The California Collection/TheCaliforniaCollection.cdr/his075/shakers.lzh/SHAKERS.TXT

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CUL:The Shakers/Onedia community  by Randall Hillebrand

   The Shakers and the Oneida Community were contempories for
approximately 31 years from 1848 to 1880. This was the approximate
length of time that the Oneida Community lasted (1848-1881). The
Shakers lasted the longest between the two groups, from approximately
1774 up until present, 1830 being their peak year for membership,
declining thereafter. I have been told that there are about seven
female Shakers still living today by a woman named Jeannie Stine who is
a history buff of the Shakers from Seattle, Washington (Stine).

   Both the Shakers and the Oneida Community were striving for the same
thing: the bringing in of the millennial kingdom. But, they both had
different ways in which to do it. The Shakers felt that sexual
intercourse was the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden and that by
elliminating it, God would bring in the kingdom. The Oneida Community
on the other hand thought that by living as if one where in the
millennial kingdom already, would bring it in.So, as a result of that,
the Oneida Community lived a life where "complex marriage" (where all
men and all woman werejointly married to each other), or as some call
free sex, was practiced. This was practiced since they believed that in
the millenium this would be the norm.

   What is interesting about the Shakers and the Oneida Community is
the fact that even though they were at opposite ends of the pole from
each other, the Shakers and the Oneida Community not only knew of each
other, but on occasion the Shakers would come and visit the Oneida
Community. They had a certian amount of respect for each other (Noyes
144). John Humphrey Noyes, the founder of the Oneida Community,
"declared that his approach and that of the Shakers were the only two
possible in the resurrected state." But he further stated that: "If I
believed in a Shaker heaven I would be a Shaker now." (Foster 89).

   Both the Shakers and the Oneida Community profited from the revivals
that were taking place during their time. " The revivals left many
people distraught and torn by anxiety; and having tried without success
to gain a sense of assurance in their own churches, they were in a
receptive mood to listen to new prophets who offered definite
guarantees of spiritual security." (Hudson 183). So the revivals played
a key role in their success because of the ideas, attitudes, and hopes
which they fostered (Hudson 183).

   Another fact about the two groups was that they both adopted
"communism," or in other words, communal living. Both groups lived in a
communal setting where large groups of people lived corporately in
mansion-size living quarters. They shared the responsibilities as a
group, where both men and women worked side by side with total equality
as their goal.

   Also, both groups were persecuted for their faith. This is quite
interesting when we remember the fact that one group believed in no sex
and the other group believed in "free sex." The general population did
not agree with either extreme. They were both extremist groups that did
not fit in with the main stream of society at that time, even though
both groups went as far as isolating their communities from the general
population.

   The Shakers and the Oneida Community were in some ways very similar,
but in other ways very diverse.

   THE SHAKERS

   FOUNDER:

   The founder of the Shakers was a woman by the name of Ann Lee
Standerin who is known as Ann Lee, or Mother Ann. She was born in
Manchester, England on February 29, 1736. It is said that as a child
she did not have much of a desire to play, but that she was a serious
young girl that had a great interest in religious things. It is even
said that during this time of her life that "she was favoured with
heavenly visions, and became strongly impressed with a sense of the
deep depravity of mankind." (Holloway 55).

   Ann was known to have begged her mother "piteously" to be kept from
having to get married (Fergusen 321). But on January 5, 1762, she was
finally married to a blacksmith by the name of Abraham Standerin. Over
the next four years Abraham and Ann had four children which all died in
infancy. Ann looked at these deaths "as a series of judgements on her
'concupiscence' (sexual desire; lust)." (Andrews TPCS 7,8). So she
began to stop sleeping with her husband so as not to stir up his
affections. She was even afraid to sleep at night because she thought
that she might awaken in hell. She even used to pace the floor at night
in anguish about her struggle against the flesh. It is said that her
anguish was so great that "bloody sweat passed through the pores of her
skin, tears flowed down her cheeks until the skin cleaved off, and she
wrung her hands until the blood gushed from under her nails (Andrews
TPCS 7,8).

   Then in the summer of 1758, she joined the society of Shaking
Quakers, a sect in England under the control of Jane and James Wardley.
(The Shaking Quakers are an offshoot of the Camisards which are
otherwise known as the French Prophets.) (Ferguson 322).

   In the summer of 1770, Ann had been imprisoned for taking part in a
noisy religious service in Manchester England. While in jail, at the
age of thirty-four, Ann had a vision that radically transformed her
life. She had a vision of "Adam and Eve in carnal intercourse". (Foster
21,22). She at last knew without a shadow of a doubt that the very
transgression which had resulted in the fall of man in the Garden of
Eden was sexual intercourse. After this traumatic discovery, Ann had
another vision where the Lord Jesus appeared to her in all of His
glory. Jesus then supposedly comforted her and told her that her new
mission was to spread her newfound knowledge to the world (Foster
21,22).

   HISTORY OF MOVEMENT:

   "AS LUST CONCEIVED BY THE FALL HATH MORE OR LESS INFECTED ALL; SO WE
BELIEVE 'TIS ONLY THIS THAT KEEPETH SOULS FROM PERFECT BLISS." (Hudson
185)

   As seen from this Shaker hymn, the Shakers held to the visions of
Mother Ann, and made it their purpose to spread their newfound message
to the ends of the earth. Mother Ann herself prophesied that "This
gospel will go to the end of the world, and it will not be propagated
so much by preaching, as by the good works of the people."(Morse xxii).

   After Ann's release from jail, she shared her visions with the group
of Shaking Quakers to which she belonged. Because of these visions,
John Wardley, the leader of this group, saw Ann as the fulfillment to
his prophecy. His prophecy was that "Christ's spirit would come again
and that the second time it would be embodied in a woman."(Ferguson
323). The group then "hailed her as Mother in Christ and Bride of the
Lamb; and she was known thereafter as Mother Ann or Ann the Word."
(Holloway 57).

   As Ann developed her sense of overpowering conviction that lust was
the basis of all human corruption, her religious mission increased
until she finally took over leadership from Jane Wardley. Then Mother
Ann, during this time, added a distinctive element to the group which
was celibacy. This distinction was what made the Shakers different from
other revivalist groups of this time. At this time there were
approximately thirty belivers in her following (Foster 25,26). For a
time the group tried to live out their faith in England, but ran into
much social pressure (Gonzalez 244). Then, when Mother Ann was examined
by four scholars of the Established Church in England on the charge of
blasphemy, "whom she confounded by speaking in seventy-two distinct and
seperate tongues, it was plain to her that the Millennium had
begun."(Ferguson 57). Following this, a vision came to either Ann
(Ferguson 57) or her associate James Whittaker (Foster 26) of a tree
that according to Ann talked to her, telling her that they were to come
to America to set up their church (the Church of Christ's Second
Appearing). In Whittaker's vision, the tree did not talk to him, but he
saw a tree with ever-burning leaves in America which represented the
Shakers' church. Because of this vision, the Shakers felt it their
divine call to go to America. So in the spring of 1774, with all
temporal affairs settled, arrangements were made to go to the new world
(Andrews TPCS 18). In May of 1774, Ann Lee and eight followers sailed
from Liverpool for America (Andrews/Andrews 13). The band of nine
sailed on the Mariah, a ship headed for New York. Included in the group
besides Mother Ann herself were several of her family (Neal 2): "her
husband, her brother William, ..., James Wittaker, ... John Hocknell
..., his son Richard, James Shepard, Mary Partington, and Nancy Lee, a
cousin." (Andrews/Andrews 14). The early Shakers believed that the
gospel of celibacy "could never take hold in the old world, where the
stolid, conservative minds of the common people did not open readily to
the new, strange doctrine." They believed that in the new world, God
was going to flourish it (Sasson 4).

   The story is told that while they were not yet very long out to sea,
the captain became very outraged by the Shakers' manner of worship. He
disliked it so much that he told them that if they repeated the
performance again, they would all be thrown overboard. On the following
Sunday they did repeat it. As the story goes, when the captain
attempted to put his threat into action, almost at once, a storm of
tremendous violence arose and knocked a plank lose whereby the ship
started to take on water. All hands tried to pump out the water with no
avail. When the captain announced that nothing could save the ship and
that the ship would sink by morning, to the contrary, Mother Ann told
the captain that she had seen two angels on the ship that told her that
it would not sink. It is said that scarcely had she spoken it when a
great wave arose, the last of its size, that knocked against the ship
so precisely that the loose plank was forced back into place. After
this, the captain allowed the Shakers to worship any way they pleased
(Holloway 58).

   On August 6, 1774, Mother Ann and her followers of eight arrived in
New York (Andrews/Andrews 14). The group split up into smaller groups
in order to earn money (Sasson 6). Ann took in work doing washing and
ironing while her husband was working as a journeyman in the blacksmith
trade (Neal 3,4). But soon after arriving, Abraham became very sick.
Ann had to support the two of them as she nursed him back to health.
After this, Shaker history reports that Abraham got involved in
wickedness and refused to do anything for Ann unless she would decide
to "live in the flesh with him, and bear children." (Sasson 6). She
totally refused his proposition which is what caused their final
separation. Then in September of 1776, the group reassembled in
Niskeyuna, New York, on some land purchased by John Hocknell (Sasson 6).

   Over the next four years, very little success was made in spreading
Ann's gospel. But finally, in 1780, because of a New Light Baptist
revival in New Lebanon, New York, the Shakers received a number of new
converts who felt that the Shakers had a definite way to salvation
which they themselves were seeking. "There they found a fellowship
literally following the example of the primitive apostolic church: men
and women living together in celibate purity, holding all goods in
common, working industriously with their hands, speaking and singing in
unknown tongues, worshiping joyfully, preaching that Christ had
actually come to lead believers to a perfect, sinless, everlasting life
- the life of the spirit."(Andrews TGTBS 4). It was even believed by
the early Shaker converts that the Revolutionary War was the beginning
of a new age. And then on May 19, 1780 was the day that Mother Ann knew
that the time had come to proclaim the gospel to the New World, because
on that day, New England turned black. This was due to a solar eclipse
which Mother Ann knew was a sign from God to proclaim her gospel
(Sasson 7,8). Shortly after, Ann and her elders were imprisoned on the
charge of pacifism and treason. After their release, they left on a
two-year mission through many parts of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and
New York trying to convert people to their faith (Andrews TGTBS 4).
They returned to Niskeyuna in August of 1783. The following July,
Mother Ann's closest companion died, her brother William. Not long
after that, Mother Ann's health started to decline, and on September 8,
1784, at the age of forty-eight, Mother Ann died. At the time of her
death there were approximately 1000 converts to Shakerism who were
scattered throughout New England (Sasson 8). It is said that "at the
time of her death, one of the elders who was greatly 'gifted in vision'
testified that when the breath left her body he saw in vision 'a golden
chariot drawn by four white horses which received and wafted her soul
out of sight.'"(Neal 5).

   After Ann's death, James Wittaker "saved Ann's faith from passing
with her."(Sprigg 7). For the next three years Wittaker propagated the
faith until his death in 1787. Then leadership was assumed by the first
American by the name of Joseph Meacham from Enfield, Connecticut. He
then picked Lucy Wright from a town in Massachusetts called Pittsfield
as the leader over the women (Sprigg 7). This step of putting Lucy
Wright in leadership was something that was just not done at this time
period in history. Even many Shakers did not like this move (Foster
37). At this time in the Shakers' history, Joseph Meacham brought
together and organized the scattered and disorganized members into an
ordered union (Andrews/Andrews 23). "He drafted the constitution of the
United Society, and elaborated and sys- tematized Shaker
doctrine."(Hudson 185,186). Meacham regulated everything, even the
Shakers' violence of the physical manifestations was subdued to dance
and song (Hudson 185,186). He made the move from a primarily
charismatic organization to a more stable and routine fellowship.
During this year, Joseph Meacham and Lucy Wright (who were known as the
parents of the church) decided that it was now time for the true
Shakers to separate themselves from the world (Andrews TPCS 56). This
separation was due to two things: the first was that of "persecution
and religious conviction," and the second reason was that only with
seperation from a sinful world could one "realize the hope of salvation
and perfection, complete freedom to obey the laws of God."
(Andrews/Andrews 24). So Meacham decided "to make New Lebanon the first
'gathered' Shaker community, the model upon which all subsequent
communities would be patterned." It was also made the first
headquarters of the English Shakers (Foster 36). Under Meacham's
leadership, the Shakers experienced a surge in membership with the
onset of the Second Great Awakening (Hudson 186). Within seven years,
eleven communities with over 2000 members had been formed. These
communities were in Watervliet (Niskeyuna), New York (1787); Mount
Lebanon, New York (1787); Hancock, Massachusetts (1790); Harvord,
Massachusetts (1791); Enfield, Connecticut (1790); Tyringham,
Massachusetts (1792); Alfred, Maine (1793); Canterbury, New Hampshire
(1792); Enfield, New Hampshire (1793); Shirley, Massachusetts (1793);
and Sabbathday Lake, Maine (1794) (Morse xvii). A second period of
growth started in 1805 when Shaker missionaries were sent out to the
West to reap converts from the Kentucky revivals. Throughout the Shaker
history, twenty-four communities were be established. Of the
twenty-four communities, twenty-one of them were established by 1826
(Morse xvii), which was the peak of Shaker membership totaling around
5000 people (Sasson 10). The last Shaker community to go out of
existence was the third one to be founded which was Hancock,
Massachusetts, which went out of existence in 1960. Mount Lebanon, New
York (1947) and Watervliet, New York (1938) were the first two colonies
established, and two of the last three to close (Morse xvii).

   WORSHIP:

   The Shakers can be classified as charismatic in nature. The earlier
Shakers, up until the leadership was taken over by Joseph Meacham, were
a wild, unorderly, unorganized free-for-all. An average worship service
was described as such:

   "When they meet together for their worship, they fall a groaning and
trembling, and everyone acts alone for himself; one will fall prostrate
on the floor, another on his knees and his head in his hands; another
will be muttering over articulate sounds, which neither they or any
body else understand. Some will be singing, each one his own tune; some
without words, in an Indian tune, some sing jig tunes, some tunes of
their own making, in an unknown mutter which they call new tongues;
some will be dancing, and others stand laughing, heartily and loudly;
others will be druming on the floor with their feet, as though a pair
of drum sticks were beating the ruff on a drum-head; others will be
agonizing, as though they were in great pain; others jumping up and
down; others fluttering over somebody, and talking to them; others will
be shooing and hissing evil spirits out of the house, till the
different tunes, groaning, jumping, dancing, drumming, laughing,
talking and fluttering, shooing and hissing, makes a perfect bedlam;
this they call the worship of God." (Andrews TPCS 28).

   In such worship it is said that the participants were not in control
of themselves, but were under spirit control. The Shakers felt that as
they shook sin would be shaken right out of their bodies.

   After Meacham's takeover of leadership, he changed the worship from
what is mentioned above to an orderly, organized type of dance with
song. The dances were symbolic; upturned palms represented the
receiving of divine blessings through the hands, where the shaking of
downturned hands represented the shaking out of sin and evil through
the finger tips (Ferguson 335,336).

   DOCTRINE:

   1) CELIBACY - Celibacy was to be followed since sexual intercourse
was the root of all evil. As Ann saw in her vision in prison, the
forbidden fruit in the garden was carnal sexual intercourse between
Adam and Eve. This is what corrupted all of mankind, and until it is
stopped, there can be no triumph over sin. They used Luke 20:34-36 to
justify this (Foster 16).

   2) CONFESSION - The first step toward spiritual progress was the
confession of sins which was done to either an Elder or Eldress. This
was an oral confession, the very first one of which was done before the
leadership. This was a very serious matter and confessions could take
days or even weeks to finish (Sasson 11), and in some cases years
(Holloway 69).

   3) REGENERATION - Regeneration was obtained by works (Andrews TPCS
20).

   4) SEPARATION - Only through separation could one "realize the hope
of salvation and perfection, complete freedom to obey the laws of God."
(Andrews/Andrews 24).

   5) REVELATION - Believed in continuous revelation to members
(Andrews TPCS 97).

   6) DUAL DEITY - That there is a Father-Mother God, or male and
female sides of God of equal deity (Andrews TPCS 158).

   7) DUAL MESSIAHSHIP - That "Christ became the second Adam and Ann
became the second Eve, thus restoring the race, both male and female,
to perfect purity."(Ferguson 324). She was Christ in female form. "She
was the one in whom dwelt the Divine Mother."(Ferguson 324). Mother Ann
called herself "Ann the Word" and said that she was married to the Lord
Jesus Christ (Andrews TPCS 12).

   8) EQUALITY OF THE SEXES - A logical attribute of male and female
messiahship.

   9) MILLENNIAL KINGDOM - They believed that the millennium was
imminent and that their good works could further the kingdom (Sasson
10).

   10) MEMBERSHIP - New members had to follow the Millennial Laws.
People seeking entrance were put into one of two groups, either the
Novitiate Order for those who had been married and the Junior Order for
those who had not been married. A one year waiting period or trial
period was required to sever all matrimonial ties by common consent,
and to settle all debts. Families were then separated from each other
and parents of the children could only see them privately once a year
for a brief time in the presence of an elder (Holloway 69).

   (NOTE: The forgoing doctrines are the more important ones of many.
These doctrines were called by the Shakers "Millennial Laws" by which
they were to live since they were in the millennial kingdom. These
Millennial Laws covered things from how to treat animals up to their
gospel of celibacy.)

   THE ONEIDA COMMUNITY

   FOUNDER:

   The founder of the Oneida Community was a man by the name of John
Humphrey Noyes. He was born in Brattleboro, Vermont, in 1811 (Cornish
300). John Humphrey came from a well established home where his father,
also named John, was a congressman and Dartmouth graduate. His mother
Polly was sixteen years younger than his father and was a very
strong-willed and deeply religious woman. She always taught her
children "to fear the Lord."(Thomas 3-4). She even prayed before John
Humphrey's birth that someday he may become a devoted minister of the
gospel (Thomas 3-4). Up until John Humphery's conversion, he was known
as a rebel who had little interest in theology or in his studies
(Holloway 180). He entered Dartmouth in 1826, the year that revival had
hit its peak under Charles Finney. But to no avail, John was not
affected by it and looked at religion with great cynicism. Five years
later though, at the request of his mother, John attended a four-day
revival meeting in Putney, Vermont, again under the ministry of Charles
Finney. At first he was not moved by what he heard, "but after the
meeting he suffered a feverish cold which led him to think of death,
and to humble himself before God."(Whitworth 89). He vigorously
embraced the faith and the expectation of the beginning of the
Millennial Kingdom (Whitworth 89). Later he studied at Andover and Yale
Divinity School with a vision of going into the ministry. While at
Yale, Noyes came to a new understanding of the way of salvation which
he labeled as Perfectionism. This view did not hold to total depravity
as did the Calvinists' view, but it saw man as reaching a state of
perfection or sinnlessness at conversion (Muncy 161). So when Noyes
asserted this doctrine of complete release from sin at conversion while
studying at Yale Divinity School, he was denied ordination (Hudson
187). It is said that one of the reasons that Noyes adopted this
doctrine was the fact that he could not believe that he was a sinner,
since he could not summon up from within any feeling of deep guilt and
despair (Holloway 180-181). For whatever reason he adopted this
doctrine, it was the underlying foundation of his future endeavors.

   HISTORY OF MOVEMENT:

   In 1834, Humphrey Noyes started developing the theories that would
later become the foundation of truth in the Oneida Community. Over the
next three years, John canvassed New York state and New England trying
to make new converts with no avail. Finally, after a tough three-week
period in New York City, he reached the verge of a complete mental and
emotional breakdown. To top things off, his first and most faithful
follower, Abigail Merwin, left him to marry another man (Foster 72-73).
Shortly after these events, Noyes started writing articles which were
published in a new periodical called the "Battle-Axe". His first
article was on the denunciation of the institution of marriage. Also,
in September of this year (1837), part of a letter written by Noyes to
a friend was anonymously published by the editor in the Battle-Axe.
This letter stated that Noyes felt from his interpretation of a
biblical prophecy, that he was clearly convinced he was God's agent on
earth. This article did not bring as much outrage by the people as did
a later article that outlined his beliefs on sexual relationships in
the spiritual world and that would prevail in the millennial kingdom
(Whitworth 95). Through the writing of these articles, a woman by the
name of Harriet Holton, the granddaughter of the Lieutenant-Governor of
the state, became interested in Noyes and his work. She started to
financially support him, and later, after Noyes realized that he would
never get Abigail Merwin back, slowly came to the point where he
realized that Harriet was filling the void that Abigail had left
(Holloway 182). Then, in June of 1838, Noyes wrote Harriet a letter in
which he propsed in a very careful way. He explained to her that their
marriage would be a spiritual one, even though for that time period it
would be a carnal or earthly marriage. But, he felt that the marriage
would benefit both of them and that they, according to his teachings,
would not selfishly possess one another (Thomas 92-93). One of his main
reasons for getting married was that he felt the marriage would advance
the work of God in which he was engaged. Also, it showed others who
were criticizing him of his celibate state that he was not for
celibacy, as were the Shakers. Noyes also said that, "By this marriage,
besides herself, and a good social position, which she held as
belonging to the first families of Vermont, I obtained money enough to
buy a house and printing-office, and to buy a press and type."(Foster
84). The press was then used to propagate Noyes' teachings through a
publication called "The Witness,"which he had to discontinue due to a
lack of funds. So this marriage seems to have been based mainly on
convenience (Foster 84). After his marriage, Noyes then helped to
arrange the marriages of his sisters to two of his closest followers,
John L. Skinner and John R. Miller, who were students from his Bible
institute which he had started in 1836 in Putney. He also gained the
loyalty of his younger brother George and later due to much pressure,
his own mother who had been previously very upset by the way in which
he had been using up the family estate to finance his religious
endeavors. So at this point, John and George Noyes, Skinner, Miller,
and a later addition of George Cragin became the center of an informal
governing group of the movement (Foster 84).

   Finally, in 1840, "the Putney Association came into being - as a
purely religious body".(Robertson 3). Then, in 1844, the group formally
adopted communism by which to live. This communism "included all
property and of family living and associations" (Robertson 3). At this
time there were approximately thirty-seven members that were involved.
They lived in three houses, maintained a store, and worshiped together
in a small chapel (Muncy 163). They also ran two farms at this time,
and because of the death of Noyes' father who left $20,000 each to four
members who were in the community, they were able to support themselves
(Thomas 97).

   Two years later, in 1846, the community adopted Noyes'teachings of
"Mutual Criticism," "Complex Marriage" and "Male Continence" (Muncy
167). At this time in the group's history, these practices were only
practiced on a small scale amoung leadership, and not until 1848 in
Oneida, New York, would these be practiced by the whole community
(Foster 88). Because of these practices, the community came under much
persecution, even to the point where Noyes was indicted for adultery.
Noyes, not wanting to become a useless martyr, and who by this time was
viewed by the group as the Moses of the new dispensation who was going
to lead them to the promised land, quickly purchased twenty-three acres
of land that contained some buildings in Oneida, New York. Their
"Promised Land" was near the Canadian border which would be very
convenient in case of future persecution. Then in 1847, the Putney
group agreed "that the Kingdom of God had come."(Holloway 181,183). The
community could believe this because of two of Noyes' teachings: one
being that Christ's second coming took place in A.D. 70, and the other
being that they could bring in the millennial kingdom themselves
(Holloway 181,183). Forty-five of his followers from Putney followed
Noyes to Oneida and by the end of 1848, their membership grew to
eighty-seven (Muncy 167).

   The economic base of the Oneida Community was agricultural and
industrial. They had approximately forty acres of partially cleared
land on which to farm and an Indian sawmill in which to produce lumber.
Over the next year, the community purchased and cultivated additional
land, established a variety of minor craft industries, built a communal
dwelling house, appointed administrative committes and set up a pattern
of daily living which the community followed for the next thirty years
(Whitworth 120). As stated earlier, Noyes' teachings were practiced
here by the community. The main teaching which received the most
criticism was that of "Complex Marriage." In Complex Marriage, every
man was married to every woman and vice versa. This practice was to
stay only within the community and had to stay within two main
guidelines. The first was that before the man and woman could cohabit,
they had to obtain each other's consent through a third person or
persons. Secondly, no two people could have exclusive attachment with
each other because it would be selfish and idolatrous. Any two people
found in any such situation would be separated and not allowed to see
each other for a certain length of time (Holloway 185-186). Another
teaching practiced at the Oneida Community was that of "Male
Continence," which was a type of birth control. In the practice of Male
Continence, "a couple would engage in sexual congress without the man
ever ejaculating, either during intercourse or after
withdrawal."(Foster 93-94). Noyes justified this practice because his
wife Harriet in the first six years of their marriage had five
difficult childbirths, four of which were premature and resulted in the
deaths of the children. So Noyes came to the conclusion that where an
unwanted pregnancy occurred, there was a waste of the mans seed and
that it was no different in practice to masturbation (Foster 93-94).
With the implementation of Male Continence, which lasted from 1848 to
1868, some forty children were born in the community of about two
hundred and fifty people (Whitworth 126). Another teaching practiced
along these same lines was that of "Ascending Fellowship." Ascending
Fellowship was set up to properly introduce the virgins into Complex
Marriage. This practice also worked to prevent the young members from
falling in love with each other and from limiting their range of
affection to just the younger members. The main people picked to care
for the virgins were people who were considered to be closer to God.
These people were of course older and had a special title which was
that of Central Member. These Central Members were allowed their pick
of a partner over which they would have the responsibility of spiritual
guidance. It usually worked that the male Central Member would pick any
female virgin of his choice. Due to her lower order, she was compelled
to accept. In the case of the female Central Member, they were usually
past the age of menopause, and when they chose their male virgin, they
were obligated to honor the request. The reason women past menopause
were chosen was so that as they taught the younger men Male Continence,
they would not have to worry about unwanted pregnancies (Muncy
176-177). The forth major teaching practiced was that of "Mutual
Criticism." Mutual Criticism was established to assure the integrity of
the community by conformity to Noyes' morality. The way in which Mutual
Criticism worked was that a member, under communal control, was
subjected to criticisms of either a committee or the whole community.
The criticisms were usually directed toward the "member's bad traits
(those thoughts or acts that detracted from family unity), and an
individual could be put through a shameful, humiliating
experience."(Thomas 163). Only Noyes himself would not go through this
unless he decided to because he felt that a group should not criticize
their leader (Thomas 163).

   In the area of government of the Oneida Community there were
"twenty-one standing committees and forty-eight administrative
departments. This organization covered every conceivable activity and
interest from hair-cutting and dentistry to education and
silk-manufacture."(Holloway 190-191). The Oneida Community had no
definite rules restricting a member's time of rising in the morning for
work, but they had very few problems with people taking advantage of
it. Also at Oneida, the women had equality with the men and served on
these committees and shared in all activities (Holloway 190-191).

   In 1849, a small branch community started at Brooklyn, and others
followed "at Wallingford, Newark, Putney, Cambridge, and Manlius'. But
in 1855, some of these communities were abandoned so that a
concentration of members would take place at Oneida and Wallingford."
(Holloway 187-188). Also by this time, "relative tranquility had been
achieved and almost all the theories and practices that would make
Oneida one of the most distinctive of all American ventures in
religious and social reorganization had been at least provisionally
established." (Foster 74). The Oneida Community never did become very
large. In January of 1849 the community had 87 members; 172 members by
February of 1850, and by February of 1851 the number rose to
approximately 205 members (Foster 103). The records show that in 1875
there were 298 members, and by 1878, the beginning year of the breakup,
there were 306 members (Holloway 187). From the original 87 members at
Oneida in 1849, the totals from that year on were group totals from all
of the communities combined (Foster 103).

   Over the years from 1849 to 1879, "the community remained true to
its original ideals" (Hudson 188). But problems started to occur in
1876 when Noyes tried to hand over leadership to his son, Dr. Theodore
Noyes, who was an agnostic. Not only was the fact that he was an
agnostic bad enough, but he ran the community with a tight fist which
was resented by the people. It got so bad that John Humphrey Noyes
himself had to come back from Wallingford where he was living to put
things back in order. By then it was too late, factions within the
community had already formed, some even with the opposition on the
outside (Holloway 194). And then in 1879, due to the opposition and
hostility from the surrounding communities, Noyes, who had already
withdrawn from active leadership, felt compelled to abandon the system
of Complex Marriage (Askew/Spellman 111). Even though Noyes wanted to
keep the community together after this, some living married and others
celibate (not preferred), problems occured. Many of the members quickly
got married, but since Complex Marriage was such an integrated part of
their lives, the community could not settle down to their normal style
of living. So in 1880, a committee was appointed "to consider the
advisability of re-organising upon a joint-stock basis." Then in
January of 1881 the joint-stock company, called the "Oneida Community,
Limited," was set up (Holloway 194-195) and the Oneida Community was
abandoned.

   WORSHIP:

   Noyes did not see the necessity of observing the Sabbath (Whitworth
104). But they did have a Sunday chapel meeting in which outsiders were
allowed in. After work in the evening they would sing and pray and be
taught such languages as Hebrew, Greek and Latin (Holloway 183). Not
much else is written on the topic.

   DOCTRINES:

   1) COMPLEX MARRIAGE - This is where every man and every woman was
married to each other. They could engage in sexual intercourse, but
could not be attached to each other as stated earlier.

   2) MALE CONTINENCE - This was a form of birth control where during
and after sexual intercourse the man could not ejaculate.

   3) ASCENDING FELLOWSHIP - This is where the young virgins in the
community were brought into the practice of Complex Marriage. The older
godly members who were in a special group and were called Central
Members would pick a virgin to be spiritually responible for. This took
place when the young people were about fourteen years old.

   4) MUTUAL CRITICISM - In Mutual Criticism, each member of the
community that was being reprimanded was taken in front of either a
committee or sometimes the whole community to be criticized for their
action.

   5) CONFESSION - The members of the community, according to Noyes,
were sinless after conversion, so no confession would be needed.

   6) REGENERATION - That Christ's death was not for the sins of man,
but was the first blow to Satan. But that by believing in the death of
Christ, one was released from sin, because Christ destroyed the central
cause of sin. By believing then, one is regenerated (Whitworth 101-102).

   7) SEPARATION - The members did separate into a community, but their
main separation was to be a sexual one.

   8) REVELATION - Noyes never said that he received special
revelation, though he did have some twisted interpretations. Noyes once
wrote an article in "The Berean" and emphasized the credibility of
scripture and denounced those who denied the validity and relevance of
scripture (Whitworth 98).

   8) EQUALITY OF THE SEXES - The Oneida Community beleived in equality
of the sexes as stated earlier.

   9) MILLENNIAL KINGDOM - That the Millennial Kingdom had been
introduced in A.D. 70 at which time Noyes thought Christ had made His
Second Coming (Hudson 186).

   (NOTE: Any doctrines listed above that are not referenced have been
discussed in and referenced in the paper or are of common knowledge.)

   BIBLIOGRAPHY

   Andrews, Edward Deming. The Gift to be Simple. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1940.

   Andrews, Edward Deming. The People Called Shakers. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1963.

   Andrews, Edward Deming and Faith Andrews. Work and Worship.
Greenwich: New York Graphic Society, Ltd., 1974.

   Askew, Thomas A. and Peter W. Spellman. The Churches and the
American Experience. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1984.

   Ferguson, Charles W. The New Books of Revelations. Garden City:
Doubleday, Doran and Co., Inc., 1928.

   Foster, Lawrence. Religion and Sexuality. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1981.

   Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity. Vol. 2 San Francisco:
Harper & Row, 1984.

   Holloway, Mark. Heavens on Earth. New York: Liberty Publishers, 1951.

   Hudson, Winthrop S. Religion in America 3rd Ed. New York: Charles
Scribner's Sons, 1981.

   Morse, Flo. The Shakers and the World's People. New York: Dodd, Mead
& Company, 1980.

   Muncy, Raymond Lee. Sex and Marriage in Utopian Communities: 19th
Century America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973.

   Neal, Julia. By Their Fruits. Philadelphia: Porcupine Press, 1975.

   Noyes, Pierrepont. My Father's House: An Oneida Boyhood. Gloucester:
Peter Smith, 1966.

   Robertson, Constance Noyes. Oneida Community: The Breakup,
1876-1881. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1972.

   Sasson, Diane. The Shaker Spiritual Narrative. Knoxville: The
University of Tennessee Press, 1983.

   Sprigg, June. By Shaker Hands. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1975.

   Stine, Jeanne. Telephone Interview. September 25, 1985.

   Thomas, Robert David. The Man Who Would Be Perfect. University of
Pennsylvania Press, Inc., 1977.

   Whitworth, John McKelvie. God's Blueprints. Boston: Routledge &
Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1975.

   Wisbey, Herbert A., Jr. "Noyes, John Humphrey." Encyclopedia
International. 1967 ed.

   Copyright 1989 by Randy Hillebrand You are allowed to reproduce this
article only in its entirety and without additions or deletions.