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Introduction to XASM48.COM Running the Cross-Assembler Source file syntax Instruction set nasties Pseudo-Operations Errors Listing format Error messages Object file format :XASM4╕á i≤á ßá cross-assemble≥ designeΣ t∩ ruε oεá an∙á CP/═á 8░ machine«áá I⌠á generate≤á codσá fo≥á thσá Inte∞á 804╕á famil∙á oµ microprocessors¼ acceptinτ standarΣ 804╕ mnemonic≤ anΣ syntax. Thσá 804╕á famil∙ include≤ fivσ differen⌠á processo≥á groups¼á a≤ distinguisheΣ b∙ slightl∙ differen⌠ instructioε sets╗á thesσá arσ representeΣá b∙ thσ 8048¼á 8041A¼á 8041¼á 8022¼á anΣ 802▒á chips« Withiεá eacΦ group¼á variou≤ model≤ providσ ß selectioε oµ memor∙ anΣá input/outpu⌠ configurations«á XASM4╕ assemble≤á instruction≤ fo≥ al∞ fivσ groups¼ anΣ ha≤ provision≤ fo≥ flagginτ instruction≤ no⌠ availablσ iε ß specifieΣ targe⌠ machine. XASM4╕ accept≤ it≤ inpu⌠ froφ ß CP/═ tex⌠ file¼á anΣ generate≤ a≤ outpu⌠á aεá objec⌠á codσá file¼áá aεá assembl∙á listing¼á anΣá aε alphabetizeΣ listinτ oµ al∞ symbol≤ defineΣ iε thσ assembly«á Thσ objec⌠á filσá ma∙á bσá iεá Inte∞ HE╪ forma⌠á o≥á ma∙á bσá omitted altogether¼á a⌠ thσ user'≤ discretion«á Thσ listing≤ arσ normall∙ sen⌠á t∩á thσ system'≤ LIS╘ device¼á bu⌠ ma∙ bσ directeΣá t∩á thσ console or to a disk file. :Invoking the 8048 cross-assembler. XASM48 {d:}filename{.ext} {d:} {switches} Wherσá thσá d:'≤á arσ optiona∞á drivσá specifiers¼á thσá filenamσ extensioε i≤ optiona∞ anΣ iµ omitteΣ default≤ t∩ .ASM« Thσ seconΣ drivσá namσá specifie≤á thσ destinatioε oµ an∙á outpu⌠á froφá thσ cross-assemble≥ iµ omitteΣ thσ outpu⌠ file≤ wil∞ bσ placeΣ oε thσ defaul⌠á drive«á Thσá switche≤ arσ (optional⌐á singlσá character≤ which control the output of the assmbler, as described below. XASM48 Switches The switches following the filename, if supplied, control various options as follows: L Listing only; i.e. no object file. X No assembly listing. Y No symbol-table listing O Object only; equivalent to XY C Send listing, if any, to console instead of LST: D Send listing, if any, to disk file with same name as source file but with an extension of `.PRN'. Any combination of the switches may be used to achive a desired output. Clarification ------------- Whilσ thi≤ ma∙ bσ misseΣ oε ß cursor∙ readinτ oµ thσ manual¼á thσ ì defaul⌠ destinatioε fo≥ thσ assembl∙ listinτ i≤ thσ PRINTER«á Iµ ì thσ printe≥ i≤ no⌠ ready¼ o≥ n∩ printe≥ i≤ present¼ thσ assemble≥ ì wil∞ appea≥ t∩ "hanτ up"«á Notσ tha⌠ line≤ containinτ error≤ arσ ì alway≤á listed¼á eveεá iµá thσá "Oó o≥á "Xóá switche≤á havσá beeε ì specified. Listing output can be diverted to the console or to a PRN file by using the "C" and "D" switches, respectively, in the command line. :Syntax of Assembler Source Files Statements Sourcσá file≤á consis⌠ oµ ß sequencσ oµ statement≤ oµ onσ oµá thσ forms: {label:} operator {arguments} {;comment} symbol operator {arguments} {;comment} {;comment} Iµá ßá labe∞ o≥ ß leadinτ symbo∞ i≤ present¼á i⌠á mus⌠á begiεá iε columεá 1«á Label≤ mus⌠ bσ followeΣ b∙ ß colon«á Blanδ line≤á arσ treateΣ a≤ comments«á Element≤ oµ ß statemen⌠ ma∙ bσ separateΣ b∙ blanks or tabs. Symbols Symbol≤ ma∙ bσ u≡ t∩ ╕ character≤ iε length¼á anΣ ma∙ includσ an∙ of the following characters: A..Z 0..9 $ . The first character of a symbol must be a letter or a period. Numeric Constants Numeriπá constant≤á consis⌠ oµ ß sequencσ oµá digits¼á optionall∙ preceedeΣ o≥ followeΣ b∙ ß radi° specifier«á Thσ firs⌠á characte≥ mus⌠á bσá eithe≥ ß leadinτ radi° specifie≥ o≥á ßá decima∞á numbe≥ (0..9)« Thσ defaul⌠ radi° i≤ ten« Fo≥ compatibilit∙ witΦ existinτ assemblers¼á othe≥á base≤ ma∙ bσ denoteΣ b∙ eithe≥ ß leadinτ o≥ ß trailinτ specifier« Thσ radi° specifier≤ are: % (binary) @ (octal) $ (hex) The trailing specifiers are: B (binary) Q (octal) H (hex) Character Constants Characte≥á constant≤á ma∙á bσ useΣ wheneve≥ ßá numeriπá valuσá i≤ allowed«á ┴ characte≥ constan⌠ consist≤ oµ onσ o≥ tw∩á character≤ encloseΣá iε singlσ o≥ doublσ quote≤ (º o≥ ")«á Thσ singlσá quotσ may be used as a character between double quotes, and vice-versa. Thus, the following are equivalent: 'A' "A" and 41H 'AB' "AB" and 4142H Location-Counter Reference Thσá characte≥ "$ó ma∙ bσ usΣ a≤ aε elemen⌠ iεá expressions«á It≤ valuσá i≤ thσ valuσ oµ thσ locatioε counte≥ a⌠ thσá beginninτá oµ thσ curren⌠ statement. Expressions Arithmetiπáá expression≤áá arσá composeΣá oµáá symbols¼áá numeriπ constants¼á characte≥á constants¼á anΣ operators«á Al∞á operator≤ execp⌠ +¼ -¼ *¼ anΣ » mus⌠ bσ separateΣ froφ thie≥ operand≤ b∙ a⌠ leas⌠ onσ space«á Symbol≤ whicΦ arσ operator≤ arσá reserved¼á anΣ may not be redefined as user symbols. Arithmetic Operators Thesσá trea⌠á thei≥ operand≤ a≤ 16-bi⌠ unsigneΣá quantities¼á anΣ return 16-bit results. No overflow checking is performed. + and - Sum and Difference. Operands and results may be thought of as unsigned or as twos-complement quantities. unary + +x is defined as 0+x unary - -x is defined as 0-x * / Product and Quotient (unsigned) MOD Remainder; x MOD y gives the remainder of x/y Shift Operators SHL Binary left shift. x SHL y yields x shifted left y places (ie. x multiplied by 2**y). SHR Binary right shift, logical. x SHR y yields x shifted right y places (ie. x multiplied by 2**y). Iµ thσ righ⌠ argumen⌠ i≤ negative¼ theε thσ directioε oµ shif⌠ i≤ reversed. Byte-Extraction Operators HIGH Returns the value of the most significant byte of its argument. LO╫ Return≤ thσ valuσ oµ thσ leas⌠ significan⌠ bytσ oµ its argument. Thesσ arσ unar∙ operators¼á takinτ aε argumen⌠ oε thσ right«á Fo≥ example: HIGH 1122H is 11H, and LOW 1122H is 22H. Boolean Operators NO╘ Unar∙ logica∞ negation«á Complement≤ al∞ thσá bit≤ in its argument. AN─á Logica∞ product╗á ie«á eacΦ bi⌠ oµ thσ resul⌠ is obtaineΣ b∙ ANDinτ togethe≥ thσ correspondinτ bit in the arguments. OR Logical sum. XOR Exclusive-OR. Thesσ arσ al∞ bitwisσ operators╗á tha⌠ is¼á thσ samσ operatioε i≤ performeΣá oε eacΦ operanΣ bi⌠ position¼á witΦ n∩ carr∙ froφá onσ bit position to the next. For example: NOT 0 is 0FFFFH 101B AND 010B is 101B OR 010B is 111B 101B XOR 010B is 111B 101B XOR 100B is 001B Relational Operators Thesσá perforφá unsigneΣá 16-bi⌠ comparisoεá oµá thei≥á operands¼ returning 1 for TRUE and 0 for FALSE. Fo≥á comparisoεá ° ╥ y¼á wherσ ╥ i≤ ßá relationa∞á operator¼á thσ results are as follows: EQ TRUE iff x and y are equal NE TRUE iff x and y are not equal LE TRUE iff x is less than or equal to y LT TRUE iff x is strictly less than y GE TRUE iff x is greater than or equal to y GT TRUE iff x is strictly greater than y Evaluation of Expressions Parenthese≤á ma∙á bσ useΣ t∩ specif∙ thσ orde≥ oµá evaluatioεá oµ subexpressions«á Iεá thσá absencσ oµ parentheses¼á thi≤ orde≥á i≤ determineΣá b∙ operato≥ precedence╗á higher-precedencσá operator≤ arσá evaluateΣá first«á Iεá thσá casσá oµá operator≤á witΦá equa∞ precedence¼ evaluatioε proceed≤ froφ lef⌠ t∩ right« Thσ operator≤ arσ liteΣ belo≈ iε group≤ accordinτ t∩ precedence«á Operator≤á iε the same horizontal group have the same precedence: unary +, unary - (Highest precedence) HIGH LOW * / MOD SHR SHL + - EQ NE LT LE GT GE NOT AND OR XOR (Lowest precedence) :Instruction Set Nasties Whilσá thσ 804╕ famil∙ instructioε se⌠ i≤ no⌠ discusseΣ iε detai∞ iεá here¼á somσ peculiaritie≤ oµ jum≡ anΣ cal∞á instruction≤á arσ worthy of note: Thσá JM╨á anΣ CAL╠ instruction≤ iε machinσ codσ contaiε ßá targe⌠ addres≤á oµ 1▒ bits╗á ß 12tΦ bi⌠ i≤ supplieΣ viß thσ memor∙á banδ selectioεá feature«á Iεá thσá assemlber¼á 12- bi⌠á addresse≤á arσ accepteΣ a≤ operand≤ fo≥ thesσ instructions¼á bu⌠ thσá high-orde≥ bi⌠á i≤ discarded«á Rangσ checkinτ i≤ performeΣ t∩ ascertaiε tha⌠ the target address is less than or equal to 4095. N∩ JM╨ instructioε ma∙ bσ begiε a⌠ locatioε 204╖ o≥ a⌠á 4095«á N∩ CALL intruction may begin at 2047, 4094, or 4095. The assembler does not check for these violations. Thσá shor⌠á jum≡ instruction≤ (includinτ DJNZ⌐ contaiεá ßá singlσ bytσá operanΣ representinτ aε addres≤ withiε thσ curren⌠ 256-bytσ page«á Thσá assemble≥á accpt≤ addresse≤ iε thσ rangσá 0..409╡á a≤ operand≤á fo≥ thesσ instructions«á Bit≤ ╕ thr⌡ 1▒á arσá discardeΣ wheεá assemblinτá thσá instruction¼á bu⌠ arσá compareΣá witΦá thσ correspondinτá bit≤á oµá thσ locatioε counte≥ t∩á makσá surσá thσ targe⌠ addres≤ i≤ accessible«á Iµ ß shor⌠ jum≡ begin≤ a⌠ thσ las⌠ locatioεá oµ ß pagσ (ie«á lo≈ orde≥ addres≤ bytσ i≤ 255⌐ theε it≤ operanΣ mus⌠ liσ iε thσ followinτ page╗á thi≤ i≤ enforceΣ b∙á thσ assembler. :Pseudo-Operations Storage Definition DB arg{,arg...} Definσá bytes«á EacΦá arτ ma∙ bσ eithe≥ aε expressioεá o≥á ß ì string« Expression≤ mus⌠ evaluatσ t∩ 8-bi⌠ value≤ (higΦ bytσ ì eithe≥á ░á o≥ 255)«á String≤ ma∙ bσ delimiteΣ b∙á singlσá o≥ ì double quotes, as for character constants. Fo≥ eacΦ expression¼á ß singlσ bytσ oµ storagσ i≤á reserved¼ ì initializeΣá t∩ thσ lo≈ bytσ oµ thσ expression'≤ value«á Fo≥ ì eacΦá string¼á thσá character≤ oµ thσ strinτ arσá storeΣá iε ì sequential reserved bytes. If a compound expression beginning with a character constant i≤á useΣ iε ß DB¼á theε thσ expressioε mus⌠ bσá encloseΣá iε ì parenthese≤á t∩á kee≡ i⌠ froφ beinτ incorrectl∙ parseΣ a≤á ß ì string. For example, DB ('A'+1) will give the expected result, while DB 'A'+1 would be in error. DW expression{,expression} EacΦ expressioε reserve≤ onσ worΣ (▓ bytes)¼á initializeΣ t∩ ì thσá valuσ oµ thσ expression«á Thσ valuσ i≤ placeΣ iε memor∙ ì with the high-order byte first. DS expression Reserve≤á ε bytes¼á wherσ ε i≤ thσ valuσ oµ thσá expression« ì The bytes are not initialized. ORG and END ORG expression Se⌠á prograφá origin«á Thi≤ shoulΣ precedσ thσá firs⌠á code-ì generatinτ statemen⌠ iε thσ soucσ file«á I⌠ set≤ thσ prograφ ì counte≥ initia∞ valuσ t∩ thσ valuσ oµ thσá expression¼á thu≤ ì settinτá thσ locatioε oµ codσ whicΦ follows«á Additiona∞ OR╟ ì statements which will load at different locations. END {expression} Thσá las⌠á statemen⌠á oµá thσ sourcσ filσá mus⌠á bσá aεá EN─ ì statement«á Aεá optiona∞á argumen⌠ i≤ allowed╗á iµá thi≤á i≤ ì supplied¼á it≤ valuσ become≤ thσ star⌠ addres≤ specifieΣá iε ì the last record of the HEX object file. Symbol Definition EQU and SET These take the form: symbol EQU expression symbol SET expression The∙á causσ thσ symbo∞ t∩ bσ defineΣ anΣ giveε thσ valuσá oµ ì thσá argumen⌠ expresson«á Symbol≤ defineΣ witΦ EQ╒ servσá a≤ ì symboliπá constants¼á anΣ ma∙ no⌠ havσ thei≥ value≤ changed« ì Symbol≤á defineΣ witΦ SE╘ arσ treateΣá a≤á variables╗á thei≥ ì values may be changed by additional SET's Conditional Assembly IF, ELSE, and ENDIF The construct IF expression statement . . . ENDIF cause≤á thσá firs⌠ sequencσ oµ statement≤ t∩ bσ processeΣ iµá thσ ì expressioεá i≤á TRU┼ (non-zero)¼á anΣ thσ seconΣ sequencσá t∩á bσ ì processed otherwise. Conditional≤á ma∙ bσ nesteΣ t∩ ß deptΦ oµ 10«á Thσ valuσá oµá thσ ì expression if the IF statement must be known in Pass 1. Listing Control PAGE {expression} Iµá thσ argumen⌠ i≤ omitted¼á theε thi≤ cause≤ aεá immediatσ ì pagσ ejec⌠ (ie«á ß ski≡ t∩ thσ to≡ oµ thσ nex⌠ page)«á Iµ aε ì argumen⌠á i≤ supplieΣ occur≤ onl∙ iµ therσ arσ les≤á thaεá ε ì line≤ remaininτ oε thσ curren⌠ page. WIDTH expression Set≤ thσ assumeΣ widtΦ oµ thσ listinτ page« Thσ valuσ oµ thσ ì argument may be between 32 and 132, and defaults to 132. PGLEN expression Set≤á thσ numbe≥ oµ line≤ whicΦ wil∞ bσ printeΣ oε eacΦ pagσ ì oµá thσ listing«á Notσ tha⌠ thσ pagσ headinτ take≤ u≡á ╖á oµ ì thesσ lines«á Thσ valuσ oµ thσ argumen⌠ ma∙ bσ betweeε ╕ anΣ ì 255, and defaults to 58. TITLE dtextd Causσá thσ specifieΣ tex⌠ t∩ becomσ thσ listinτ pagσá title¼ ì beginninτ witΦ thσ nex⌠ pagσ heade≥ printed« Thσ delimite≥ Σ ì may be any printing character. Iµá n∩á TITL┼á statemen⌠ i≤ used¼á theεá XASM4╕á supplie≤á ß ì defaul⌠á titlσ consistinτ oµ thσ tex⌠ "SOURC┼ FIL┼á NAME║á ó ì followed by the name and extension of the input file. SBTTL dtextd Jus⌠ likσ TITLE¼á bu⌠ set≤ thσ listinτ pagσ subtitle¼á whicΦ ì is printed on the line after the title line. LIST and NOLIST Thesσá allowselectivσá listinτá oµ portion≤á oµá ßá program« ì NOLIS╘á turn≤á ofµ thσ assembl∙ listing¼á anΣ LIS╘ turn≤á i⌠ ì bacδ on« Iµ listinτ ha≤ beσ turneΣ ofµ witΦ NOLIST¼ theε thσ ì nex⌠á LIS╘ encountereΣ wil∞ begiε ßá ne≈á page«á Commnd-linσ ì switche≤á whicΦá disablσá listinτ (ie«á ╪ anΣ O⌐á wil∞á takσ ì precedencσá ove≥ LIST«á NOLIS╘ doe≤ no⌠ turε ofµ listinτá oµ ì the symbol table. External Source File INCLUD d:name.ext Thi≤á pseudo-o≡ cause≤ thσ specifieΣ filσ t∩ bσ includeΣá a≤ ì iµá i⌠á werσá presen⌠á a⌠ thi≤ poin⌠á iεá thσá sourcσá file« ì INCLUD'≤á ma∙á no⌠á bσ nested╗á tha⌠ is¼á thσ filσá reaΣá b∙ ì INCLU─á ma∙ no⌠ contaiε anothe≥ INCLU─ statement«á Thσá filσ ì must end with an END statement. Operator Synonyms The Statement symbol OPSYN operator cause≤á thσá giveεá symbo∞ t∩ bσ defineΣ a≤á ßá synonyφá fo≥á thσ ì operato≥ o≥ pseudo-o≡ specifieΣ a≤ argument« Thi≤ i≤ particularl∙ ì usefu∞ wheε assemblinτ sourcσ filσ writteε fo≥ anothe≥ assembler« ì Fo≥ example¼á iµ ß prograφ use≤ .BYT┼ insteaΣ oµ DB¼á i⌠ coulΣ bσ ì correctly assembled by including the statement .BYTE OPSYN DB Target Machine Validation XASM4╕á check≤á t∩ seσ tha⌠ eacΦ instructioε assembleΣ i≤ iεá thσ ì targe⌠ machine'╙ instructioε set«á Thσ defaul⌠ intructioε se⌠á i≤ ì tha⌠ oµ thσ 8048« Other≤ ma∙ bσ specifieΣ b∙ onσ oµ thσ followinτ ì pseudo-ops: MOD41A MOD41 MOD22 MOD21 Onl∙á onσá oµ thesσ ma∙ appea≥ iε ß giveε program╗á i⌠á ma∙á onl∙ ì appear once, and it must precede all code-generating instructios. :Errors Fata∞á error≤á resul⌠ iε thσ printinτ oµ aε erro≥ messagσ oεá thσ consolσ anΣ immediatσ returε t∩ CP/M«á Fata∞ error≤ ma∙ bσ causeΣ b∙ missinτ sourcσ files¼á inadequatσ disδ spacσ fo≥ outpu⌠ files¼ o≥ overflo≈ oµ thσ symbo∞ tablσ o≥ variou≤ stacks. Non-fata∞ error≤ arσ flaggeΣ witΦ ß characte≥ iε thσ firs⌠ columε oµá thσá assembl∙ listing«á Line≤ containinτá error≤á arσá alway≤ listed¼á eveε iµ listinτ i≤ turneΣ off«á ┴ coun⌠ i≤ maintaineΣ oµ line≤á containinτ errors╗á iµ thσ coun⌠ i≤ non-zer∩ a⌠ thσ enΣ oµ the assembly, it is printed on the console in the message: ***** nnn LINES CONTAINED ERRORS ***** Onl∙á onσ erro≥ i≤ listeΣ pe≥ line╗á hence¼á iµ ßá linσá contain≤ multiplσ error≤ somσ ma∙ no⌠ bσ caugh⌠ unti∞ successivσ assemble≥ runs«á Thσá fata∞á erro≥ message≤ anΣ non-fata∞ erro≥á flag≤á arσ ì described later. :Format of Listings Page Headings All listings begin with a heading consisting of seven lines: (blank line) (blank line) (assembler name and version) (blank line) (title and page number) (subtitle) (blank line) If no title is supplied in the source program, then the assembler provides a default title consisting of the message SOURCE FILE NAME: followed by the name of the input file in the form name.ext. The pagσá numbe≥á i≤ listeΣ a⌠ thσ right-hanΣ enΣ oµ thi≤ samσá line¼ always within the specified page width. If no subtitle is supplied, the subtitle line is left blank. Both titlσ anΣ subtitlσ wil∞ bσ truncated¼á iµ necessary¼á t∩á satisf∙ page width constraints. Line Headings EacΦá code-generatinτá linσ oµ thσ listiε begin≤ witΦá thσá erro≥ flaτ (blanδ iµ n∩ error⌐ anΣ thσ 4-digi⌠ hexadecima∞ valuσ oµ thσ locatioε counte≥ a≤ oµ thσ star⌠ oµ thσ line« Thi≤ i≤ followed by u≡ t∩ fou≥ byte≤ oµ generateΣ code¼á als∩ iε hexadecima∞ witΦ tw∩ digits per byte. Statements which generate more than 4 bytes will bσá assembleΣá correctly¼á bu⌠ onl∙ thσ firs⌠ fou≥ byte≤ wil∞á bσ listed«á Line≤á whicΦ d∩ no⌠ generatσ codσ bu⌠ whicΦ evaluatσá aε operanΣá (sucΦ a≤ EQ╒ o≥ WIDTH⌐ lis⌠ thσ operanΣ valuσá iεá thei≥ headers, in place of the location counter. Symbol-Table Listing The symbol-table listing shows all symbols defined in the current assembly¼áá witΦá thei≥á hexadecima∞á values«á Onl∙á user-defineΣ symbol≤á arσá listed«á Symbol≤ arσ iεá vertica∞á columns¼á sorteΣ alphabeticall∙á accordinτá t∩ thσ ASCI╔ collatinτá sequence«á Thσ numbe≥á oµá column≤á i≤á adjusteΣ automaticall∙á t∩á fi⌠á iεá thσ specifieΣ pagσ width«á Al∞ page≤ oµ thσ symbol-tablσ listinτá arσ automatically subtitled. ---- SYMBOL TABLE ---- Becausσá thσ sortinτ schemσ useΣ i≤ strictl∙á lexicographic¼á thσ wa∙ i⌠ order≤ number≤ ma∙ bσ counterintuitive« ┴ typica∞ sequencσ of labels might be listed as follows: SYM19, SYM2, SYM20, SYM21, SYM3, SYM4 :Error Messages and Flags Non-Fatal Error Flags C Conditional Err Unmatched IF, ELSE, or, ENDIF; or conditionals nested too deeply. I Includ Err File not found, or nested INCLUD's. L Label Err Label too long. (>8 characters) M Multipule Defn Symbol already defined. O Operator Err Undefined or illegal operator ╨ Phasσ Er≥ Symbo∞ ha≤ differen⌠ valuσ oε pass 2 than on pass 1 R Range Err Argument out of bounds, branch out out of range, or illegal register/ port number. S Syntax Err Ill-formed argument or expression W Warning Instruction not available on specified target machine. Fatal Error Messages SOURCE FILE NOT FOUND The specified source file doesn't exist. UNABLE TO CREATE OUTPUT FILE The directory is full on the disk specified for output OUTPUT FILE WRITE ERROR The output disk is full EVALUATION STACK IS FULL An arithmetic expression was encountered which had too many levels of parentheses or of precedence nesting SYMBOL TABLE FULL Not enough memory remains to to create a table entry for a symbol being defined. Non-Fatal Error Messages NO ROOM FOR SYMBOL-TABLE SORT Not enough memory is available to sort the symbol table. Symbol-table listing is therefore omitted. :Object File Format Object files are in the Intel HEX format, which represents binary data bytes as two-digit ASCII hexadecimal numbers. An object file consists of a sequence of data records, followed by a single end record. The record formats are: Data Record: Byte 1 Colon (:) 2..3 Number of binary data bytes in this record. 4..5 Load address for this record, high byte. 6..7 Load address " " " low byte 8..9 Unused, should be "00". 10..X Data bytes, two characters each. X+1..X+2 Checksum (2 characters). X+3..X+4 CR/LF End Record: Likσ datß record¼ bu⌠ numbe≥ oµ datß byte≤ i≤ zer∩ anΣ the load address field contains the program starting address. Thσá checksuφ i≤ thσ two'╙ complemen⌠ oµ thσ 8-bi⌠á sum¼á withou⌠ carry¼á oµ al∞ thσ datß bytes¼ thσ tw∩ byte≤ oµ loaΣ address¼ anΣ thσ bytσ count.