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- ==Phrack Inc.==
-
- Volume Two, Issue 21, File 5 of 11
-
- /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\
- \/ \/
- /\ Satellite Communications /\
- \/ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ \/
- /\ By Scott Holiday /\
- \/ July 11, 1988 \/
- /\ /\
- \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/
-
- Satellite communications systems employ microwave terminals on satellites and
- ground to earth stations for highly reliable and high-capacity communications
- circuits. The communication satellites are positioned in geosynchronous orbits
- about 22,000 miles above the earth. Thus the rotation of the satellite matches
- that of the earth, and the satellite appears motionless above earth stations.
- Three equally spaces satellites are required to cover the entire world.
-
- The satellite's microwave terminals receive signals from an earth station and
- retransmit those signals on another frequency to another earth station.
- Because of the long distances involved, the round-trip communications path
- takes about a half second. This is referred to as the propagation delay. The
- propagation delay on a regular terrestrial phone line is about 1 millisecond
- (ms) per 100 miles.
-
- Each microwave terminal on the satellite, designated as a repeater or
- transponder, includes a receiver for uplink transmissions and a transmitter for
- down-link transmissions. Separate bands of frequencies for up-link and
- down-link transmissions are designated in the 1.5-30 GHz frequency range (1.5
- GHz is equal to 1,500,000,000 Hz, or 1.5 billion hertz). Typical frequencies
- for communications satellites are 4-6 GHz for INTELSAT 5 and 12-14 GHz for
- Anik-B, a Canadian satellite.
-
- Each satellite transponder typically has twelve 36-MHz channels which can be
- used for voice, data, or television signals. Early communications satellites
- had some 12 to 20 transponders, and the later satellites have up to 27 or more
- transponders. INTELSAT 5, for example, has a total of 27 or more transponders
- providing 24,500 data/voice channels, one transponder providing two 17.5-MHz TV
- channels, and one SPADE transponder with 800 channels. SPADE (Single carrier
- per channel, Pulse code modulation, multiple Access, Demand assignment) is a
- digital telephone service which reserves a pool of channels in the satellite
- for use on a demand-assignment basis. SPADE circuits can be activated on a
- demand basis between different countries and used for long or short periods of
- time as needed.
-
- Propagation Delay:
-
- The approximate quarter second one-way propagation delay in satellite
- communications affects both voice telephone and data communications. Users of
- voice communications via satellite links face two objectionable
- characteristics; delayed speech and return echoes. Echo suppressors are
- installed to reduce the return echoes to an acceptable level. Data
- communications operations face more serious problems caused by propagation
- delay. Line protocol and error detection/correction schemes are slowed down
- dramatically by the quarter second of delay. User response time requirements
- can be difficult to meet because of these cumulative effects.
-
- Satellite delay compensation units are available to ensure a connection and
- afford better operation for the terrestrial communications terminal that were
- never designed to deal with the propagation delay of communications satellites.
- One delay compensation unit is required at each final destination. The units
- reformat the data into larger effective transmission blocks so that
- retransmision requests are sent back less frequently. This reduces the number
- of line turnarounds, each of which requires about a quarter second to go from
- or return to the destination terminal or computer. One error detection and
- correction method used, called GO-BACK-N, requires that all blocks of data held
- in the transmitting buffer, back to the one with the error in it, must be
- retransmitted. A more efficient method is to retransmit only the block of data
- with the error, but this requires more logic in the equipment at each end.
-
- Link to Earth Stations:
-
- Most users cannot afford a satellite earth station, so a land line is needed
- for a connection to the nearest earth station (Which they tell me is 65,000 bps
- for a leased line). Because of the great distance the signal must travel in
- space, the relatively short distance between the two users on earth becomes
- insignificant and actually does not affect the operating cost. It is generally
- not economical. This is particularly true of high-capacity or broadband
- applications. Even though operating costs are insensitive to distance,
- satellite companies may still charge more for longer distances based on
- terrestrial line competition.
-
- Nonterrestrial Problems:
-
- The nonterrestrial portion of satellite communications bypasses the problems
- encountered with broken phone lines, etc., but it has its own unique set of
- problems. Since satellite communications employ high-frequency microwave
- radio transmission, careful planning is required to avoid interference between
- the satellite and other microwave systems. Eclipses of the sun, and even the
- moon, can cause trouble because they cut off the source of energy for the
- satellite's solar batteries. Backup batteries are used to resolve most of
- these difficulties, but the problem that is the most severe is when the sun
- gets directly behind the satellite and becomes a source of unacceptable noise.
- This occurs 10 times a year for about 10 min each time. In order to obtain
- uninterrupted service, an earth station must have a second dish antenna a short
- distance away or the single dish antenna must have access to another satellite.
-
- Accessing the Satellite:
-
- There are three methods by which multiple users (earth stations) can access the
- satellite. The first is frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), whereby the
- total bandwidth is divided into separate frequency channels assigned to the
- users. Each user has a channel, which could remain idle if that user had no
- traffic. Time-division multiple access (TDMA) provides each user with a
- particular time slot or multiple time slots. Here the channels are shared, but
- some time slots could be idle if a user has no traffic to offer. With
- code-division multiple access (CDMA) each user can utilize the full bandwidth
- at any time by employing a unique code to identify the user's traffic. There
- are, of course, trade-offs among the three methods; they involve error rate,
- block size, throughput, interference, and cost.
-
- Advantages:
-
- o Satellite lines are exceptionally well suited for broadband applications
- such as voice, television, and picture-phone, and the quality of
- transmission is high.
- o Satellite lines are generally less expensive for all voice and data
- types of transmission, whether it be dial-up or a leased line that is not
- short. This is particularly true of overseas transmissions, and there is
- no underwater cable to create maintenance problems.
-
- Disadvantages:
-
- o The propagation delay of about a quarter second way requires the
- participants of a voice conversation so slightly delay their responses to
- make sure no more conversation is still on the way. The propagation delay
- has more of a severe effect on the transmission of data, and the effect
- becomes more pronounced with high speeds, half duplex operation, smaller
- blocks of data, and polling. Satellite delay units, front end processors,
- multiplexers, and other devices have been designed to get around these
- problems, but there is no solution to the half second lost in total
- response time for interactive applications.
- o Some of the modems currently in use today have not been designed to handle
- the long delay of the initial connection via satellite, and the result can
- be a lost connection. This can be frustrating when the common carrier
- elects to use satellite lines for regular dial-up calls up to say, 55
- percent of all calls out of a particular city during the busy traffic
- periods.
-
- Closing:
-
- Satellite communications is a very interesting topic to study. Perhaps even
- the present/and future satellite and Ham radio "Hackers" will one day be
- running a Bulletin Board off of a WESTSTAR satellite -- Who's to say there
- isn't one now? (Devious Snicker)
-
- --Scott Holiday
-