Defeated in the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1713), France had to surrender Terre-Neuve (Newfoundland) to Britain. The loss of this component of New France jeopardized French control of the St. Lawrence River. - the entrance to Canada - and the lucrative Grand Banks fishery. To counter the British hegemony in Terre-Neuve and Acadie, the French established the colony of ╬le Royale which encompassed Cape Breton Island, renamed ╬le Royale, and ╬le St. Jean (Prince Edward Island). It was not long before the new colony was of enormous strategic and economic importance to France, and a source of irritation to her rivals.
Louisbourg
Capital and Fortress of ╬le Royale
One of the first problems encountered on ╬le Royale was the selection of a site for a capital, and for the principal fortification. Because of the importance of the fishery, primary consideration had to be given to the quality of the harbour and its distance from the fishing grounds. Although it was unanimously agreed that Havre α l'Anglais, renamed Louisbourg in honour of the French king, possessed the finest harbour, this site was at first rejected because the surrounding terrain was too difficult to fortify and defend. Louisbourg also offered little agricultural potential, the locale being mainly rocky hills or low-lying marsh. An alternate site, Port Dauphin, was selected as capital. Fishermen, however, continued to use Louisbourg's fine harbour, and the population soon outstripped that of Port Dauphin. The French authorities acknowledged the popularity of the former location and, despite its short-comings, relocated the capital. In 1719 construction of fortifications was begun at Louisbourg.
A fortress is generally defined as a military stronghold with a garrison and a civilian population. Louisbourg, originally no more than a harbour of random fishing establishments, became a fortress over the next twenty years as massive masonry walls rose to enclose what became a substantial, thriving community with houses, shops, inns, cabarets, storehouses, a hospital and a convent school for girls. But long before its fortifications were completed, Louisbourg was administered as a fortress (Place de guerre) similar to those which dotted the coast and frontier of France itself. As elsewhere in New France, the colony's most senior official was a military governor. Military regulations restricted the movement of civilians through the town gates and, especially at night, within the town itself. Routines such as the changing of the guard or the public punishment of errant soldiers punctuated the daily life of the townspeople. Officers and men of the garrison interacted with the civilian community on almost every level of society.
Composition
of the ╬le Royale Garrison
The troops stationed in ╬le Royale, as in all French colonies at the time, were drawn principally from the Compagnies franches de la Marine. Although their officers occasionally held dual rank which permitted them to serve either at sea or on land, the soldiers of the Compagnies franches were intended for duty on land and were known as the infantry of the Marine. Several changes were made in the size and organization of the ╬le Royale garrison over the years, but by 1745 there were eight companies of Troupes de la Marine, each containing seventy men. Commanding each company was a captain, assisted by a lieutenant and two ensigns.
In 1722 the troops of the Compagnies franches in Louisbourg were augmented by a detachment of fifty men of the Karrer Regiment. Composed of men of many nationalities, this mercenary regiment in the service of the French king was commanded from Rochefort, France by a Swiss colonel, Franz Adam Karrer. Additional detachments from this regiment were sent to ╬le Royale in 1724 and 1741, bringing its strength in the colony to 150 officers and men by 1745. The only other troops stationed in ╬le Royale before 1745 were thirty members of the Company of Cannoneers (Compagnie des Canonniers), formed in 1743 to serve Louisbourg's artillery. Thus, the garrison strength was approximately 600 men, with an officer corps of eighty-eight; ╬le Royale had, in fact, one of the largest military garrisons maintained by either the French or the British in North America.
Louisbourg's Fortifications
When fortifications for Louisbourg were being planned the town's success as a commercial and fishing centre remained to be seen. If France's only interest had been the protection of Louisbourg's civilian population modest defenses probably would have sufficed. Of much more importance to France was Louisbourg's role as a "show of strength." By committing so much time and money to Louisbourg's fortifications, France served notice to her rivals that she intended to defend her interests in the North Atlantic.
The problems involved in constructing masonry defenses at a place such as Louisbourg were enormous. Not only was the terrain ill-suited for European-style fortifications, but the cold, wet climate afforded a work season too short for the proper drying of mortar. Maintenance and repairs were a serious problem long before the fortress had been finished. Many building materials had to be imported from France, and there was no local population from which the contractors and engineers could draw a workforce. In response to the latter problem, it was decided that the soldiers of the garrison should become the main source of labour.
The men were given no choice as to whether or not they would carry out what could be difficult and dangerous work; strong and healthy soldiers were obliged to join the work crews. Only those who were considered too old or infirm for hard labour were assigned to guard duty or other tasks usually associated with a military post. The Minister of the Marine, who was responsible for the administration of France's colonies, ordered that all recruitment be conducted with the need for workers in mind. Men with trades such as masons or carpenters were especially sought. As a result, between 1720 and 1745 the garrison at Louisbourg was divided into two distinct groups: those who worked on fortifications and those who stood guard. Although the number of soldiers who stood guard increased as the fortifications were expanded and new guard posts were established, the youngest, healthiest and strongest men worked on the construction projects.
In France the wage paid to soldiers forced to perform construction work was strictly regulated, but such was not the case in Ice Royale. Perhaps to encourage more men to sign up for the colony, the freedom to bargain for the rate of pay was granted to the soldiers at Louisbourg. Aware that there was no alternative labour force, the men held out for above average wages. On at least one occasion they managed to wrest from the contractor a daily rate equal to their monthly rate as soldiers. To compensate the men obliged to stand guard and thus miss the opportunity to earn extra money, a percentage was deducted from each soldier's pay for working on construction and was divided among the guards. In this way the entire garrison was able to benefit financially from the construction of the fortifications, roads and government buildings.
Terms of Enlistment
Recruitment for the Compagnies franches stationed in ╬le Royale was conducted exclusively in France. No civilian inhabitants of the colony were permitted to join because it was felt that this would retard the area's growth. While most enlistment for the colonies took place in Paris, the men came from many parts of France. No one under sixteen years of age or less than five feet six inches (1.68 metres) in height was to be signed up, but these restrictions were often ignored when there were few volunteers. A cash bonus encouraged many to join, and the prospect of shelter, clothing and regular meals attracted the poor and the unemployed. Although limited engagements of six years' duration were sometimes given under extraordinary circumstances, most recruits found themselves committed for life.
It is not surprising, therefore, that many soldiers at Louisbourg were in the service for thirty or forty years. There were some, one governor claimed, who were so old that they could barely put one foot in front of the other. Men who had enlisted for life could be released from service only if they became eligible for one of the two discharges for seniority given annually in each company, or if they became too old or infirm to perform their duties. Most old soldiers did not seek release unless they were totally disabled, because only then could they hope to obtain a pension. For many, this was the only income they could look forward to upon returning to civilian life. While officials acknowledged that lifetime enlistments were bad for morale, few were willing to go to the bother and expense involved in sending back to France large numbers of men each year and training replacements.
Garrison Life
Whether serving guard duty or working on construction, the soldier began his day with the sounding of reveille at four o'clock in summer and six o'clock in winter. In French establishments not faced with large building projects the garrison might be drilled early in the morning before other duties had to be performed. At Louisbourg, however, drills were halted in 1721 following complaints by the engineer that attendance of the soldiers at drill was slowing work on the fortifications. Although there is no record of the drills ever having been reintroduced, there may have been some renewed training as tensions mounted between Britain and France. The cancellation of regular drill meant that the duties of many soldiers involved little that is ordinarily associated with military life. Indeed, it was possible for a man to be part of the Louisbourg garrison for as many as twenty years without ever having to fire a musket, unless he decided to go hunting. It is little wonder that a newly appointed governor was aghast at what he saw in 1739 when the entire garrison was ordered to pass in review. The guards were men in poor physical condition who were unable to stand the rigour of construction work, and the soldiers working on building projects were totally lacking in military bearing. For a man who had previously been the captain of a highly disciplined man-of-war, this situation must have been cause for alarm. Little was done to change things, however, as the security of the fortress over the next few years required that the fortifications be completed or, in some areas, repaired.
There were five guardposts at Louisbourg by 1744 - three at the town gates and two in the town. Each post required from twelve to twenty men, depending upon the number of sentries that were mounted. The guard was changed once every twenty-four hours, at four o'clock in summer and an hour earlier in winter. Each soldier in the guard would stand duty for a total of six to eight hours. Under normal conditions a sentry would stand guard for two hours before being relieved, but if the weather was extremely cold he was posted for an hour at a time. Sentry duty was important work, and the man on duty was expected to remain alert at all times. Depending upon the circumstances, anyone who fell asleep or even sat down could be sentenced to death. In the guardhouse there were warm cloaks which could be worn when the weather was bad.
Despite the disagreeable climate and the hard work which the troops faced, few men deserted, mainly because there was no place for them to go. The island's dense forests could offer shelter for a time, but Louisbourg was far from other centres. If he did not die in the attempt, a deserter would either return to Louisbourg on his own or be apprehended by a search party. The penalty for desertion was death by firing squad, though leniency was sometimes shown when the offender demonstrated that he had a compelling reason to desert.
Outposts
Desertion was more common and more likely to succeed at the outposts maintained by detachments of the Louisbourg garrison at Port Toulouse and at Port La Joie (see illustration 1). Because these two posts were closer to the British settlements at Canso and Annapolis Royal in Nova Scotia (Acadie), soldiers frequently deserted and sought asylum with the enemy. Living conditions on ╬le St. Jean were particularly bad, making the temptation to desert even harder to resist. Moreover, the men sent to these posts were prevented from earning the money they would have received for construction work at the fortress. In an effort to satisfy the soldiers and to reduce desertion, the governor of ╬le Royale assured the soldiers that no one would be sent to any outpost for longer than one year. The third, and smallest, outpost manned by the ╬le Royale garrison was at Port Dauphin, the colony's original capital.
The Louisbourg garrison also supplied troops to the Royal Battery, located about one and one-half kilometres from the fortress, and to the Island Battery in the harbour (see illustration 2). Both these batteries were intended to prevent enemy ships from entering the harbour. Along with two shore batteries in the fortress itself, they housed some of the most powerful artillery to be found at Louisbourg. Duty at the Royal Battery was considered a privilege by the officers, and probably by the men as well. A system of annual rotation was worked out so that each company received a turn in residence there. In spring an entire company, including the families and livestock of the officers, would move from the town to the battery. Because there was usually work at the battery or on nearby roads, soldiers were able to continue to earn money during their stay.
Duty at the Island Battery was not so highly prized. Though it was only a short distance from shore, the men stationed there were expected to remain until their tour of duty was completed. As shipping came to a virtual halt during the winter it was not considered necessary to man fully the Island Battery. Only one or two soldiers and a caretaker were stationed on the island from November until April or May when they were relieved by a larger detachment.
Soldiers of the Karrer Regiment did not see duty at the outposts or batteries. Their primary interest was in making money, and they stood guard within the fortress only when illness or injury prevented work on construction. Because it was a prized post the officers of the Karrer Regiment did request permission to man the Royal Battery for a year, but they were refused for declining to take their turn at the less desirable posts.
Mutiny and Siege
Thus far, this examination of the ╬le Royale garrison has described an existence which was far from ideal by modern standards, but which nevertheless offered food, shelter and a higher than average degree of freedom and rate of pay things which many of the soldiers would not have enjoyed as civilians back in France. In 1744, however, a renewal of the struggle with Great Britain gave rise to significant changes in the routine of garrison life.
All leaves and discharges were suspended for the duration of the war, and this meant that several men in the Karrer Regiment and some French soldiers were unable to leave the colony. One can well imagine their distress at the prospect of spending yet another miserable winter within the confines of icy, wind-swept Louisbourg. A shortage of firewood made the weather even more unbearable, and rotten vegetables were issued with food rations. Some of the men were further agitated by the governor's failure to keep his promise of distributing a share of the booty to all who had participated in the successful seizure of the blockhouse at the British fishing station at Canso in May of 1744.
There was, moreover, a general dissatisfaction with preparations to bring the garrison up to snuff in anticipation of a British offensive. Perhaps for the first time since Louisbourg's founding, almost the entire garrison was in barracks and living in accordance with regulations. The men were not allowed to pass the winter away from the fortress, cutting wood, hunting and earning extra income, as many had been used to doing. Moreover, as work on the fortifications was nearing completion, there were few building projects slated for 1745. The soldiers' supplementary wages for construction work were on the verge of being discontinued, and they could look forward to living on meagre military pay. Suddenly the privileges that the ╬le Royale garrison had come to enjoy and expect were being withdrawn. With the onset of winter, and the misfortunes of naval warfare and privateering, the colony's isolation was intensified and the flow of supplies from abroad slowed considerably. Discontent was rife, and two days after Christmas it exploded.
Soldiers from the Karrer Regiment contravened their regimental motto, Fidelitate et honore terra et mari, and initiated a revolt against the officers of the garrison. Shortly thereafter, French troops lent their support to this most serious of military crimes. Although an uneasy peace was restored after several days, the confidence shared by the officers and the troops had been shattered and their future relationship would be tinged with distrust.
On May 11 the guards on duty at Louisbourg sighted the fleet conveying an invasion force from New England under the command of colonist William Pepperell. At Flat Point, some five kilometres down the coast from the fortress, the invading force met with little resistance and some 2,000 of their number stood on ╬le Royale as the sun set. The Minister of the Marine in France believed that news of the poor morale and mutiny at Louisbourg had led the New Englanders to expect that their mission could succeed. Although both French troops and men from the Karrer Regiment fought bravely during the seven weeks' siege that won the fortress for the British, military authorities in France did not forget the mutiny. Men from the Karrer Regiment had launched the revolt and two of them had deserted to the enemy with details of hardships within the beleaguered town.
As part of the conditions for surrender, the British agreed to transport the vanquished garrison back to France, and it was there that the full weight of military justice awaited the leaders of the mutiny. In all, seven men died for their participation, two were sentenced to lifetime servitude on French galleys in the Mediterranean, and one escaped prior to execution. Fearing even more widespread reprisals, over one hundred of the Troupes de la Marine deserted in 1745-46 from Rochefort, where they had been stationed since returning to France.
The Demise of Louisbourg
Although the fortress was returned to France under the conditions of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), the French lost it again during the Seven Years' War. In the interval, one of France's most noted engineers had directed the repair and improvement of the fortifications, and the number of Compagnies franches de la Marine was increased from eight to twenty-four (each company had fifty men during this period) and supplemented by regular French infantry. These measures proved insufficient, however, for in 1758 another siege returned the colony to the British. Two years later, a decision by the British Secretary of State saw this symbol of French colonial ambition reduced to rubble.
Certainly the final struggle for Louisbourg delayed the British advance up the St. Lawrence River and postponed the British assault on Quebec for a year, but this great fortress had already earned a prominent place in Canada's early history: its harbour was the third busiest in North America, after Boston and Philadelphia, and served as a major entrep⌠t for trade with the West Indies; as a fishing centre, it contributed more to the French economy than the fur trade of Canada; and compared to other parts of the New World it was a sophisticated community which was the first to receive the latest news and fashions from Europe. Today we are fortunate indeed to be able to see a portion of the reconstructed fortress and town which once was France's proud bastion and guardian of the North Atlantic.
