TOMMY ATKINS: THE BRITISH SOLDIER IN CANADA, 1759-1870
Carol M. Whitfield
Thousands of redcoats posted to British North American colonies were stationed from St. John's, Newfoundland to Fort St. Joseph in northern Ontario. They were sent here first to defend the British colonies on the east coast, then to capture the French colonies and, finally, to defend British North America against the Americans to the south. Although they did some fighting, most of the time they waited, performing a few drills and parades every day and then trying to find something to amuse themselves with until the next prescribed military routine. Between 1759 and 1870, the year they sailed home leaving detachments to defend the great harbours of Halifax and Victoria, there were usually six thousands of them living in barracks and fortifications.
The forts which still stand across eastern Canada attest to the presence of these men and yet we know very little about "Tommy Atkins", the "John Doe" of the British army. He was sent from the British Isles to serve a tour of duty, supposedly lasting seven years, and was then shipped back; only to be replaced by yet another Tommy, in another regiment. His presence had a great social and economic impact on this country. Money was spent to purchase his food, to pay his preacher and to build the barracks he lived in, while he spent his pay in the taverns and contributed to the relief of local civilian calamities, such as major fires. The band of Tommy's regiment was an important feature in every garrison town. But Tommy did not always get along with the citizens. There were occasional fights, instigated by both sides, and there was disapproval of the brothels which relied on Tommy's business.
Recruitment
The soldiers of the British army were almost all recruited in the British Isles. The industrial revolution and a widespread increase in sheep farming, which required fewer farm labourers, meant that there was usually a large number of unemployed young men who could be enticed to join up by the glamour of the uniforms, music and talk of glorious battles and far off places and the more solid lure of a bounty of several pounds immediate pay. For most of the period under consideration, recruits joined for life. Most were young, usually about seventeen or eighteen years old, with almost no education. In the eighteenth century many of them could not even write their own names and most of them had no particular skills or trades. The recruiting teams preferred young men just off the farm for they were supposed to make more obedient soldiers than those who had grown up in Britain's industrial areas. Every regiment had at least one recruiting team trying to maintain the regiment's official strength of between 800 and 1,000 men. Except in the French and Napoleonic War periods (1793 to 1815) when there was a shortage of men for an expanding army, the recruiters seldom resorted to the deceitful practices of the notorious navy press gangs. Recruits had to pass a medical examination and meet a basic height requirement, which was usually five feet four inches (163 cm). Having satisfied these requirements, the men were marched to the regimental depot where they had their first experiences with life in the army. After a few confusing months of trying to learn how to march and how to avoid the sergeant's wrath, they joined the rest of the regiment, wherever in the British Empire it was stationed. The result was that most regiments were composed of men from all over the United Kingdom: about forty percent were Irish, forty percent English and the remainder Scottish and a few Welsh. There was some relationship between nationality and religious affiliation but the correlation was not exact: about thirty percent were Roman Catholics, sixty percent Anglicans and ten percent Presbyterians.
These men that Wellington referred to as the scum of the earth found in their regiments a surrogate family. As they acquired skills in foot drill and musketry they absorbed pride in the uniform, traditions and history of their own regiment. Each regiment used different colours and designs to trim their red coats and to distinguish themselves from other regiments. Each proudly displayed its regimental colours and the flags which bore the names of the important battles and campaigns the regiment had fought. Most importantly new recruits took pride in their regimental nicknames such as, "The Invincibles" or "The Green Tigers" for each was a mark of respect.
The officers were very different. Whereas the privates came from the bottom of the English social scale, these men were drawn from the top levels. This was a period in English history in which there were very few acceptable occupations for the upper classes. If a young man was not going to inherit the family estate he had to consider becoming a cleric or an officer in the navy or army. Few of those who accepted a commission in the infantry did so with any burning leadership zeal. It was a rare young officer who took a keen professional interest. Until the late nineteenth century, one's social class, rather than specialized education or interest, was more important for securing military advancement. Most of the young officers had a basic education in English, French, Latin and history and almost no mathematics or sciences but there was no other official requirement beyond enough money to purchase their first commission. For most, joining the army was a financial investment; they hoped that, after purchasing their way up the ranks, they could realize a profit by selling their ultimate rank to someone else. Except when the casualties of war resulted in free battlefield promotions, family money, rather than ability, was the dominant factor determining how quickly a man would rise to become a senior officer.
Living Conditions of the Rank and File
Just as the rank and file and the officers came from different social classes, so their living standards within the army were radically different. Here in Canada, soldiers lived in cold, dark, damp, crowded barracks. Until the late 1820s when a single, folding cot was introduced they slept in double bunk beds: two up, two down on straw mattresses with one blanket and one coverlet or rug. Their bedding was washed once a month. Until the 1860s, most garrisons did not have ablution rooms for the men to bathe. Instead, a group of them shared a tub which they sometimes used at night to relieve themselves, rather than going out to the privies. The amount of wood or coal for each fireplace was carefully regulated, just as the number of candles was controlled. Yet it was in these uninviting quarters that the men slept, ate and tried to pass some of their free time.
In the eighteenth century and for part of the nineteenth century they had only two meals a day breakfast and a noon meal. The army issued daily a pound of bread and a pound of meat, commonly salt pork, to each man. Groups of twelve men who ate together chose one of their mess to prepare the meals. This duty rotated among the men. From their pay, they chipped in an agreed amount so that the cook could supplement the issued rations. For breakfast he prepared coffee or tea and the men ate some of their bread. By midday the cook had boiled the meat ration and added any vegetables he had purchased. (Since there were no ovens or spits, boiling was the only method of cooking available.) The boiled meat was served with more tea or coffee. At some of the stations in Canada the commanding officer allowed the men to fish to supplement their monotonous diet, and at others, plots of ground were allocated for vegetable gardens. Gradually the regiments added a third meal of bread and tea late in the day because the men were so hungry, and because they were drinking their pay on empty stomachs, thereby increasing the effects of the alcohol.
For almost all the period British soldiers were in Canada, their pay was one shilling (twelve pence) a day and an additional pence for beer money. From this amount the paymaster retained three or four pence to pay for the rations, and sufficient funds to allow the army to recover the cost of any new clothing, to pay for fines imposed by the commanding officer, and to pay for barrack damages such as broken windows. Since the soldier seldom had much left over, the army began in 1800 to issue an extra penny to ensure that each man could purchase at least one pint of beer a day. Until 1830, soldiers were also issued a gill (118.29 ml) of rum every day. After 1830, they were supposed to get the rum only if they had been doing especially hard work or had been on duty in cold or rainy weather.
These basic living conditions did not substantially improve until the British public developed some awareness and sympathy for the plight of their soldiers. The Crimean War was the major turning point. For the first time the newspapers recounted not only the deeds of their army but also their terrible conditions. Several commissions of enquiry were instituted and reforms were gradually introduced. The amount of space per man in each barracks was established at 600 cubic feet (16.9 cubic metres); this halved the number of men living in each barrack room at the Halifax Citadel. More emphasis was placed on the quality of food served to the men, and cooking stoves were introduced so that the men could vary food preparation by roasting and baking.
More attention was also given to the married soldiers and their families. By regulation, the British army permitted six percent of the rank and file to marry and bring their wives and children on strength. For the first half of the period under discussion this meant that the soldier brought his new bride into the barrack room where, if they were lucky, a corner screened off with a blanket was allotted to them. The women received a partial ration and any children were fed on rations which varied according to their age. Beds were issued to the women but not to the children. It must have been an almost barbaric existence. The women did the regimental laundry and worked at any other small jobs they could find in order to clothe themselves and their children.
By the mid-nineteenth century most commanding officers were either allocating specific rooms for a number of families or were permitting the married soldiers to live out of barracks in any rooms they could afford to rent in the town. At the end of the Crimean War the British army began constructing special barracks just for married soldiers and their families.
Living Conditions of the Officers
By contrast, the officers led a pampered life. Each had at least one soldier to serve as personal valet, running errands and polishing boots and brass. Only the most junior officers had to share living quarters with another officer, and senior officers were allocated several rooms. The commanding officer had a private house fit for entertaining in a style appropriate to a senior, colonial representative of the monarch. Officers also messed together, but their dinner courses were served on special china with silver utensils and crystal wine glasses instead of tin plates and mugs. Every officers' mess included a separate reception room where they could gather to read, smoke and talk. Most were equipped with a billiard room. The majority of junior officers were not married and many of the senior officers did not bring their families to Canada. Those that did often shipped out their household furnishings in order to fit up rented houses. Even the bachelors brought out large quantities of furniture and other possessions, or else bought the goods from someone returning to Britain. Comfortable quarters and ample sporting and hobby equipment were essential if a young man was to endure a tour of duty in Canada. Moreover, it was necessary to keep up appearances; most of the junior officers had to supplement their pay with family money
Officers in Canada usually spent a minimum of time performing their duties and the rest amusing themselves. Most were enthusiastic about hunting and fishing, and expeditions to hunt for moose or wild fowl were common. In winter many of them joined their colleagues in sleighing clubs which had outings, complete with female guests and ample picnic hampers, to rendezvous points like Niagara Falls from Fort George (Niagara-on-the-Lake) or Montmorency Falls from Quebec City. During their Canadian tour of duty most officers took leave of absence and toured the United States for several months so that they could discuss the differences in American and British customs when they returned home. In the Canadian towns the officers were at the heart of the upper-class social community, welcome guests at every formal dinner and ball.
Leisure Activities
There was one leisure activity which both officers and men pursued, although rarely together. Amateur theatricals were common; performing the latest melodrama or farce was a pleasurable pastime that was sometimes used to raise money for charity or a regimental cause.
For the rank and file, life in Canada was not so amusing. Until the 1840s, the British army did not supply recreational facilities or equipment for their pleasure. Equipment for games, such as cricket, had to be supplied from their own meagre pay or by the generosity of the commanding officer. But, beginning in the late 1840s, changes occurred both in the official army attitude and in the concern of the officers. One of the first steps was the creation of regimental libraries. The soldiers who had taken advantage of the very basic schooling offered by the army could read the latest novel by Charles Dickens or James Fenimore Cooper or else try to wade through a history of Wellington's campaigns or a religious treatise on original sin. To entice more soldiers to use the libraries, adjoining recreation rooms were constructed and equipped with checkers, dominoes and backgammon. At the same time, alleys for skittles were added to many barracks so that the men could play this game which is similar to our modern bowling. At some forts the officers began special lectures and slide-illustrated talks to amuse the men during the winter nights. The War Office provided magic lantern slides and projection equipment.
All of these efforts were undertaken in an effort to relieve the tedium of serving in Canada. The officers and the army bureaucracy had come to realize that most of their discipline problems arose because the men drank too much and that the overindulgence resulted from a lack of places to go and things to do. Drunkenness was a major problem: alcohol was cheap and there were numerous taverns as well as the officially sanctioned canteen within the fort. The court martial records reveal that habitual drunkenness was the most frequent crime on which men were brought up, followed closely by being drunk on duty. One of the first steps the army took was to stop the sale of hard liquor in the canteens in 1846. By the 1860s coffee bars were established in many of the barracks so that men could buy tea, coffee or lemonade and a snack instead of beer. In 1863, canteens became regimental organizations so that more controls could be put on them and so that the profits could be spent on sports equipment or Christmas presents for the children. At the same time, soldiers in many units formed temperance groups to try to curb alcoholism.
Desertion & Punishment
The other major problem in North America was desertion. From most of the forts and garrisons the United States was close at hand. Freedom from the dreary regimental routine and discipline, and better wages seemed very close. On occasion, crimps or agents circulated among British soldiers advertising American wages and trying to induce men to desert to work on canal or railway gangs in the United States. During the American Civil War (1860-1865) crimping was particularly prevalent as wealthy residents of the northern states tried to find men to serve in their places. Bounties of several hundred dollars were used to entice redcoats into blue Yankee uniforms.
Crimping was not the only cause of desertion. Most regiments lost a large number of men in the first years they were stationed in Canada: for many British soldiers this was their first opportunity to rectify the mistake they felt they had made in joining the British army. Since there were few opportunities to obtain their discharge legally, fleeing to the United States often seemed the only escape route. In boats or overland, in stolen clothes or in their uniforms, they ran away. Seldom was the desertion rate less than three percent of the number of soldiers stationed in British North America and it was occasionally more than eight percent. The officers believed that Irish soldiers were the most inclined to desert and, in fact, many of them deliberately enlisted in regiments stationed in Canada with the intention of deserting at the first opportunity; enlisting was a cheap way of fleeing the poverty and famine of Ireland. The officers also believed that the longer a man served the less likely he would be to desert, and that married men were more reliable than single ones.
With these beliefs in mind, a special regiment was formed in the 1840s for service in the Canadas. The Royal Canadian Rifle Regiment was established with double the normal number of married men and with men who had served for fifteen years in the British army. The men who transferred to this regiment served permanently in Canada, but in exchange their pay rates and fringe benefits were better, and the army was able to use this regiment to garrison forts such as Malden at Amherstburg, Wellington at Prescott, and Lennox at l'δle-aux-Noix on the Richelieu River. These were the points where it was easiest to desert.
In addition, the British army offered rewards for the capture of anyone who deserted and stationed lookouts at points along the international border where soldiers were likely to attempt to cross. If a deserter was caught he would experience the severity of British military justice. Although a court martial could award the death penalty for desertion, it normally did not do so in peacetime. Instead, the captured deserter would be flogged, transported, or imprisoned. For more than half the period under discussion, flogging with a cat-o'nine-tails in front of the assembled regiment was the most common for infractions of military discipline. A deserter was bound to be awarded at least several hundred lashes, and in the eighteenth century sentences of 1,000 lashes or more were not uncommon. Since fifty lashes would expose the muscles on a man's back completely, it is terrifying to imagine what a thousand would do. Frequently a soldier could not bear up to the full extent of his punishment. If the regimental surgeon felt that the prisoner's life was in danger he was taken down from the triangle and hospitalized until his back healed. Then, at the discretion of the commanding officer, the flogging could be resumed.
This brutal form of punishment was gradually replaced by transportation, imprisonment and branding. Transportation was used for serious crimes. Until 1818 it meant being sent to serve for the rest of one's life with special regiments in such places as West Africa, places where the life expectancy of British soldiers was very short. After 1818 transportation meant being sent to live on ships docked at Bermuda or to work in the penal colony in Australia. By the 1850s, imprisonment at Kingston Penitentiary or in special military prisons on St. Helen's Island at Montreal or Melville Island at Halifax was normally used instead of transportation. For a number of years the prisoner was subjected to hard labour; he spent most of his time picking bits of tarred rope apart to form oakum which was sold for caulking ships. The other common form of hard labour was shot drill. For hours at a time, the soldiers moved cannon balls from one pile to another in a meaningless and endlessly futile drill.
Most prisoners also suffered the ignominy of being branded. As practised by the army, this was actually a form of tattooing done on the left breast. The prisoner was marked with a special instrument, the letter D for deserter or BC for bad conduct. It was a permanent indicator that the soldier had disgraced himself and the British army.
Occasionally soldiers took the law into their own hands. If a soldier had brought disgrace upon all of them, had stolen from, or in some other way offended his comrades, they would mete out their own whipping after the transgressor returned to barracks, following the official punishment.
It was a hard life. From the vantage point of the twentieth century, it seems impossible to believe that anyone would enlist for such mean food, quarters and pay and risk any of these punishments. But this chronicle of life in the British army in Canada must be seen in the context of life for the lower classes in the British Isles. Their lives were just as hard and brutal and their living conditions just as bad or worse. The British army did offer the security of a meal every day, the chance to see the world and the glory of wearing the red coat.
