When the Japanese landed in Kota Bahru, British military command recruited British expatriates, civil servants and Chinese communists whom they thought were capable enough to act as a resistance force. They were trained at the 101 Special Training School and designated to be the "left-behind parties" should Singapore fall. These last-minute local military recruits were often held to be the fiercest defenders against the Japanese during the defence of Singapore. One such group was the Dalforce under John Dalley. When Singapore fell, the remnants of these forces were either killed or escaped into the jungle where they continued their armed struggle using guerrilla warfare. These groups obtained their weapons and explosives from arms caches hidden deep in the jungle after the Japanese had taken over. These armed defenders drifted into two main groups of subversive fighters. One was the British-driven resistance force code-named Force 136, and the other was the Malayan Communist Party that controlled the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA).
1. Force 136
The principal organization active in Malaya was the Special Operations Executive (SOE) which, in cooperation with the Chinese government, maintained a network of operatives known as Force 136. The British actively recruited Chinese evacuees from Singapore. Without the assistance of the Chinese, underground resistance would have had little chance of succeeding. A Caucasian would never have been "invisible" in wartime Malaya due to their physical appearance as opposed to a Chinese who could easily blend into the local population. For this reason, the Chinese Malayans were recruited by the British and given army ranks. All the members of Force 136 had actually escaped death and chose to return to continue the battle against the Japanese as they wanted to obtain the much needed peace for their families. The most well-known figure associated with this unit was Colonel Lim Bo Seng. Honoured posthumously by authorities as a national hero and patriot after the war, Colonel Lim was a regional head of the Force 136 team who was caught, tortured, and killed when he returned to Malaya to coordinate the struggle against the Japanese.
1.1. Group Composition
For the majority of the Force 136 personnel, training took place in India. There, the recruits were trained in all technical matters as well as combat skills. This unit was divided into two sub-units:
a) Military intelligence, and b) Telecommunication.
Personnel of both units were required to engage incombat with the enemy forces should the need arise, hence all aspects of military training were given to them. When they had completed their training, these agents were all despatched in groups to be part of Malayan society once again. Each group consisted of two British officers and five Chinese personnel. However, this ratio decreased to one or two Chinese to every three or four British servicemen due to the dwindling numbers of Chinese recruits. Once organized into small groups, Force 136 was despatched to Malaya via various means.
1.2. Operation Gustavus and More: Operations of Force 136
In the earlier days, the preferred method was to send the men via submarine to Malaya. However, this method was later abandoned because the Japanese became aware of it and exercized tighter security in the sea-routes. From Feb 1945 onwards, all Force 136 teams were air lifted into Malaya. Once they reached mainland Malaya, they would recede into the jungle and leave the British group leaders there while the Chinese agents spread themselves out, and merged with the hustle and bustle of daily life in Malaya. Some worked as waiters or shop assistants, quietly collecting information and awaiting a timely opportunity to strike back. In this same manner, Colonel Lim Bo Seng arrived in Malaya on 2 November 1943 and took the name of Tan Choon Lim. His comrade, Lung Chiu Ying, received him in the waters near Pangkor Island and took him to meet Chin Peng, the leader of the other major resistance force, the MPAJA. This meeting resulted in Force 136 linking up with MPAJA. In March 1944, Force 136 was heavily crippled when many of their agents were caught by the kempeitai in March 1944. Colonel Lim Bo Seng too was apprehended, imprisoned in Batu Gajah prison and paid with his life.
1.3. Contributions of Force 136
While Force 136 did not focus on direct military engagements in the struggle to overthrow the regime, it nonetheless played an important role in the resistance movement. It initiated a spy ring which enabled the British military command in India to receive some information about Malaya, and it also rendered invaluable aid to the other resistance force, the Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) in the form of financial and arms support.
2. Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA)
The MPAJA was formed in majority by members of the Malayan Communist Party. Although the objectives and policies outlined by MPAJA were not acceptable to the British, nonetheless their willingness to lay down their lives to fight the Japanese impressed the British enough for the MPAJA to be seen as an expedient ally. Like Force 136, the MPAJA also had two charismatic leaders. The more famous MPAJA leader was Chin Peng who was to become a significant figure in the Malayan Communist insurgency during the '50s. The other was Lai Teck who was responsible in crippling the whole MPAJA network when he was caught and turned double agent. The MPAJA functioned mostly as a guerrilla strike force against both Japanese military units as well as suspected informers. In November 1943, after Chin Peng had linked up with Lim Bo Seng, the MPAJA established a line of supply through the auspices of Force 136.
2.1. Group Composition of the MPAJA
The pioneers of the MPAJA were trained by the British before the fall of Singapore. Remnants of Dalforce drifted into and formed the MPAJA. The MPAJA consisted of Chinese members. Training was acquired on the field in actual skirmishes with the Japanese forces. When the MPAJA eventually collaborated with Force 136, the training was augmented by British officers who helped to train these freedom fighters. In addition, there were the British soldiers, who had escaped incarceration and drifted into the folds of the MPAJA. The most well-known of such individuals was Major Spencer Chapman who later wrote a book on his wartime experiences.
2.2. Activities and Contribution
The modus operandi of the MPAJA was slightly different from that of Force 136. Unlike Force 136 which focused on intelligence gathering, the MPAJA adopted a multi-pronged strategy. These were in the areas of intelligence gathering, combat, and counter-propaganda. In the three and a half years of the Japanese Occupation, the MPAJA claimed that it had participated in some 340 skirmishes with Japanese platoons and killed or injured approximately 5500 Japanese soldiers of all ranks. There were conflicting views of the MPAJA because of their tactics. For some, the MPAJA fighters were heroes who stood up to the cruel Japanese soldiers; for others, the MPAJA fighters were a cruel reflection of the Japanese who harassed those in the local community suspected of being informers/supporters of the Japanese. Whichever the point of view, the contribution of the MPAJA to war efforts was recognized by the British who awarded medals to its leader, Chin Peng. MPAJA even took part in the victory parade commemorating the end of the Japanese Occupation. However after the euphoria faded, old enemies resurfaced and confronted each other. This time, the training received during the war enabled the MPAJA to conduct an armed struggle against colonialism.^^^
