is the true load in year t,
eq \o(\s\up4(╖),xt) is the true incremental growth in year t,
yt is the measured load in year t,
nt is the measurement error in year t.
Thus, in our model
j = eq \b\bc\[(\a(1 1,0 1)) , and H = 1. (B-4)
The one-step-ahead projection is written as follows:
Xt+1,t = eq \b\bc\[(\a(xt+1.t,\o(\s\up4(╖),x)1.t)) = eq \b\bc\[(\a(1 1,0
1)) eq \b\bc\[(\a(xt.t,\o(\s\up4(╖),x)t.t)) = eq \b\bc\[(\a(1 0,1 1)) eq
\b\bc\[(\a(xt.t-1 + at(yt - xt.t-1),\o(\s\up4(╖),x)t.t-1 + ▀t(yt - xt\,t-1))) (B-5)
where
Xt+1,t is the projection of the s e variable in period t + 1 given
observations through year t.
The at and ▀t coefficients are the Kalman gain matrices in year t.
Rewriting the above equation yields:
xt,t = (1-at)xt,t-1 + atyt (B-6)
and
eq \o(\s\up4(╖),x)t,t = (1-▀t)eq \o(\s\up4(╖),xt,t - 1) + ▀t(yt -
xt-1,t-1) (B-7)
The Kalman Filter creates a linear trend for each time series being
forecast based on the current observation or measurement of traffic demand and
the previous year's forecast of that demand. The observation and forecasted
traffic load are combined to produce a smoothed load that corresponds to the
level of the process, and a smoothed growth increment. The Kalman gain values at
and ▀t can be either fixed or adaptive. In [16] Moreland presents a method for
selecting fixed, robust parameters that provide adequate performance independent
of system noise, measurement error, and initial conditions. For further details
on the proper selection of these parameters see [6], [20] and [22].
PAGE20 Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507
ANNEX C
(to Recommendation E.507)
Example of an econometric model
To illustrate the workings of an econometric model, we have chosen the
model of United States billed minutes to Brazil. This model was selected among
alternative models for three reasons:
a) to demonstrate the introduction of explanatory variables,
b) to point out difficulties associated with models used for both the
estimation of the structure and forecasting purposes, and
c) to show how transformations may affect the results.
The demand of United States billed minutes to Brazil (MIN) is estimated by
a log-linear equation which includes United States billed messages to Brazil
(MSG), a real telephone price index (RPI), United States personal income in 1972
prices (YP72), and real bilateral trade between the United States and Brazil
(RTR) as explanatory variables. This model is represented as:
ln(MIN)t = ▀0 + ▀1 ln(MSG)t + ▀2 ln(RPI)t + ▀3 ln(YP72)t + ▀4
ln(RTR)t + ut (C-1)
where ut is the error term of the regression and where, ▀1 > 0, ▀2 < 0, ▀3 > 0
and ▀4 > 0 are expected values.
Using ridge regression to deal with severe multicollinearity problems, we
estimate the equation over the 1971 : 1 (i.e. first quarter of 1971) to 1979 : 4
interval and obtain the following results:
ln(MIN)t = -3.489 + (0.619) ln(MSG)t - (0.447) ln(RPI)t + (1.166)
ln(YP72)t + (0.281) ln(RTR)t
In(MIN)t = -3.489 + (0.035) ln(MSG)t - (0.095) ln(RPI)t + (0.269)
ln(YP72)t + (0.084) (C-2)
eq \x\to(R)2 = 0.985, SER = 0.083, D-W = 0.922, k = 0.10 (C-3)
where eq \x\to(R)2 is the adjusted coefficient of determination, SER is the
standard error of the regression, D-W is the Durbin-Watson statistic, and k is
the ridge regression constant. The values in parentheses under the equation are
the estimated standard deviation of the estimated parameters eq \o(\s\up4(^),▀)1,
eq \o(\s\up4(^),▀)2, eq \o(\s\up4(^),▀)3, eq \o(\s\up4(^),▀)4.
The introduction of messages as an explanatory variable in this model was
necessitated by the fact that since the mid-seventies transmission quality has
improved and completion rates have risen while, at the same time, the strong
growth in this market has begun to dissipate. Also, the growth rates for some
periods could not have been explained by rate activity on either side or real
United States personal income. The behaviour of the message variable in the
minute equation was able to account for all these factors.
Because the model serves a dual purpose - namely, structure estimation and
forecasting - at least one more variable is introduced than if the model were to
be used for forecasting purposes alone. The introduction of additional
explanatory variables results in severe multicollinearity and necessitates
employing ridge regression which lowers eq \x\to(R)2 and the Durbin-Watson
statistic. Consequently, the predictive power of the model is reduced somewhat.
The effect of transforming the variables of a model are shown in the
ex-post forecast analysis performed on the model of United States billed minutes
to Brazil. The deviations using levels of the variables are larger than those of
the logarithms of the variables which were used to obtain a better fit (the
estimated RMSE for the log-linear regression model is 0.119 827). The forecast
results in level and logarithmic form are shown in Table C-1/E.507.
TABLE C-1/E.507
Logarithms Levels
Forecast Actual % Forecast Actual % deviation
deviation
1980: 1 14.858 14.938 -0.540 2 836 269 3 073 697 - 7.725
2 14.842 14.972 -0.872 2 791 250
Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507 PAGE1
3 180 334 -12.234
3 14.916 15.111 -1.296 3 005 637 3 654 092 -17.746
4 14.959 15.077 -0.778 3 137 698 3 529 016 -11.089
1981: 1 15.022 15.102 -0.535 3 341 733 3 621 735 - 7.731
2 14.971 15.141 -1.123 3 175 577 3 762 592 -15.601
3 15.395 15.261
PAGE20 Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507
-0.879 4 852 478 4 244 178 14.333
4 15.405 15.302 -0.674 4 901 246 4 421 755 -10.844
1982: 1 15.365 15.348 -0.110 4 709 065 4 630 238 - 1.702
2 15.326 15.386 -0.387 4 528 947 4 807 901 - 5.802
References
[1] ABRAHAM (A.) and LEDOLTER (J.): Statistical methods for forecasting J.
Wiley, New York, 1983.
[2] ANDERSON (O. D.): Time series analysis and forecasting. The Box-Jenkins
approach. Butterworth, London, 1976.
[3] BOX (G. E. P.) and JENKINS (G. M.): Time Series Analysis: Forecasting and
Control, Holden-Day, San Francisco, 1976.
[4] BROWN (R. G.): Introduction to random signal analysis and Kalman
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[5] CCITT: Manual planning data and forecasting methods, Vol. I and II, ITU,
Geneva, 1988.
[6] CHEMOUIL (P.) and GARNIER (B.): An Adaptive Short-Term Traffic Forecasting
Procedure Using Kalman Filtering. ITC 11, Tokyo, 1985.
[7] DRAPER (N.) and SMITH (H.): Applied Regression Analysis, Second Edition,
Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507 PAGE1
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
[8] DUTTA (M.): Econometric Methods, South-Western Publishing Co., Cincinnati,
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[9] GARDNER (E. S. Jr.): Exponential smoothing the state of art. Journal of
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[17] NELSON (C. R.): Applied Time Series Analysis for Managerial Forecasting,
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PAGE20 Fascicle II.3 - Rec. E.507
