The Hacker's Encyclopedia 1998/hackers_encyclopedia.iso/hacking/general/hk_i_a.txt

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This file is a DRAFT chapter intended to be part of the NIST
Computer Security Handbook.  The chapters were prepared by
different parties and, in some cases, have not been reviewed by
NIST.  The next iteration of a chapter could be SUBSTANTIALLY
different than the current version.  If you wish to provide
comments on the chapters, please email them to [e-mail]
or mail them to Ed Roback/Room B154, Bldg 225/NIST/Gaithersburg, MD
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                IDENTIFICATION AND AUTHENTICATION


1    Introduction

     Information technology (IT) systems and the data they store
and process are valuable resources which need to be protected.
One of the first steps toward securing an IT system is the
ability to verify the identity of its users.  The process of
verifying a user's identity is typically referred to as user
identification and authentication.  Passwords are the method used
most often for authenticating computer users, but this approach
has often proven inadequate in preventing unauthorized access to
computer resources when used as the sole means of authentication.


     New technology is emerging that can significantly improve
the protection afforded by password-only authentication.  This
chapter will discuss the elements involved in authenticating
users as well as technological advances that can be used with or
instead of passwords to help ensure that only authorized users
can access an organization's IT resources.


2    Overview

     Determining if a user is authorized to use an IT system
includes the distinct steps of identification and authentication.
Identification concerns the manner in which a user provides his
unique identity to the IT system.  The identity may be a name
(e.g., first or last) or a number (e.g., account number).  The
identity must be unique so that the system can distinguish among
different users.  Depending on operational requirements, one
"identity" may actually describe one individual, more than one
individual, or one (or more) individuals only part of the time.

     For example, an identity could be "system security officer,"
which could denote any of several individuals, but only when
those individuals are performing security officer duties and not
using the system as an ordinary user.  The identity should also
be non-forgible so that one person cannot impersonate another.
Additional characteristics, such as the role a user is assuming
(for example, the role of database administrator), may also be
specified along with an identity.

     Authentication is the process of associating an individual
with his unique identity, that is, the manner in which the
individual establishes the validity of his claimed identity.
There are three basic authentication means by which an individual
may authenticate his identity.

          a.   Something an individual KNOWS (e.g., a password,
Personal ID Number (PIN), the combination to a lock, a set of
facts from a person's background).

           b.   Something an individual POSSESSES (e.g., a token
or card, a physical key to a lock).

          c.   Something an individual IS  (e.g., personal
characteristics or "biometrics" such as a fingerprint or voice
pattern).

      These basic methods may be employed individually, but many
user login systems employ various combinations of the basic
authentication methods.  An important distinction between
identification and authentication is that identities are public
whereas authentication information is kept secret and thus
becomes the means by which an individual proves that he actually
is who he claims to be.  In addition, identification and
authentication provides the basis for future access control.


3    Technical Approaches

     The use of passwords for authentication is widespread, and a
certain amount of expense and time is required to upgrade to more
sophisticated techniques.  In the near-term, one approach to
increasing the security of IT systems is to improve the use and
management of passwords, while exploring the use of alternate
technologies over time.

3.1  Passwords

3.1.1 Security Considerations

     The security of a password scheme is dependent upon the
ability to keep passwords secret.  Therefore, a discussion of
increasing password security should begin with the task of
choosing a password.  A password should be chosen such that it is
easy to remember, yet difficult to guess.  There are a few
approaches to guessing passwords which we will discuss, along
with methods of countering these attacks.

     Most operating systems, as well as large applications such
as Database Management Systems, are shipped with administrative
accounts that have preset passwords.  Because these passwords are
standard, outside attackers have used them to break into IT
systems.  It is a simple, but important, measure to change the
passwords on administrative accounts as soon as an IT system is
received.

     A second approach to discovering passwords is to guess them,
based on information about the individual who created the
password.  Using such information as the name of the individual,
spouse, pet or street address or other information such as a
birth date or birthplace can frequently yield an individual's
password.  Users should be cautioned against using information
that is easily associated with them for a password.

     There are several brute force attacks on passwords that
involve either the use of an on-line dictionary or an exhaustive
attempt at different character combinations.  There are several
tactics that may be used to prevent a dictionary attack.  They
include deliberately misspelling words, combining two or more
words together, or including numbers and punctuation in a
password.  Ensuring that passwords meet a minimum length
requirement also helps make them less susceptible to brute force
attacks.

     To assist users in choosing passwords that are unlikely to
be guessed, some operating systems provide randomly generated
passwords.  While these passwords are often described as
pronounceable, they are frequently difficult to remember,
especially if a user has more than one of them, and so are prone
to being written down.  In general, it is better for users to
choose their own passwords, but with the considerations outlined
above in mind.

3.1.2  Management Issues

      Password length and the frequency with which passwords are
changed in an organization should be defined by the
organization's security policy and procedures and implemented by
the organization's IT system administrator(s).  The frequency
with which passwords should be changed should depend on the
sensitivity of the data.  Periodic changing of passwords can
prevent the damage done by stolen passwords, and make "brute
force" attempts to break into system more difficult.  Too
frequent changes, however, can be irritating to users and can
lead to security breaches such as users writing down passwords or
using too-obvious passwords in an attempt to keep track of a
large number of changing passwords.  This is inevitable when
users have access to a large number of machines.  Security policy
and procedures should strive for consistent, livable rules across
an organization.

     Some mainframe operating systems and many PC applications
use passwords as a means of access control, not just
authentication.  Instead of using mechanisms such as access
control lists (ACLs), access is granted by entering a password.
The result is a proliferation of passwords that can significantly
reduce the overall security of an IT system.  While the use of
passwords as a means of access control is common, it is an
approach that is less than optimal and not cost-effective.

3.2  Memory Card

      There is a very wide variety of memory card systems with
applications for user identification and authentication.  Such
systems authenticate a user's identity based on a unique card,
i.e., something the user possesses, sometimes in conjunction with
a PIN (Personal Identification Number), i.e., something a user
knows.  The use of a physical object or token, in this case a
card, has prompted memory card systems to be referred to as token
systems.  Other examples of token systems are optical storage
cards and integrated circuit (IC) keys.

     Memory cards store, but do not process, information.
Special reader/writer devices control the writing and reading of
data to and from the cards.  The most common type of memory card
is a magnetic stripe card.  These cards use a film of magnetic
material, similar or identical to audio and computer magnetic
tape and disk equipment, in which a thin strip, or stripe, of
magnetic material affixed to the surface of a card.  A magnetic
stripe card is inexpensive, easy to produce and has a high
storage capacity.

     The most common forms of a memory card are the telephone
calling card, credit card, and ATM card.  The number on a
telephone calling card serves as both identification and
authentication for the user of a long distance carrier and so
must remain secret.  The card can be used directly in phones that
read cards or the number may be entered manually in a touch tone
phone or verbally to an operator.  Possession of the card or
knowledge of the number is sufficient to authenticate the user.

     Possession of a credit card, specifically the card holder's
name, card number and expiration date, is sufficient for both
identification and authentication for purchases made over the
telephone.  The inclusion of a signature and occasionally a
photograph provide additional security when the card is used for
purchases made in person.

     The ATM card employs a more sophisticated use of a memory
card, involving not only something the user possesses, namely the
card, but also something the user knows, viz. the PIN.  A lost or
stolen card is not sufficient to gain access; the PIN is required
as well.  This paradigm of use seems best suited to IT
authentication applications.

     While there are some sophisticated technical attacks that
can be made against memory cards, they can provide a marked
increase in security over password-only systems.  It is important
that users be cautioned against writing their PIN on the card
itself or there will be no increase in security over a simple
password system.

       Memory cards can and are widely used to perform
authentication of users in a variety of circumstances from
banking to physical access.  It is important that the
considerations mentioned above for password selection are
followed for PIN selection and that the PIN is never carried with
the card to gain the most from this hybrid authentication system.


3.3  Smart Card

      A smart card is a device typically the size and shape of a
credit card and contains one or more integrated chips that
perform the functions of a computer with a microprocessor,
memory, and input/output.  Smart cards may be used to provide
increased functionality as well as an increased level of security
over memory cards when used for identification and
authentication.

      A smart card can process, as well as store, data through
its microprocessor; therefore, the smart card itself (as opposed
to the reader/writer device), can control access to the
information stored on the card.  This can be especially useful
for applications such as user authentication in which security of
the information must be maintained.  The smart card can actually
perform the password or PIN comparisons inside the card.

      As an authentication method, the smart card is something
the user possesses.  With recent advances, a password or PIN
(something a user knows) can be added for additional security and
a fingerprint or photo (something the user is) for even further
security.  As contrasted with memory cards, an important and
useful feature of a smart card is that it can be manufactured to
ensure the security of its own memory, thus reducing the risk of
lost or stolen cards.

     The smart card can replace conventional password security
with something better, a PIN, which is verified by the card
versus the computer system, which may not have as sophisticated a
means for user identification and authentication.  The card can
be programmed to limit the number of login attempts as well as
ask biographic questions, or make a biometric check to ensure
that only the smart card's owner can use it.  In addition, non-
repeating challenges can be used to foil a scenario in which an
attacker tries to login using a password or PIN he observed from
a previous login.  In addition, the complexities of smart card
manufacturing makes forgery of the card's contents virtually
impossible.

     Use of smart devices means the added expense of the card
itself, as well as the special reader devices.  Careful decisions
as to what systems warrant the use of a smart card must be made.
The cost of manufacturing smart cards is higher than that of
memory cards but the disparity will get less and less as more and
more manufacturers switch to this technology.  On the other hand,
it should be remembered that smart cards, as opposed to memory
only cards, can effectively communicate with relatively 'dumb',
inexpensive reader devices.

     The proper management and administration of smart cards will
be a more difficult task than with typical password
administration.  It is extremely important that responsibilities
and procedures for smart card administration be carefully
implemented.  Smart card issuance can be easily achieved in a
distributed fashion, which is well suited to a large
organizational environment.  However, just as with password
systems, care should be taken to implement consistent procedures
across all involved systems.


3.4  Hand-Held Password Generators

     Hand-held password generators are a state-of-the-art type
of smart token.  They provide a hybrid authentication, using both
something a user possesses (i.e., the device itself) and
something a user knows (e.g., a 4 to 8 digit PIN).  The device is
the size of a shirt-pocket calculator, and does not require a
special reader/writer device.  One of the main forms of password
generators is a challenge-response calculator.

     When using a challenge-response calculator, a user first
types his user name into the IT system.  The system then presents
a random challenge, for example, in the form of a 7-digit number.
The user is required to type his PIN into the calculator and then
enter the challenge generated by the IT system into the
calculator.  The generator then provides a corresponding
response, which he then types into the IT system.  If the
response is valid, the login is permitted and the user is granted
access to the system.

     When a password generator is used for access to a computer
system in place of the traditional user name and password
combination, an extra level of security is gained.  With the
challenge response calculator, each user is given a device that
has been uniquely keyed; he cannot use someone else's device for
access.  The host system must have a process or a processor to
generate a challenge response pair for each login attempt, based
on the initially supplied user name.  Each challenge is
different, so observing a successful challenge-response exchange
gives no information for a subsequent login.  Of course, with
this system the user must memorize a PIN.

      The hand-held password generator can be a low-cost addition
to security, but the process is slightly complicated for the
user.  He must type two separate entries into the calculator, and
then correctly read the response and type it into the computer.
This process increases the chance for making a mistake.

      Overall, this technology can be a useful addition to
security, but users may find some inconvenience.  Management, if
they decide to use this approach, will have to establish a plan
for integrating the technology into their IT systems.  There will
also be the administrative challenge for keying and issuing the
cards, and keeping the user database up-to-date.


3.5  Biometrics

      Biometric authentication systems employ unique physical
characteristics (or attributes) of an individual person in order
to authenticate the person's identity.  Physical attributes
employed in biometric authentication systems include
fingerprints, hand geometry, hand-written signatures, retina
patterns and voice patterns.  Biometric authentication systems
based upon these physical attributes have been developed for
computer login applications.

      Biometric authentication systems generally operate in the
following manner:

Prior to any authentication attempts, a user is "enrolled" by
creating a reference profile (or template) based on the desired
physical attribute.  The reference profile is usually based on
the combination of several measurements.  The resulting template
is associated with the identity of the user and stored for later
use.

When attempting to authenticate themselves, the user enters his
login name or, alternatively, the user may provide a card/token
containing identification information.

The user's physical attribute is then measured.

The previously stored reference profile of the physical attribute
is then compared with the measured profile of the attribute taken
from the user.  The result of the comparison is then used to
either accept or reject the user.

     Biometric systems can provide an increased level of security
for IT systems, but the technology is still less mature than
memory or smart cards.  Imperfections in biometric authentication
devices arise from technical difficulties in measuring and
profiling physical attributes as well as from the somewhat
variable nature of physical attributes.  Many physical attributes
change depending on various conditions.  For example, a person's
speech pattern may change under stressful conditions or when
suffering from a sore throat or cold.

Biometric systems are typically used in conjunction with other
authentication means in environments requiring high security.


3.6  Cryptography

    Cryptography can play many different roles in user
authentication.  Cryptographic authentication systems provide
authentication capabilities through the use of cryptographic keys
known or possessed only by authorized entities.  Cryptography
also supports authentication through its widespread use in other
authentication systems.  For example, password systems often
employ cryptography to encrypt stored password files, card/token
system often employ cryptography to protect sensitive stored
information, and hand-held password generators often employ
cryptography to generate random, dynamic passwords.  Cryptography
is frequently used in distributed applications to convey
identification and authentication information from one system to
another over a network.

       Cryptographic authentication systems authenticate a user
based on the knowledge or possession of a cryptographic key.
Cryptographic authentication systems can be based on either
private key cryptosystems or public key cryptosystems.

     Private key cryptosystems use the same key for the functions
of both encryption and decryption.  Cryptographic authentication
systems based upon private key cryptosystems rely upon a shared
key between the user attempting access and the authentication
system.

     Public key cryptosystems separate the functions of
encryption and decryption, typically using a separate key to
control each function.  Cryptographic authentication systems
based upon public key cryptosystems rely upon a key known only to
the user attempting access.

4  Issues

     In addition to the actual choice of identification and
authentication technology, there are a number of other issues
that should be addressed to ensure the overall success and
security of one's IT system.

4.1  Networks and Applications

     With the increased use of networks connecting multiple
hosts, an average IT user may find himself logging onto several
different computers, some of them remotely through a network.
This situation poses a number of options with respect to user
identification and authentication.  In one option, the user must
authenticate himself to each computer separately, with a possibly
different password each time.  If there is a different password
for each computer, then that user will have difficulty in
remembering them.  If one password is used for all systems, then
the compromise of the password will have more far reaching
effects.

     A more desirable situation is one in which the user need
only authenticate himself to the first computer he logs into and
that computer passes the authentication data to each of the other
computers the user then needs to access.  This scheme requires
that all of the computers on the network are capable of reliably
handling this authentication data.  Standardization efforts such
as Open System Environment (OSE), Portable Operating System
Interface (POSIX) and Government Open Systems Interconnection
Profile (GOSIP) can contribute to this goal of transparent
authentication across networks.


     Related to the issue of user authentication across different
platforms is the issue of user authentication across different
applications on the same platform.  Large applications, such as
database management systems (DBMS), frequently require that users
login to them as well as to the underlying operating system.
This second application login is considered an unnecessary burden
by many users.  As discussed in the network context above, if
authentication data can be reliably shared between an operating
system and the applications running on it, then the task of
authenticating a user to a complex IT system becomes simpler.


4.2  Procurement Considerations

     An organization must answer numerous questions when it
decides to implement an advanced authentication system.  The
following discussion highlights many of the issues involved in
evaluating, procuring, and integrating these systems.

4.2.1  Sources of information

     A variety of sources should be used when evaluating
authentication systems.  Vendor product literature can be very
helpful in describing specific details of product operation,
and in understanding the range of products offered.  There are
several annual conferences devoted to computer security, network
access control, and authentication technology.  In addition to
the papers presented at these conferences, there are usually
large vendor exhibit halls   and product forums.  Many
organizations, particularly those in the government sector, have
published information on the selection and integration of
advanced authentication technology.  These publications are
often the result of practical experience gained during the
implementation of these systems, and so can be particularly
useful.

4.2.2  Accuracy

     The accuracy of an authentication system refers to the
ability of that system to correctly identify authorized system
users while rejecting unauthorized users.  Since this is the
primary function of an authentication system, accuracy is
directly related to the level of security provided by the
system.  Vendors may not be objective about producing an
interpreting the results of tests which quantify the accuracy
of the authentication process with regard to the vendor's
particular products.  For these reasons, an organization may wish
to run independent tests to determine the accuracy of an
authentication system in terms which are relevant to the
environment in which the system will be used.

4.2.3  Reliability

     An authentication system should be capable of operating in
its intended environment for a reasonable period of time.  During
this time, the system is expected to perform at or above a level
which ensures an appropriate amount of protection for the host
system.  If the authentication system fails, the chances for
unauthorized access during the failure should be minimized.

4.2.4  Maintainability

     All hardware and software systems require some form of
maintenance.  The components of an authentication system should
be evaluated to determine the level of maintenance which the
system will require.  One goal in the design of an authentication
system should be to minimize the maintenance requirements within
the constraints of system cost, performance, and available
technology.

4.2.5  Commercial availability

     Large-scale networking of computer systems and distributed
computing are relatively recent developments, and are the driving
forces behind the need for more effective methods for
authenticating system users.  Unfortunately, the market for
advanced authentication technology is not fully developed and
is somewhat unstable.  Many commercially available authentication
systems have not yet been sold in quantity.  An organization that
is considering the use of this technology should evaluate the
vendor's ability to produce systems that meet specific quality
control standards and in sufficient quantity to meet the user's
requirements.  Contracts written to procure authentication
systems should provide some form of protection for the customer
in the event that the vendor is unable to produce systems in the
quantities required.

4.2.6  Upgradeability

     Because the technology of advanced authentication systems is
continually developing, any authentication system should be able
to accommodate the replacement of outdated components with new
ones.  A modular approach to the design of an authentication
system, with clearly defined interfaces between the system
components, facilitates the process of upgrading to new
technology.


4.2.7  System Integration

     The integration of an authentication system into an existing
computer environment can be very difficult.  Most operating
systems do not contain well-defined entry points for replacing
the default authentication mechanism supplied with the operating
system.  This is partly because there is no widely accepted
standard for the interface between an operating system and an
authentication device.  Until such a standard becomes available,
there are three general options:

In some cases, the vendor who provides the authentication system
may have already integrated it into certain operating systems.
If the authentication system meets the requirements of the
customer and the customer is using the specified operating
system, then the system integration has already been
accomplished.

Operating system vendors may select certain security
architectures for incorporation into their systems.  If these
architectures include an authentication technology which the
customer finds acceptable, then the operating system may be
purchased with the appropriate authentication mechanism as part
of the package.

It may be necessary to customize the authentication system and
perhaps modify the host operating system so that the two can
communicate.  This will involve cooperation between the operating
system vendor, the authentication system vendor, and the
customer, unless the customer has sufficient expertise to perform
the integration in-house.  A prototyping approach is strongly
recommended, due to the complexity of this type of project.
Implementing such a system on a small scale first can be very
helpful in determining what problems will be encountered in a
full-scale implementation.


5    Cost

     As in other aspects of IT security, the specific cost of
enforcing Identification and Authentication should be balanced
against the value of the information processed on an IT system
and the vulnerability of that information to attack.  In general,
devices with a higher performance level will cost more, but
individual cases should be evaluated carefully. The
authentication systems described in this chapter provide a range
of cost from password-only systems at the low end to biometrics
at the high end.  Token systems, such as memory cards and smart
cards, fall inside the range.

     In assessing the cost of an authentication system there are
several issues to consider.  The first is the actual cost to
purchase and install the required equipment and software.  In
general there is no additional cost to purchase a password system
because they are included with most IT systems.  Programs that
check for good passwords, an important part of using a password
system, do cost additional money.  The use of memory cards is
quite extensive and the use of smart cards is increasing
significantly so the costs associated with these technologies
will decrease over time.  The application of biometrics is not
that extensive so costs are comparatively higher.  Managers
should keep in mind that similar products from different vendors
may vary widely in cost, depending on the vendor's manufacturing
and development techniques and marketing philosophies.

     In addition to the cost of procuring authentication
technology, there is the cost to the organization involved in
using that technology.  This includes on-going training of staff
in the correct use of the technology as well as the training and
time of personnel to administer the authentication system.

     While the relationship between cost and performance can
appear complex for authentication technology, the general
approach should be to procure the authentication system which
provides the required level of security and other performance
factors at a minimum cost.


6    Interdependencies

6.1  Security Management & Administration

     The incorporation of a new or improved user authentication
system will have a noticeable effect throughout an organization.
To ensure the acceptance and success of such a program, careful
management of the change should take place throughout the
organization.


6.2  Cryptography

     Cryptography plays a role in identification and
authentication in two ways. The first is a supporting role for
each of the other forms of authentication.  Cryptography can
provide for the security of authentication data both while it is
stored in a computer as well as while it is being transmitted
between.  In addition, cryptography can be used itself as an
authentication method.

6.3  Risk Management

     A thorough analysis can be done to determine what parts of
an organization's IT system are vulnerable to a login attack, and
to prioritize these vulnerabilities in terms of severity and
likelihood.  The types of authentication technology used should
be appropriate for the risk at hand.  Not all systems may require
identification and authentication, e.g., public access systems.

6.4  Personnel

     The types of identification and authentication methods used
by an organization should be chosen in a context that includes
personnel considerations.  This will help determine what measures
will work best for an organization's employees.  It is important
to note that the cooperation of an organization's staff is very
bit as important as the technology to provide identification and
authentication.

6.5  Audit

     Identification and authentication provide the basis for
auditing in an IT system.  By tying actions of a user to a unique
identification, individuals may be held accountable for their
actions.


7   References


CSC-STD-002-85, Department of Defense Password Management
Guideline, April 12, 1985.

FIPS PUB 48, Guidelines on Evaluation of Techniques for Automated
Personal Identification, U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., April 1, 1977.

FIPS PUB 83, Guideline on User Authentication Techniques for
Computer Network Access Control, U.S. Department of Commerce,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., September 29,
1980.

FIPS PUB 113, Computer Data Authentication, U.S. Department of
Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., May 30,
1985.

Feldmeier, David C. and Philip R. Karn, UNIX Password Security -
Ten Years Later, Crypto '89 Abstracts, Santa Barbara, CA, August
20-24, 1989.

FIPS PUB 112, Password Usage, U.S. Department of Commerce,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., May 30, 1985.

Haykin, Martha E., and Robert B. J. Warnar, Smart Card
Technology: New Methods for Computer Access Control, NIST Special
Publication 500-157, U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Institute of Standards and Technology, Washington, D.C.,
September 1988.

R. Morris and K. Thompson, Password Security: A Case History,
Communications of the ACM, Vol. 22, No. 11, November 1979, pp.
594-597.

R. M. Needham and M. D. Schroeder, Using Encryption for
Authentication in Large Networks of Computers, Communications of
the ACM, Vol. 21, No. 12, December 1978, pp. 993-999.

Smid, Miles, James Dray and Robert B. J. Warnar, A Token Based
Access Control System for Computer Networks, Proceedings 12th
National Computer Security Conference, October 1989.

Steiner, J.G., Neuman, C., and Schiller, J.I., Kerberos: An
Authentication Service for Open Network Systems, Proceedings
Winter USENIX, Dallas, Texas, February 1988, pp. 191-202.

Troy, Eugene F., Security for Dial-Up Lines, NBS Special
Publication 500-137, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards, Washington, D.C., May 1986.

CCITT Recommendation X.509, The Directory - Authentication
Framework, November 1988, (Developed in collaboration, and
technically aligned, with ISO 9594-8).

ANSI X9.26-1990, American National Standard for Financial
Institution Sign-On Authentication for Wholesale Financial
Transactions, American Bankers Association, Washington, D.C.,
Approved February 28, 1990.



Sidebar Notes

(1)  Sec. 1, para 1:  The process of verifying the identity of an
IT system user is referred to as identification and
authentication.

(2)  Sec. 1, para 2:  Many new technologies offer significant
increases to the protection afforded by password-only systems.

(3)  Sec. 3.1.1, para 3:  Passwords will be more difficult to
guess or obtain illicitly when combined or misspelled words are
used and when a minimum length requirements for passwords is met.


(4)  Sec. 3.1.1, para 2:  The use of passwords as a means of
access control to IT systems can result in a proliferation of
passwords that reduces overall IT system security.

(5)  Sec 3.2, para 1:  A memory card authenticates a user's
identity based on a unique card used in conjunction with
something known to the user, such as a PIN.

(6)  Sec. 3.2, para 3:  Common types of memory cards are
telephone calling cards, credit cards, and ATM cards.

(7)  Sec. 3.3, para 1:  Smart cards, which contain one or more
integrated chips, can provide increased functionality and
increased security over memory cards.

(8)  Sec 3.4, para 1:  A hand-held password generator is a state-
of-the-art device about the size of a shirt-pocket calculator
that is used to access an IT system in place of the traditional
user name and password.

(9)  Sec. 3.5, para 1:  Biometric authentication systems operate
based on unique physical attributes of users, such as voice
patterns, fingerprints, and hand geometry; however, the
technology is less mature than that for memory and smart cards.

(10) Sec. 3.6, para 1:  Cryptography can be the basis for an
authentication system; or it can be used in conjunction with
other system discussed.

(11) Sec. 4.2.1:  In choosing an authentication system, managers
should explore information provided by vendors, at IT security
conferences and presentations, and in special publications.

(12)  Sec. 4.2.7:  Important considerations in choosing an
authentication system include accuracy, reliability,
maintainability, commercial availability, upgradeability, and
system integration.