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- =head1 NAME
-
- perlref - Perl references and nested data structures
-
- =head1 DESCRIPTION
-
- In Perl 4 it was difficult to represent complex data structures, because
- all references had to be symbolic, and even that was difficult to do when
- you wanted to refer to a variable rather than a symbol table entry. Perl
- 5 not only makes it easier to use symbolic references to variables, but
- lets you have "hard" references to any piece of data. Any scalar may hold
- a hard reference. Since arrays and hashes contain scalars, you can now
- easily build arrays of arrays, arrays of hashes, hashes of arrays, arrays
- of hashes of functions, and so on.
-
- Hard references are smart--they keep track of reference counts for you,
- automatically freeing the thing referred to when its reference count
- goes to zero. If that thing happens to be an object, the object is
- destructed. See L<perlobj> for more about objects. (In a sense,
- everything in Perl is an object, but we usually reserve the word for
- references to objects that have been officially "blessed" into a class package.)
-
- A symbolic reference contains the name of a variable, just as a
- symbolic link in the filesystem merely contains the name of a file.
- The C<*glob> notation is a kind of symbolic reference. Hard references
- are more like hard links in the file system: merely another way
- at getting at the same underlying object, irrespective of its name.
-
- "Hard" references are easy to use in Perl. There is just one
- overriding principle: Perl does no implicit referencing or
- dereferencing. When a scalar is holding a reference, it always behaves
- as a scalar. It doesn't magically start being an array or a hash
- unless you tell it so explicitly by dereferencing it.
-
- References can be constructed several ways.
-
- =over 4
-
- =item 1.
-
- By using the backslash operator on a variable, subroutine, or value.
- (This works much like the & (address-of) operator works in C.) Note
- that this typically creates I<ANOTHER> reference to a variable, since
- there's already a reference to the variable in the symbol table. But
- the symbol table reference might go away, and you'll still have the
- reference that the backslash returned. Here are some examples:
-
- $scalarref = \$foo;
- $arrayref = \@ARGV;
- $hashref = \%ENV;
- $coderef = \&handler;
-
- =item 2.
-
- A reference to an anonymous array can be constructed using square
- brackets:
-
- $arrayref = [1, 2, ['a', 'b', 'c']];
-
- Here we've constructed a reference to an anonymous array of three elements
- whose final element is itself reference to another anonymous array of three
- elements. (The multidimensional syntax described later can be used to
- access this. For example, after the above, $arrayref->[2][1] would have
- the value "b".)
-
- =item 3.
-
- A reference to an anonymous hash can be constructed using curly
- brackets:
-
- $hashref = {
- 'Adam' => 'Eve',
- 'Clyde' => 'Bonnie',
- };
-
- Anonymous hash and array constructors can be intermixed freely to
- produce as complicated a structure as you want. The multidimensional
- syntax described below works for these too. The v ier with a BLOCK returning a reference
- of the correct type. In other words, the previous examples could be
- written like this:
-
- $bar = ${$scalarref};
- push(@{$arrayref}, $filename);
- ${$arrayref}[0] = "January";
- ${$hashref}{"KEY"} = "VALUE";
- &{$coderef}(1,2,3);
-
- Admittedly, it's a little silly to use the curlies in this case, but
- the BLOCK can contain any arbitrary expression, in particular,
- subscripted expressions:
-
- &{ $dispatch{$index} }(1,2,3); # call correct routine
-
- Because of being able to omit the curlies for the simple case of C<$$x>,
- people often make the mistake of viewing the dereferencing symbols as
- proper operators, and wonder about their precedence. If they were,
- though, you could use parens instead of braces. That's not the case.
- Consider the difference below; case 0 is a short-hand version of case 1,
- I<NOT> case 2:
-
- $$hashref{"KEY"} = "VALUE"; # CASE 0
- ${$hashref}{"KEY"} = "VALUE"; # CASE 1
- ${$hashref{"KEY"}} = "VALUE"; # CASE 2
- ${$hashref->{"KEY"}} = "VALUE"; # CASE 3
-
- Case 2 is also deceptive in that you're accessing a variable
- called %hashref, not dereferencing through $hashref to the hash
- it's presumably referencing. That would be case 3.
-
- =item 3.
-
- The case of individual array elements arises often enough that it gets
- cumbersome to use method 2. As a form of syntactic sugar, the two
- lines like that above can be written:
-
- $arrayref->[0] = "January";
- $hashref->{"KEY} = "VALUE";
-
- The left side of the array can be any expression returning a reference,
- including a previous dereference. Note that C<$array[$x]> is I<NOT> the
- same thing as C<$array-E<gt>[$x]> here:
-
- $array[$x]->{"foo"}->[0] = "January";
-
- This is one of the cases we mentioned earlier in which references could
- spring into existence when in an lvalue context. Before this
- statement, C<$array[$x]> may have been undefined. If so, it's
- automatically defined with a hash reference so that we can look up
- C<{"foo"}> in it. Likewise C<$array[$x]-E<gt>{"foo"}> will automatically get
- defined with an array reference so that we can look up C<[0]> in it.
-
- One more thing here. The arrow is optional I<BETWEEN> brackets
- subscripts, so you can shrink the above down to
-
- $array[$x]{"foo"}[0] = "January";
-
- Which, in the degenerate case of using only ordinary arrays, gives you
- multidimensional arrays just like C's:
-
- $score[$x][$y][$z] += 42;
-
- Well, okay, not entirely like C's arrays, actually. C doesn't know how
- to grow its arrays on demand. Perl does.
-
- =item 4.
-
- If a reference happens to be a reference to an object, then there are
- probably methods to access the things referred to, and you should probably
- stick to those methods unless you're in the class package that defines the
- object's methods. In other words, be nice, and don't violate the object's
- encapsulation without a very good reason. Perl does not enforce
- encapsulation. We are not totalitarians here. We do expect some basic
- civility though.
-
- =back
-
- The ref() operator may be used to determine what type of thing the
- reference is pointing to. See L<perlfunc>.
-
- The bless() operator may be used to associate a reference with a package
- functioning as an object class. See L<perlobj>.
-
- A type glob may be dereferenced the same way a reference can, since
- the dereference syntax always indicates the kind of reference desired.
- So C<${*foo}> and C<${\$foo}> both indicate the same scalar variable.
-
- Here's a trick for interpolating a subroutine call into a string:
-
- print "My sub returned ${\mysub(1,2,3)}\n";
-
- The way it works is that when the C<${...}> is seen in the double-quoted
- string, it's evaluated as a block. The block executes the call to
- C<mysub(1,2,3)>, and then takes a reference to that. So the whole block
- returns a reference to a scalar, which is then dereferenced by C<${...}>
- and stuck into the double-quoted string.
-
- =head2 Symbolic references
-
- We said that references spring into existence as necessary if they are
- undefined, but we didn't say what happens if a value used as a
- reference is already defined, but I<ISN'T> a hard reference. If you
- use it as a reference in this case, it'll be treated as a symbolic
- reference. That is, the value of the scalar is taken to be the I<NAME>
- of a variable, rather than a direct link to a (possibly) anonymous
- value.
-
- People frequently expect it to work like this. So it does.
-
- $name = "foo";
- $$name = 1; # Sets $foo
- ${$name} = 2; # Sets $foo
- ${$name x 2} = 3; # Sets $foofoo
- $name->[0] = 4; # Sets $foo[0]
- @$name = (); # Clears @foo
- &$name(); # Calls &foo() (as in Perl 4)
- $pack = "THAT";
- ${"${pack}::$name"} = 5; # Sets $THAT::foo without eval
-
- This is very powerful, and slightly dangerous, in that it's possible
- to intend (with the utmost sincerity) to use a hard reference, and
- accidentally use a symbolic reference instead. To protect against
- that, you can say
-
- use strict 'refs';
-
- and then only hard references will be allowed for the rest of the enclosing
- block. An inner block may countermand that with
-
- no strict 'refs';
-
- Only package variables are visible to symbolic references. Lexical
- variables (declared with my()) aren't in a symbol table, and thus are
- invisible to this mechanism. For example:
-
- local($value) = 10;
- $ref = \$value;
- {
- my $value = 20;
- print $$ref;
- }
-
- This will still print 10, not 20. Remember that local() affects package
- variables, which are all "global" to the package.
-
- =head2 Further Reading
-
- Besides the obvious documents, source code can be instructive.
- Some rather pathological examples of the use of references can be found
- in the F<t/op/ref.t> regression test in the Perl source directory.
-