Barron's Booknotes (Drama Edition Plus)/BAR1DRAMA_4.ISO/source/bn_sric.txt

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                                      1594

                             WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S
                                  RICHARD III

                            by Arthur S. Rosenblatt

                               SERIES COORDINATOR
                          Murray Bromberg, Principal,
                Wang High School of Queens, Holliswood, New York
      Past President, High School Principals Association of New York City

                                ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
         Our thanks to Milton Katz and Julius Liebb for their advisory
      assistance on the Book Notes series. Thanks also to W. John Campbell
            for his substantial editorial contribution to this book.
     Loreto Todd, Senior Lecturer in English, University of Leeds, England,
           prepared the chapter on Elizabethan English in this book.
            (C) Copyright 1985 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
   ■iElectronically Enhanced Text (C) Copyright 1993, World Library, Inc.■I

CONTENTS
                               CONTENTS
                        SECTION............................ ■iSEARCH ON■I

      THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES............................. ■iSRICAUTH■I

      THE PLAY
      The Plot............................................. ■iSRICPLOT■I
      The Characters....................................... ■iSRICCHAR■I
      Other Elements
           Setting......................................... ■iSRICSETT■I
           Themes.......................................... ■iSRICTHEM■I
           Style........................................... ■iSRICSTYL■I
           Elizabethan English............................. ■iSRICELIZ■I
           Historical Background........................... ■iSRICHIST■I
           Form and Structure.............................. ■iSRICFORM■I
           The Globe Theatre............................... ■iSRICGLOB■I
      THE PLAY............................................. ■iSRICPLAY■I

      A STEP BEYOND
      Tests and Answers.................................... ■iSRICTEST■I
      Term Paper Ideas and other Topics for Writing........ ■iSRICTERM■I
      The Critics.......................................... ■iSRICCRIT■I

      Advisory Board....................................... ■iSRICADVB■I

      Bibliography......................................... ■iSRICBIBL■I

AUTHOR_AND_HIS_TIMES
                       THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES             (SRICAUTH)
-
  William Shakespeare lived in an exciting time. The economic
prosperity sweeping England contributed to the growing power of the
middle class. And this extended to the market town of Stratford, on
the Avon River- some one hundred miles from London- where
Shakespeare was born, probably on April 23, 1564, during the sixth
year of Queen Elizabeth's reign (1558-1603).
  England was enjoying what we might call a "boom." Under the
queen's brilliant administration, international trade was flourishing,
geographical exploration had expanded, artistic creativity was
encouraged, and the pursuit of learning was vigorous.
  Shakespeare's grandfather had been a tenant farmer, but his
father, John, became a prosperous merchant and even held the high
office of bailiff, the equivalent of today's mayor. Thanks to his
family's prosperity, the future playwright most likely had a good
head-start in life. Young Will probably was sent to local schools
where he would have learned the Latin and Greek classics that were the
basis of education in those days. Some scholars think that it was
during this time that Shakespeare acquired his lifelong interest in
the classics and developed an ear for poetic rhythm.
  After he left school, little is known of Shakespeare's Stratford
days, other than at age eighteen he married Anne Hathaway and became
the father of three children. Some scholars believe he worked as an
apprentice to his father, while others suggest he was a schoolteacher.
There is even an old legend that he was driven out of Stratford
after hunting game illegally on a nearby estate.
  While there is no proof for all this, we do know that John
Shakespeare's business losses caused him to give up his local
government offices. Not long afterward, William left for London to
seek his fortune in that hub of opportunity.
                                         {AUTHOR_AND_HIS_TIMES ^paragraph 5}
  London was bustling with activity and adventure. Creative fervor was
in the air as business people and artists mingled in the streets.
Caught up in this excitement, Shakespeare soon became a member of an
acting company and launched a career in the theater. No doubt he did
many backstage jobs before moving on to small acting roles. He might
even have collaborated in writing stage texts until he eventually
created entire plays by himself.
  Among the earliest of Shakespeare's dramatic works are believed to
be the romantic comedies set in far-off places- The Comedy of Errors
and Love's Labour's Lost. They are typical of many popular Elizabethan
plays set in ancient foreign settings.
  Less typical were his three plays focusing on the reign of the
English monarch, King Henry VI. While each was produced independently-
and not in chronological order- they form a unit and share common
bonds besides their characters.
  Unlike many presentations of historical subjects on stage,
Shakespeare's plays explored a number of concerns that reflected
current interests. Foremost among these was the fear of a return to
the civil disorder of the 15th century that had preceded the accession
to the throne of the Tudor monarchs (see Historical Background).
Many members of the great 15th-century families were still prominent
in Elizabeth's court. As a member of an acting company that frequently
performed at court and enjoyed the financial support of the
nobility, Shakespeare had direct contact with these family
descendants. Could their ambitions and lust for power and revenge rise
up again? Would the fragile peace between domestic factions as well as
foreign enemies remain secure after the death of Elizabeth? These were
questions he had to confront when writing the drama of Richard III's
rise to power and rapid downfall.
  In order to make a case for his queen- and against the Yorkist
claim- Shakespeare studied the history books available at that time.
Human motivation, which he wanted to examine, was not recorded in
them. All he could find was outlines of events. Few written
documents remained from the period of Richard III. Many had been
destroyed by his successors while others had simply disappeared. The
history books financed by the Tudor court sang the virtues of Richmond
and portrayed Richard III as an evil man.
                                        {AUTHOR_AND_HIS_TIMES ^paragraph 10}
  Shakespeare used the information to construct a drama that would
sustain audience interest in the story of Richard's villainy. He
juggled historical facts by rearranging people and places to support
dramatic tension. By all accounts, Richard III was well received in
Shakespeare's time, with the great Elizabethan actor Richard Burbage
in the title role.
  Later in his career, he wrote four more history plays about kings
whose reigns preceded the Wars of the Roses (1455-85), and whose lives
and actions strongly influenced it. In addition to these plays- and
the two unrelated history plays, King John and Henry VIII (whose
true authorship is still disputed)- Shakespeare went on to write the
great comedies and tragedies that have insured his fame for some
four centuries.
  During the twilight of Elizabeth's reign and the first years of
her successor, James I, Shakespeare created such masterpieces as
Hamlet, Othello, Measure for Measure, King Lear, and Macbeth. But when
the Globe Theater, in which he owned an interest, burned in 1613
during a performance of Henry VIII, he returned to Stratford where
he had purchased property, and spent his last days there until his
death in 1616 at the age of 52.

PLOT
                               THE PLAY
-
                               THE PLOT                     (SRICPLOT)
-
  Richard III opens with the arrival of Richard, Duke of Gloucester,
in London. His oldest brother, King Edward IV, is slowly dying as a
result of overindulgence in "the good life." The ambitious, restless
Richard sees an opportunity to attain the crown for himself.
  The first step is to get rid of his other brother, the Duke of
Clarence, who has a closer claim to the throne as the older heir.
Richard instigates a rift between the king and Clarence which
results in Clarence's being imprisoned in the Tower of London. Later
he is executed by murderers sent by Richard.
  Richard's next move toward his goal is to propose marriage to the
great Neville family heiress, Lady Anne, widow of the son of the
late Henry VI. Richard has been instrumental in the death of both
her husband and father-in-law and this presents a huge obstacle to
such a match. In an extraordinary demonstration of his persuasive
powers, he woos and convinces Anne to marry him.
                                                         {PLOT ^paragraph 5}
  Meanwhile, Edward IV's wife, Queen Elizabeth, is concerned that
Richard has been named Protector of the Realm, making him guardian
of her young son Edward, heir to the throne. There is no love lost
between her family and Richard, who resents their rise to power.
  King Edward summons his wife and nobles to meet to settle their
differences, but on their way they are interrupted by old Queen
Margaret, widow of Henry VI, who was exiled but who has never left the
country. She recalls past horrors and predicts future disasters for
the country. Her hatred for Richard is so great that she curses him
and all those responsible for the evil she has witnessed, predicting a
bad end for them all.
  During the reconciliation attempt, Clarence's death is announced.
Soon afterward, King Edward dies and Richard begins to conspire with
the Duke of Buckingham to succeed his brother. They set off to bring
young Edward, the Prince of Wales, to London to await his coronation.
  In their absence, Queen Elizabeth learns that Richard has imprisoned
her brother and a son by a previous marriage. Fearing for her life,
she flees to the protection of church sanctuary with her youngest son,
the Duke of York.
  When the Prince of Wales' party arrives in London, Buckingham
arranges to have the little Duke of York taken from sanctuary. The two
brothers are then sent for their safety to the Tower of London.
                                                        {PLOT ^paragraph 10}
  Lord Hastings, an old ally and friend to the family of the late King
Edward IV, is questioned about the possibility of Richard's succession
to the throne. He forcefully rejects the idea, thus signing his own
death warrant. At a subsequent Council meeting, Richard accuses
Hastings of treason and condemns him to death.
  Buckingham then addresses the public, praising Richard and
instigating the rumor that the late King Edward's children are
illegitimate. Although the crowd is unmoved, city officials are
convinced that only Richard can prevent civil disorder. A delegation
arrives at his residence and, through Buckingham, pleads with him to
accept the crown. He "reluctantly" does so after pretending to have no
interest in becoming king.
  Once Richard is on the throne, he must secure his position. He first
tries to have Buckingham eliminate the legal heirs (the young boys
in the Tower), but Buckingham hesitates. So Richard arranges for their
murder himself. He now reveals his next move: he will get rid of his
wife and solidify his power by marrying his niece, the daughter of
Edward IV and Queen Elizabeth.
  Buckingham is in disfavor and flees. Shortly afterward, Richard's
problems begin to intensify. There are stirrings from France, where
the Lancastrian heir, Henry, Earl of Richmond, is in exile. Buckingham
has raised an army and is marching against the king. Richard must take
up arms against these enemies.
  But first he attempts to win Queen Elizabeth to his side in his plan
to marry her daughter. Her defenses are eventually worn down and she
appears to give her consent to the marriage.
                                                        {PLOT ^paragraph 15}
  Meanwhile the forces against Richard are mounting. But Buckingham
has been defeated and is eventually captured and executed.
  Richmond lands in England and establishes a position at Bosworth
Field, near Richard's army. The two camps settle in to prepare for
battle the next day. During the night, Richard receives the news of
desertions among his allies, but his troops still outnumber the
enemy three to one. Richmond is informed that Queen Elizabeth has
approved of his marriage to her daughter, which upsets Richard's
plans.
  At night, the ghosts of Richard's victims appear in both commanders'
dreams. Richard is shaken by the vision of his own tyranny but vows to
carry on his fight. Richmond is encouraged by the good wishes of
Richard's victims.
  Both leaders address their troops, exhorting them to fight
bravely. Richmond stresses the security of the country, while
Richard condemns his enemies as a band of vagabonds and exiles.
  During the battle, Richard fights bravely, but is slain by Richmond.
The victor, Richmond, declares an amnesty and vows to unite the two
families through his marriage. He will establish the peace which has
been denied to England for so many years.

CHARACTERS
                            THE CHARACTERS                  (SRICCHAR)
-
  RICHARD, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER (LATER, RICHARD III)
  Shakespeare based his portrait of Richard on information found in
the histories written by Edward Hall (Union of Two Noble and
Illustre Houses of Lancaster and York), Raphael Holinshed
(Chronicles), and Sir Thomas More. Drawing on historical data,
Shakespeare created a dramatic character from one of the most
unusual figures in the 15th-century Wars of the Roses. Richard III was
England's last king to die in battle. His most notorious phase was the
period just prior to his gaining power, followed by that of his
rapid downfall in the Battle of Bosworth Field.
  Holinshed's histories gave a biased description of Richard,
stressing his supposed physical deformity and depicting him as
arrogant, hypocritical, cruel, and ambitious. At a glance, it may
appear that Shakespeare accepted this view since there is little to
refute it in Richard III. You should realize, however, that many
historians have criticized this portrait of Richard as being not
only unfair, but untrue. As early as Sir George Buck's writings in the
17th century, many historians have insisted that Richard was
actually a warm, courageous, and outstanding king. When you read
Shakespeare's play, keep in mind that the playwright was obviously
attempting to make the Tudors look good, at the expense of Richard and
his ancestors.
  To serve his own dramatic needs, Shakespeare refined and embellished
the available historical material. His Richard becomes a fully
developed character who is both the victim of circumstances and the
commander of his own destiny. This conflict is the force that most
critics feel gives the play its special energy and fascination. A
Richard who merely parades his way through a series of wicked deeds
and then pays for his crimes in the end would never hold an audience's
attention. Shakespeare's Richard, on stage for most of the play, is
never less than interesting and usually quite compelling.
  Shakespeare takes you inside the character and gives you a chance to
see the motivation behind the acts. Richard tells you in his own words
what he will do and why. But you can also judge him through his
actions and reactions to a variety of characters, as well as in
other people's words about him. Right up until the last moment of
his life on stage, you are given every opportunity to assess
Richard. Even the most controversial charges against him are presented
in detail. You are shown that most horrible of his crimes, according
to rumor and Elizabethan historical records- the murder of the young
princes in the Tower. But you are also exposed to Richard's wit, his
psychological understanding of others, and the evil record of
Richard's "victims." You are even invited to consider how much Richard
himself may be a victim- of his nature, of his circumstances, of his
deformed body, and of the past in general.
                                                   {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 5}
  The playwright's greatest challenge was to inspire a response to the
notorious Richard. You can measure his success by your own
reactions. How do you feel about Richard's powers of persuasion
after he has successfully wooed Lady Anne? How do you react to the
string of nasty names he is called- "Foul Devil," "Lump of foul
deformity," "Bottled spider," "Cacodemon," "Poisonous bunch-backed
toad?" He may brush them aside, but can they be ignored?
  Shakespeare did not offer a real defense of Richard, but instead
considered the forces motivating him. Richard himself tells you that
he represents Vice, a stock personification of evil in earlier forms
of drama. In the so-called medieval "mystery" or "miracle" plays, Vice
was the traditional representative of the devil. His function was to
entrap people into sin by charm, wit, and double-dealing. Clearly
Richard enjoys his own cleverness. You may even find yourself
smiling and nodding in approval as he performs his devilish pranks and
outwits his victims.
  When Richard is slain by Richmond at the play's end, a certain sense
of loss, even regret, is often felt. This raises the question of why
Richard III is not considered a tragedy. After all, Shakespeare
entitled the play, The Tragedy of Richard III. But is Richard really a
tragic figure? To deserve this label, Richard would have had to change
within the framework of the play and suffer a fall from greatness.
Most readers agree that he never really undergoes any change and
that his downfall is a well-deserved punishment for his personal
crimes.
  At his most fragile moment, when he awakens from his terrifying
dream in the final act- aware of what he has done and exposed at his
most naked self- you may feel some sympathy. But within seconds, he is
up to his old tricks, playing the villain with no further motivation
than his own wickedness.
  By the play's end, you will be able to decide how well Shakespeare
succeeded in creating a portrait that no amount of accurate and
objective historical research has ever been able to displace.
                                                  {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 10}
-
  QUEEN MARGARET
  The widow of Henry VI, the former Lancaster ruler overthrown by
the York family, is historically inaccurate insofar as her being in
England when the play's events take place. She had already been exiled
to France after Henry VI's execution and remained there until her
death. But Shakespeare chose to ignore this, taking "poetic license"
to plant her right in the middle of Richard's quest for power. Here
she serves a useful function as a purveyor of truths and prophecies. A
once powerful foe, she has been reduced to a shadow of her former
self, wandering half-mad and constantly weeping over her lost cause.
But as with most Elizabethan fools and madmen, this gives her a
capacity for "second-sight." Through her curses and visions, she
predicts the doom that will occur to individual characters and the
entire York dynasty. The attempts to dispute her arguments, along with
the ignoring of her curses and predictions, are two elements which
charge the play with tension as it moves toward its conclusion.
  For Richard, Margaret is a towering figure of divine punishment,
or Nemesis (the ancient Greek concept of retribution). She haunts
him constantly. As she repeatedly demands her revenge, the air will be
filled with electric tension. She provides Richard with his greatest
challenge: Can he ignore her curses and will he survive her
prophecies?
-
                                                  {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 15}
  DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM
  Of all Richard's victims, Buckingham is the most foolhardy from
the start when he ignores Margaret's warnings about Richard's evil
nature and the curse that will fall on all who serve him. He also
boldly asks for God's punishment, in the event that he should be false
to Edward IV and his family.
  As Richard's chief ally, the greedy Buckingham does much of
Richard's dirty work, while Richard flatters him and plays the naive
pupil. Raised higher and higher by his expectations of wealth and
land, Buckingham is stunned when Richard refuses to reward him.
Shakespeare underscores Buckingham's shock and Richard's contempt with
the chilling but almost casual denial: "I am not in the giving vein
today" (IV, ii, 115). As Buckingham goes to his execution, he
remembers Margaret's prophecy and reflects on the price that one
pays for falseness.
-
  QUEEN ELIZABETH
                                                  {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 20}
  Historically, the wife of Edward IV was a powerful political force
in her own right and had reinforced her position through patronage.
But when we meet her, she arrives on a weak note as she bemoans the
king's illness and her own danger. She does, however, demonstrate
intelligence in her fear of Richard. Still, she lacks the resources to
resist him. Unlike Margaret, Queen Elizabeth cannot rally an army to
her side.
  Elizabeth is a survivor, and though her losses are great, she
never becomes one of Richard's victims. In the prolonged proxy
courtship scene, where Richard asks Elizabeth for her daughter, she
tolerates his clever and skillful arguments longer than Lady Anne
had earlier. Even her apparent surrender to Richard's wishes leaves
room for doubt. Indeed, as you later discover, the final victory is
hers.
-
  LADY ANNE (NEVILLE)
  The first great contest between the determined Richard and a
formidable opposition takes place quickly with Lady Anne, daughter
of the powerful Duke of Warwick and the widow of Henry VI's son, the
former Prince of Wales. It is one of Shakespeare's finest scenes and
demonstrates the playwright's genius. Lady Anne's collapse might serve
as fair warning of Richard's uncanny ability to exploit other people's
weaknesses. Occurring early in the play, it should put you on alert
for subsequent encounters with other enemies.
                                                  {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 25}
-
  HENRY TUDOR, EARL OF RICHMOND
  Richard is such a compelling character that Shakespeare probably
knew he was in a "no win" situation when it came to presenting his
successor. To build a proper case for Richmond as a hero would require
more space than was available in this play. But this was one bit of
history Shakespeare would not dare to alter. The grandfather of his
own monarch, Queen Elizabeth I, must emerge as the glorious victor and
peacemaker. To minimize the problem, Richmond is not introduced
until the latter stages of the play. After a brief introduction, he is
shown only in direct contrast to Richard. The parallel is reinforced
by the bold presentation of the two tents- the two camps on stage.
Further differences in personality are clarified in their dealings
with their attendants and by their responses to their dreams. The
final differences are shown in their individual orations to their
troops. Notice how Richmond stresses the justice of their cause and
invokes God throughout his speech. It serves not only to inspire his
warriors, but to prop him up as the "chosen" champion.
-
  GEORGE, DUKE OF CLARENCE (BROTHER OF RICHARD AND EDWARD IV)
                                                  {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 30}
  Like Lady Anne, Clarence becomes one of Richard's first victims-
forerunner of what will take place again and again. His first
mistake is to trust his brother Richard. Clarence, we later
discover, has committed a number of crimes in the name of Yorkist
power and deserves punishment by any standard. But unlike Lady Anne,
Clarence does not get to confront his enemy or to struggle for his
life with Richard. Instead, he wrestles with his own crimes in the
terrible dream before his assassination by Richard's henchmen. In
his death you will find the pattern of prophecy and retribution
(Nemesis) that will be repeated throughout the play- the prediction of
doom (in his dream), the irony (of trusting Richard), and the final
awareness that he deserves punishment by the very God whose mercy he
invokes.
-
  EDWARD IV
  In his opening soliloquy, Richard draws attention to his brother,
King Edward IV, as being lazy, lecherous, and gullible. This might
seem like a narrow-minded opinion of a monarch who had twice triumphed
over the Lancaster enemy and had ruled England peacefully for more
than two decades. But when you do get to meet him during his one
appearance on stage, is there any reason to disagree with Richard's
evaluation? Is this anyone's picture of what the head of government
should be? Shakespeare never suggests that Richard's criminal acts
should be sanctioned. Instead, he shows you an alternative view of a
king and lets you reach your own judgments. You can't help but compare
the two men who occupy the throne during the play. Perhaps the lack of
choice between these two "unfit" rulers helps create the need for an
ideal monarch who will appear in the end.
-
                                                  {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 35}
  DUCHESS OF YORK
  The mother of two kings (Edward IV and Richard III) and their
brother (the Duke of Clarence), the Duchess of York reveals a great
deal in her statements about her children. She can snarl at Queen
Margaret and defend every vicious deed committed by her husband and
sons. Yet nowhere does she approve of her son Richard. She denies
him even the courtesy of a mother's blessing, and at the earliest
opportunity she denounces him. To offset any claim to goodness that
Richard might have from his effective administration in the North or
his courage in battle, she laces with contempt her recollections of
his childhood. She can still stand up to him, but lacks the force of
Queen Margaret.
  Richard is clever enough to realize the political danger of
implicating her as an adulteress in establishing the illegitimacy of
Edward IV's lineage.
-
  LORD HASTINGS
                                                  {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 40}
  The Lord Chamberlain seems to be a typical Shakespearean gull, a
fool whose end is predictable from the start. Beneath his naive
trust lurks an ugly lust for revenge that leads to his downfall.
Shakespeare uses him as another victim whom Richard lulls into an
unwarranted sense of security, then crushes in an instant. Notice
how the Nemesis pattern- prophecy, irony, and recognition- applies
to Hastings as he meets his Fate.
-
  LORD STANLEY, EARL OF DERBY
  Stanley is a difficult figure to follow as he winds cautiously
through the play. He is established as a decent man in his first
appearance when he pleads for one of his servant's lives. He shows
caution when he sends his messenger to Hastings with the story of
his dream. And he personally warns Hastings of the mounting danger
which Richard represents.
  But Stanley is careful with his words and never defies a prophecy,
nor does he trust an enemy. Though Richard suspects he is disloyal, he
cannot detect a vulnerable spot in Stanley. Even the holding of
Stanley's son as hostage is a sign of weakness rather than power.
                                                  {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 45}
-
  LORD MAYOR
  A civil functionary of importance, the Lord Mayor is depicted in
this play as a man so gullible that one wonders why he doesn't join
Richard's list of victims. He gives in easily to Richard and
Buckingham's schemes. According to some critics, Shakespeare may be
pointing a finger at the weakness of a system which permits major
changes in government to be influenced by such incompetent officials.
-
  1ST MURDERER AND 2ND MURDERER
                                                  {CHARACTERS ^paragraph 50}
  Notice Richard's ease in dealing with this lower element of society.
What does that tell you about his willingness to soil his own hands?
And does this ever change? These murderers represent a certain type of
commoner in England and were easily identified by the Elizabethan
audience. As they speak with Clarence, they are clearly aware of the
goings-on in high places. Yet they do differ with one another. In
their separate positions regarding the bloody act of murder, they
exemplify the two strong attitudes toward a Higher Authority that
run through the play- defiance and fear.
-
  THE PRINCE OF WALES AND THE DUKE OF YORK (SONS OF EDWARD IV)
  Like all the children in this play, both are precocious. But there
are differences between them. Wales appears to have leadership ability
and is already somewhat haughty when we first meet him. He goads his
Uncle Richard with boyish fantasies of foreign victories. His
younger brother, York, seems content in his smart-alecky word play
with his uncle. Yet the two boys remain dangerously alone without
the protection of their maternal uncles, and their departure for the
Tower of London is bittersweet. They are a vital element in
maintaining the audience's interest especially through their mother
and grandmother's abortive attempt to visit them in the Tower. In
Tyrrel's careful description of their final moment, they become a
powerful focus of sympathy. Richard III's role in the murder of the
princes in the Tower has been at the center of the case against him
throughout the centuries. Shakespeare spares nothing but the actual
sight of blood in this version of the fate of the two boys whose
mysterious disappearance has never been solved. Even today the
pro-Richard forces concentrate their campaign to clear his name on
absolving him of the murder of the princes.

SETTING
                            OTHER ELEMENTS
-
                               SETTING                      (SRICSETT)
-
             (See illustration: England of Richard III.)■Çbn_sric.cif■Ç
-
  Richard III takes place in late 15th-century England just before
Richard, Duke of Gloucester, seized control and ascended the throne.
It concludes with his death at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.
In all, it embraces events occurring over roughly a fourteen year
period. But Shakespeare has greatly condensed and rearranged the
sequence of events to create intensity and heighten the drama.
                                                      {SETTING ^paragraph 5}
  For a play that suggests action taking place across a sweeping
landscape, there are remarkably few locations actually created on
stage. In fact, the first part of Richard III is set entirely in
London, on anonymous streets, in non-specific rooms of the royal
palace at Westminster (the present site of the Houses of
Parliament), or in the bare outline of a room at the Tower. It is
not until the brief scene at Pomfret Castle (III, iii) that the action
moves outside the capital. Afterward, it quickly returns to London
where it remains until the last act, when the two sides move toward
their final encounter.
  Here, in Act V, Scene I, the setting is Salisbury, about 70 miles
southwest of London, where Buckingham is about to be executed. The
next scene takes place in the north, at Richmond's camp of Tamworth,
"but one day's march" from Leicester, the city closest to Richard's
camp. In the following scene, you are taken to Bosworth Field where
the two opponents are mustering their troops and preparing for combat.
It is there that the final resolution of the play takes place.
  With these few on-stage locations, how does Shakespeare then achieve
the suggestion of great panoramic action? First, remember all the
offstage action. How many things are we told about, and sometimes
re-told, that have just taken place offstage? The imprisonment of
Rivers, Grey and Vaughan; Buckingham's rebellion and capture; the
murder of the princes in the Tower; Richmond's abortive attempt to
land in Dorset- these are just a few events that take place within the
play's time frame.
  What about past events? How often are they recalled? Listen to all
the reminders of past battles, fallen enemies, and the rise and fall
of previous powerful rulers. Not only Henry VI, but the Duke of
Warwick (Anne's father), Richard of York (Richard III's father),
Richard II, all are brought forth from memory and add to the sense
of a larger arena.
  Shakespeare's audience would have demanded a play with a breadth
of action equal in concept to the importance of the story. The
playwright has indeed provided that, but with a remarkable economy
of settings which do not intrude on the important business on stage.

THEMES
                                THEMES                      (SRICTHEM)
-
  Here are major themes you will find in Richard III.
-
  1. NATURAL ORDER
  The Elizabethan attitude toward nature, a holdover from medieval
times, was as structured and formal as an organizational flow-chart
would be today. Nature consisted of a universe in which there was an
established hierarchy, with God at the top. Everything below had a
specific position and status. The king ruled the state; the father was
the head of the family; next came the mother, the children, and so on.
At the bottom were the animals; even they had higher and lower
rankings. Snakes, insects and vermin were at the very bottom. Remember
this when you come upon the animal images used in the curses heaped
upon Richard.
  When the natural order was upset, the bottom moved toward the top.
As a result, chaos set in. The symbol of chaos was the monster.
Richard is frequently called a monster and related to "monstrous"
acts. When you hear of something being monstrous, it suggests a
drastic, unnatural change or upheaval that demands a restoration to
the way things are supposed to be. Richard's personal position- low
down on the scale of animal life- and his political position at the
top, are at odds. His removal from the throne and humiliating downfall
in the mud of Bosworth Field resolve the unnatural state of events.
                                                       {THEMES ^paragraph 5}
-
  2. LEGITIMACY AND USURPATION
  The concept of a natural order extended to such matters as political
inheritance and succession. Again, the most important aspect of this
was at the very top, the monarchy. A king achieved his position by
birth, according to firmly established rules of inheritance. In the
absence of an immediate heir, the next closest male relative was
entitled to the crown. It was not until after the death of Henry
VIII that women could become heirs to the throne.
  To break with such an accepted tradition of royal succession was
to defy the natural order. Usurpation- the unlawful, illegitimate,
seizure of the crown- was a major crime. It was as serious as
regicide, the killing of a king, which it usually involved. Such a
monstrous act produced disorder, chaos, and even revolution. Richard
demonstrates that he is aware of this as he carefully contrives to
attain his goal. He must appear to be the legitimate occupant of the
throne. That he is not a legitimate ruler is one of the play's chief
political messages. If he were, Elizabeth I's legitimacy would be in
question since she became queen as a result of Henry VII's own violent
accession to the throne (the killing of Richard at Bosworth Field).
-
                                                      {THEMES ^paragraph 10}
  3. ON KINGSHIP
  In the natural scheme of things, as the father was to the family, so
was the king to the state. But while there were many fathers, there
was only one king whose position at the head of the government ensured
the smooth working of the political order. As such, it was essential
that the king represent all that was good and just. If he failed to do
this, the civil order would collapse- and this is often mirrored in
Shakespeare's works by images of disease and other natural
abnormalities.
  Like the sun, a king must bring about fruitfulness and life. The sun
is, therefore, a symbol of kingship as well as being Edward IV's
family symbol. In his very first words, Richard binds the two together
with his reference to this "son of York." The audience also hears
the word sun, which represents Edward as both king and son of the
House of York. There will be many other references to sun and light (a
state of natural well-being) as opposed to darkness and shadow
(illness). This reminds the Elizabethan audience of both the good
and the bad monarch. After all, no fewer than five kings of England
appear in Richard III- Henry VI, Edward IV, Edward V (the young Prince
of Wales held the title although he was never crowned), Richard III,
and Henry VII (Richmond). Track down and compare the images
surrounding each monarch to see how Shakespeare presents them.
-
  4. VENGEANCE
                                                      {THEMES ^paragraph 15}
  Throughout the play, a number of crimes are committed that cry out
for revenge. Moreover, in several references to past events, the
crimes committed not only by Richard, but by others (Clarence,
Edward IV, Richard of York, Henry VI and Margaret) are all revealed in
great detail. Demands for vengeance will echo throughout the play.
And, for the most part, they will not be satisfied until the final
scene when Richard is slain.
  Prior to that, another form of vengeance takes place and Richard,
surprisingly, is the instrument. As you examine the fate of
Richard's victims, you must consider their own participation in
criminal acts. Isn't Clarence guilty of murder? Hasn't Hastings
participated in the usurpation of Henry VI's throne? In executing
them, isn't Richard an agent for divine justice, a so-called
"Scourge of God?" Yet at the same time, he defies that very God by
committing homicide for his own gain. Critics point out that there was
a theological explanation to permit such a duality. An apparently
criminal act could often serve a greater purpose, as it did in this
case. But the tension between these two aspects of Richard's character
certainly adds to his fascination.
-
  5. NEMESIS (DIVINE RETRIBUTION)
  Most of the characters in Richard III experience a pattern of
ultimate punishment for their sins, both during the play and before
the action begins. The pattern leads from warnings that are ignored to
eventual punishment. Clarence, Edward IV, Queen Elizabeth's
relatives (Rivers, Grey, and Vaughan), Hastings, Buckingham, Lady
Anne, Queen Elizabeth herself, and finally Richard himself are made
aware of their crimes, and suffer punishment as a result. Either death
or severe loss comes to the representatives of both houses of
Lancaster and York in much the same way that noble families were
cursed and destroyed by divine plan in ancient Greek drama. Thus,
Richard can be seen not only as the maker of crimes, but also as the
final victim of a succession of cursed family crimes. His own
actions may be seen as the final blow to the royal house of
Plantagenet, which included both the Lancasters and the Yorks.
                                                      {THEMES ^paragraph 20}
  This view of family guilt, of course, makes Richard as an individual
seem less responsible. There is plenty of evidence in the play that
Richard is to be held strictly accountable for his crimes. How would
your balance sheet on Richard add up, either as a victim or a moral
monster?
-
  6. APPEARANCE AND REALITY
  From the moment Richard announces that he will "prove a villain,"
a great deal of role-playing takes place on stage. Note the difference
between a character's role in private speeches (soliloquies) and in
public speeches. Richard is obviously a great actor, but he is not the
only successful role-player. There is Buckingham, with whom he
compares technique at the start of Act III, Scene V. Examine the truce
arranged by Edward IV. How honest are the participants as they embrace
one another? Notice the vast number of hypocritical posturings, the
sworn oaths and outright falsehoods that take place, and the results
they inevitably produce.
-
                                                      {THEMES ^paragraph 25}
  7. FORTUNE
  The Elizabethans believed that Fortune was not simply a haphazard
matter, but an ordered part of their universe. This regulation of
destiny was symbolized by the Wheel of Fortune. Constantly in
motion, it moved from top to bottom and back again. Those who were
on top could not afford to be stuffy since they had only one place
to go- down. Still, there were those who ignored or scorned
Fortune's power to reverse one's position. Think of Buckingham's
rise and fall, Margaret and Elizabeth's past glory, and Richard's
swift road from duke to king to Bosworth Field.
-
  8. AMBITION
  It's hard to find a character in this play who is content with his
or her lot in life. Scratch deep enough and you'll usually find a
restless ambition that is eventually declared. The most obvious
example is Richard's overwhelming lust for the crown. This is followed
closely by Buckingham's desire to help him and thus share in the
spoils. Ambition of this sort would seem to be evil.
                                                      {THEMES ^paragraph 30}
  On the other hand, consider the young Prince of Wales' hope of
winning back lost English territory abroad. And what about
Richmond's goal "to reap the harvest of perpetual peace?" Do you think
that ambition is good or bad? Are there different types of ambition?
Moreover, can it always be justified? For the part it plays in driving
the action of this play forward, you may find that there are no easy
answers to these questions.

STYLE
                                STYLE                       (SRICSTYL)
-
  Because Richard III was written early in Shakespeare's career, it is
sometimes suggested that its simple style is the mark of a young,
developing playwright. On the other hand, many find its
straightforward, classical march to a foreseeable end as a
deliberate and excellent choice for this particular historical
subject.
  The play is different in many ways from Shakespeare's later familiar
comedies and tragedies, which contain more of the blank verse for
which the playwright is famous. Iambic pentameter, the five-beat
line with stress on every second syllable, is present in Richard
III, but this play has fewer poetic passages than his later ones.
The intensity of Clarence's dream is a good example. Here poetry, with
its ability to compress ideas into a few powerful images, brings
Clarence's fear and guilt into clear focus. Tyrrel's description of
the murder of Edward IV's sons in the Tower is also made more
effective through the use of verse.
  Equally skillful is Shakespeare's use of symbols and imagery. The
obvious use of the sun and its relationship to the king is extended by
references to light and darkness. Shadows and mirror images make you
aware of what is good and true or what is bad and false. A virtual
menagerie of animal references reminds the audience of the high or low
esteem in which a character is held. Notice, too, how often references
to food and meals are used to underscore the abstract appetite for
power. The importance of the rule of law is stressed by the use of
legal terminology (e.g., "windy attorneys," "libels," and "perjury").
  Equally effective are the technical devices of speech which
Shakespeare borrowed from classical drama. Particularly noticeable
in this play is the use of stichomythia, a short, rhythmic exchange of
words in equal balance.
  Shakespeare also works a form of the ancient Greek chorus into
Richard III. When Margaret, whose prophetic role is similar to that of
a chorus, is joined by the other women in Act IV, Scene IV, their
chorus of lamentation has an ancient religious quality that may remind
you of another level of concern- the presence of a Higher Authority in
the affairs of human beings.
                                                        {STYLE ^paragraph 5}
  Shakespeare uses language to produce rapid and convincing
characterizations. A superb actor such as Richard can change his
manner of speaking to suit his needs of the moment. Others are
generally consistent and true to their class. The nobles and members
of the court use a formal, somewhat elegant speech, while the common
people speak in plainer terms. When that pattern is broken, it is
deliberate. When the Third Citizen offers his pessimistic vision of
trouble ahead ("When clouds are seen, wise men put on their
cloaks"), the impact is all the greater. For all its classical
devices, verse, imagery, and the like, Richard III is remarkably
uncomplicated.

ELIZABETHAN_ENGLISH
                         ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH                (SRICELIZ)
-
  All languages change. Differences in pronunciation and word choice
are apparent even between parents and their children. If language
differences can appear in one generation, it is only to be expected
that the English used by Shakespeare four hundred years ago will
diverge markedly from the English used today. The following
information on Shakespeare's language will help you in your
understanding of Richard III.
-
  MOBILITY OF WORD CLASSES
  Adjectives, nouns, and verbs were more freely interchanged during
Shakespeare's day. Adjectives were often used as nouns, as in:
-
                                          {ELIZABETHAN_ENGLISH ^paragraph 5}
     We are the Queen's abjects [that is, abject subjects]
                                                (I, i, 106)
-
  and:
-
     Now fair [that is, fair times] befall thee and thy noble house!
                                              (I, iii, 281)
-
  Adjectives functioned also as adverbs. "Fair," for example, is
used where we would now require "fairly":
-
     Either be patient and entreat me fair.
                                              (IV, iv, 152)
-
  Nouns could be used as verbs and as adjectives:
-
     This sickly land might solace (i.e., give solace) as before
                                              (II, iii, 30)
-
     Tell me, thou villain (i.e., villainous) slave
                                              (IV, iv, 144)
-
  and verbs could be used as nouns.
-
  CHANGES IN WORD MEANING
  The meanings of all words undergo changes. For example, the word
"chip" extended its meaning from a small piece of wood to a small
piece of silicon. Many of the words in Shakespeare still exist, but
their meanings may have changed. The change is sometimes small, as
in the case of "jealous" meaning "mistrustful" in:
-
     The jealous, o'erworn widow
                                                 (I, i, 81)
-
  Other examples: "halt" (I, i, 23) meant "limp"; "mewed" (I, i, 38)
meant "continued"; "gossips" (I, i, 83) meant "old women" (probably
relatives); "diet" (I, i, 139) meant "way of life," and so on.
-
  VOCABULARY LOSS
  Words not only change their meanings, but frequently disappear
from the language. In the past, "leman" meant "sweetheart," "sooth"
meant "truth," and "thole" meant "endure." The following words used in
Richard III are no longer current in English, but their meanings can
usually be gauged from the context in which they occur.
-
  HAP (I, ii, 17)  fortune
  AVAUNT (I, ii, 44)  go away
  FALCHION (I, ii, 94)  curved sword
  DENIER (I, ii, 251)  small coin
  COG (I, iii, 48)  fawn
  NOBLE (I, iii, 81)  gold coin
  IWIS (I, iii, 101)  certainly
  CACODEMON (I, iii, 143)  devil
  PILLED (I, iii, 158)  spoiled, plundered
  MALAPERT (I, iii, 254)  impertinent
  FRANKED (I, iii, 313)  closed away, shut up in a sty
  SOP (I, iv, 159)  bread dipped in wine
  MEED (I, iv, 285)  reward
  HEAP (II, i, 54)  troop, company
  DUGS (II, ii, 30)  breasts, teats
  COMPLOTS (III, i, 192)  plots
  BOOTLESS (III, iv, 102)  useless
  RECURE (III, vii, 129)  cure, make better
  EMPERY (III, vii, 135)  sovereignty over
  EGALLY (III, vii, 212)  equally
  GRATULATE (IV, i, 10)  greet, look after
  TEEN (IV, i, 98)  sadness
  UNRESPECTIVE (IV, ii, 29)  unobservant
  SENIORY (IV, iv, 36)  seniority
  CAITIFF (IV, iv, 101)  wretched person
  OWED (IV, iv, 142)  owned
  HAPLY (IV, iv, 273)  by chance
  HOISED (IV, iv, 527)  hoisted
  PURSUIVANT-AT-ARMS (V, iii, 59)  low-ranking officer
  PEISE (V, iii, 106)  weigh
  BOBBED (V, iii, 335)  cut down, thrashed
-
  VERBS
  Shakespearean verb forms differ from those of modern usage in
three main ways:
-
  1. Questions and negatives could be formed without using do or
did, as when the keeper asks Clarence:
-
     Why looks your grace so heavily today?
                                                 (I, iv, 1)
-
  or where Anne tells Richard:
-
     Alas, I blame you not.
                                                (I, ii, 44)
-
  Shakespeare had the option of using forms a. and b. whereas
contemporary usage permits only the a. forms:
-
               a                               b
-
     What are you saying?              What say you?
     What did you say?                 What said you?
     I do not love you.                I love you not.
     I did not love you.               I loved you not.
-
  2. A number of past participles and past tense forms are used
which would be ungrammatical today. Among these are:
-
  "holp" for "helped" in:
-
     Let him thank me that holp to send him thither
                                               (I, ii, 107)
-
  "forgot" for "forgotten" in:
-
     Hath she forgot already that brave prince
                                               (I, ii, 239)
-
  "waked" for "woke" in:
-
     I, trembling, waked
                                                (I, iv, 61)
-
  "spoke" for "spoken" in:
-
     Spoke like a tall man that respects thy reputation
                                               (I, iv, 154)
-
  "bare" for "bore" in:
-
     Some tardy cripple bare the countermand
                                                (II, i, 91)
-
  and "beholding" for "beholden" in:
-
     Then he is more beholding to you than I.
                                              (III, i, 107)
-
  3. Archaic verb forms sometimes occur with "thou" and he, she, or
it:
-
     When thou didst crown his warlike brows with paper
     And with thy scorns drewst rivers from his eyes
                                            (I, iii, 174-5)
-
     And, if I fail not in my deep intent,
     Clarence hath not another day to live.
                                             (I, i, 149-50)
-
  PRONOUNS
  Shakespeare and his contemporaries had the extra pronoun "thou,"
they used in addressing equals or social inferiors. "You" was
obligatory if more than one person was addressed:
-
     Stay, you that bear the corse, and set it down
                                                (I, ii, 33)
-
  and:
-
     Of you, Lord Woodville, and, Lord Scales
                                                (II, i, 69)
-
  but it could also be used to indicate respect, as when Richard tells
Prince Edward:
-
     My lord, the Mayor of London comes to greet you.
                                               (III, i, 17)
-
  Frequently, a person in power used "thou" to a child or a
subordinate, but was addressed "you" in return. This usage is
clearly illustrated in the conversation between King Edward and
Buckingham:
-
     KING:  Now, princely Buckingham, seal thou this league
            .........
     BUCK:  Whenever Buckingham doth turn his hate
            Upon your grace, with all duteous love
            Doth cherish you and yours...
                                               (I, i, 29ff)
-
  but if "thou" was used inappropriately, it could cause grave
offense. Margaret intended such offense when she told Richard:
-
     A husband and a son thou owest to me.
                                              (I, iii, 169)
-
  One further pronominal reference warrants a comment. King Edward
uses the royal plural "we" to stress his sovereignty in:
-
     Happy indeed, as we have spent the day.
                                                (II, i, 49)
-
  PREPOSITIONS
  Prepositions were less standardized in Elizabethan English than they
are today and so we find several uses in Richard III that would have
to be modified in contemporary speech. Among these are:
-
  "in" for "into" in:
-
     But first I'll turn yon fellow in his grave
                                               (I, ii, 260)
-
  "with" for "by" in:
-
     But thus his simple truth must be abused
     With silken, sly, insinuating Jacks
                                            (I, iii, 52-53)
-
  "in" for "by" and "for" for "on" in:
-
     Led in the hand of her kind aunt of Gloucester
     Now, for my life, she's wandering to the Tower
                                              (IV, i, 2-3)
-
  "upon" for "with" in:
-
     Are they that I would have thee deal upon
                                               (IV, ii, 73)
-
  and "in" for "about" in:
-
       The late request that you did sound me in.
                                               (IV, ii, 83)
-
  MULTIPLE NEGATION
  Contemporary English requires only one negative per statement and
regards such utterances as:
-
     I haven't none
-
  as nonstandard. Shakespeare often used two or more negatives for
emphasis, as when Derby tells the King:
-
     None good, my liege, to please you with the hearing
     Nor none so bad but well may be reported.
                                            (IV, iv, 457-8)

HISTORICAL_BACKGROUND
                        HISTORICAL BACKGROUND               (SRICHIST)
-
  In order to understand Shakespeare's Richard III, you will find it
helpful to review the few generally accepted facts about the
historical Richard and his ancestors.
  In the mid-15th century, a prolonged contest for the rule of England
had begun between the noble house of York, whose emblem was the
white rose, and the equally high-ranking Lancasters, who were later
associated with the red rose. The contest was eventually named the
Wars of the Roses after these opposing symbols. It started when the
monarchy of the weak Lancastrian King Henry VI was challenged by
Richard, Duke of York, who managed to have his own claim to the throne
acknowledged by the Parliament. Since Henry and his wife, Margaret
of Anjou, had no sons, Richard of York had been named heir. The
subsequent birth of a son to the royal couple caused a setback in
Richard's plan, so he resorted to arms.
  In 1452, the Duke of York's wife gave birth to their youngest son,
the future Richard III. He was too young to partake in the first
battle between the two sides, which took place in 1455 at St.
Albans, about twenty miles northwest of London. The Yorkists were
victorious, but a compromise allowed Henry VI to remain on the throne.
At another struggle, in 1459, the king was captured by the York
opposition. Only by naming Richard of York and his successors as heirs
could he retain the throne. But then Queen Margaret raised an army and
defeated the Yorkists at Wakefield in 1460. The Duke was slain and his
head displayed on the gates of the city of York, wearing a paper
crown.
  Power shifted back and forth in later battles until the king's party
was finally defeated at Mortimer's Cross, and the oldest son of
Richard of York marched into London to assume the throne as Edward IV.
Henry fled north with Margaret, but was eventually captured and
imprisoned in the Tower of London.
  Richard openly supported his brother, Edward IV, who ruled for
twelve years without a challenge from the opposition. As a reward
for his support, Richard was made Duke of Gloucester and also
Constable of England. He served his brother faithfully in
maintaining peace along the troublesome Scottish borders.
                                        {HISTORICAL_BACKGROUND ^paragraph 5}
  But quarrels broke out among the victors. King Edward IV's
brother, the Duke of Clarence, joined forces with the opposition,
now led by the Earl of Warwick (Lady Anne Neville's father), the
one-time Yorkist champion. In 1470, they succeeded in restoring
Henry VI to the throne. But the reign was short. In a matter of
months, two important battles were fought at Barnet and Tewkesbury.
Warwick was slain along with the Prince of Wales. Margaret was
captured and imprisoned, then exiled to France. Henry was taken to the
Tower again and executed within a month.
  At Edward IV's death in 1483, Richard was named Protector of the
Realm. In this role, he was responsible for overseeing the affairs
of state in the name of his twelve-year-old nephew, the Prince of
Wales, who would become Edward V. But before the boy's coronation
could take place, rumors of his and his brother's illegitimacy
circulated and Richard was offered the crown, which he accepted.
  Once Richard was on the throne, a number of serious problems
undermined his position. The Prince of Wales and his brother
disappeared from the Tower where Richard had imprisoned them. The boys
were never seen again. It was widely rumored that King Richard was
responsible for their deaths, but many historians deny this. There are
no accurate historical records to confirm either position.
  Opposition to Richard began to mount. The king's greatest supporters
among the nobility began to defect, and an exiled challenger
returned to England to contest Richard's claim to the throne. Henry,
Earl of Richmond (the future Henry VII), raised an army, then met
Richard and his troops in the Battle of Bosworth Field. Richard was
slain and his corpse reputedly buried in an unmarked grave. Henry
VII united the two warring families by marrying Elizabeth of York,
daughter of Edward IV. As the first Tudor king, Henry VII succeeded in
ending the Wars of the Roses.
  Years later, Henry VII's granddaughter, Elizabeth I, would come to
the throne. But since she had no children- and was known as the
"virgin" queen- what would happen to the Tudor line after her death?
This was a question of great importance in Shakespeare's day, and this
is why the playwright went to such great lengths to portray her family
as the legitimate heirs to the throne. His description of Richard
III was designed to make people think Richard was an evil man. After
all, if there were threats to the legitimacy of the Tudors as
monarchs, the whole question of the throne might be opened up again in
another bloody war like the Wars of the Roses.
                                       {HISTORICAL_BACKGROUND ^paragraph 10}
  But as you can see from history, Elizabeth was indeed the last Tudor
monarch. Her successor, James I, ushered in the era of the Stuarts.

FORM
                          FORM AND STRUCTURE                (SRICFORM)
-
  There was no strict pattern for presenting history plays in
Elizabethan times. As plays dealing with historical subjects evolved
from early forms of drama and pageants, they were generally shaped
into the basic five-act structure of classical tragedy. Shakespeare
was no revolutionary in breaking with this pattern. His great
contribution was in his use of a simple structure to deal with the
complexities of his subject.
  In Richard III, the story breaks conveniently into two divisions-
before Richard has the crown and after. Most modern productions
present the play this way, with one intermission. But the energy of
the play is really structured around the five-act division.
  Within that framework, Shakespeare faced a number of challenges.
First of all, how do you maintain suspense in a story that had a
conclusion known to almost every member of the audience? For the
most part, he overcame that obstacle by presenting a string of
dramatic encounters, each one ending with a degree of uncertainty.
What would happen next? Would this part of the plan succeed?
  Another device used by Shakespeare was that of a secondary
concern, if not a fully developed subplot. The introduction of Queen
Margaret and her lust for revenge opened up the question of
fulfillment of her curses and prophecies. Here are two powerful forces
in conflict with one another- Richard seeking power and Margaret
seeking revenge.
  At the highest and lowest level lies the ultimate goal- peace in the
land. Richard's deliberate disruption at the beginning of the play
demands a satisfying resolution at the end. But how will it occur?
What mistakes will be made? The need for that peaceful resolution is
never forgotten as the action moves relentlessly forward.
                                                         {FORM ^paragraph 5}
  The playwright's aims are supported by these progressive divisions
of the five acts.
  ACT I: EXPOSITION. Richard reveals his personal goals. He removes
his first obstacle and gains his first victory. The immediate
opposition is introduced.
  ACT II: RISING ACTION. The opposition solidifies. But Richard gets
support when Buckingham allies himself with Richard's cause. A plan
develops.
  ACT III: CLIMAX. The princes are imprisoned. Richard overwhelms
the opposition. He is offered the crown and accepts it.
  ACT IV: FALLING ACTION. Now king, Richard must deal with
rebellious forces. He devises new plans. Richmond's threat becomes
apparent.
                                                        {FORM ^paragraph 10}
  ACT V: RESOLUTION. Richmond appears. Richard's past crimes are
reviewed but he does not repent. During combat, Richard is slain.
The war ends. The victorious Richmond unites the two families and
brings peace to England.

GLOBE_THEATRE
                          THE GLOBE THEATRE                 (SRICGLOB)
-
  There were many theatres in London during Shakespeare's time but the
most famous was undoubtedly the Globe. Built in 1599 for L600 just
across the Thames River from London, it was destroyed by fire in
1613 but quickly rebuilt and remained in operation until 1644. No
one knows exactly what the Globe looked like but some scholarly
detective work has given us a fairly good idea.
-
                (See illustration: The Globe Theatre.)■Çbn_sglob.cif■Ç
-
  When it was built, the Globe was the most modern example of
theater design. It consisted of a three-story octagon, with covered
galleries surrounding an open yard some fifty feet across. Three sides
of the octagon were devoted to the stage and backstage areas. The main
stage was a raised platform that jutted into the center of the yard or
pit. Behind the stage was a tiring house- the backstage area where
actors dressed and waited for their cues. It was flanked by two
doors and contained an inner stage with a curtain used when the script
called for a scene to be revealed.
                                                {GLOBE_THEATRE ^paragraph 5}
  Above the inner stage was the upper stage, a curtained balcony
that could serve as the battlements in Hamlet or the balcony in
Romeo and Juliet. Most of the action of the play took place on the
main and upper stages.
  The third story held the musicians' gallery and machinery for
sound effects and pyrotechnics (fireworks, explosions, etc.). Above
all was a turret from which a flag was flown to announce, "Performance
today." A roof (the shadow) covered much of the stage and not only
protected the players from sudden showers but also contained machinery
needed for some special effects. More machinery was under the stage,
where several trap doors permitted the sudden appearance of ghosts and
allowed actors to leap into rivers or graves, as the script required.
  For a penny- a day's wages for an apprentice- you could stand with
the "groundlings" in the yard to watch a play. Another penny would buy
you a seat in the upper galleries. A third would get you a cushioned
seat in the lower gallery- the best seats in the house. The audience
would be a mixed crowd- sedate scholars, gallant courtiers, and
respectable merchants and their families in the galleries; rowdy
apprentices and young men looking for excitement in the yard; and some
pickpockets and prostitutes taking advantage of the crowds to ply
their trades. And crowds there would be- the Globe could probably hold
2000 to 3000 people, and even an ordinary performance would attract
a crowd of 1200.
  The play you came to see would be performed in broad daylight during
the warmer months. In colder weather, Shakespeare's troupe appeared
indoors at Court or in one of London's private theaters. There was
no scenery as we know it but there are indications that the
Elizabethans used simple set pieces as trees or battle tents to
indicate locations. Any props needed were readied in the tiring
house by the bookkeeper (we'd call him the stage manager) and
carried on and off by actors. If time or location were important,
the characters usually said something about it. Trumpet flourishes
told the audience an important character was about to enter, and a
scene ended when all the characters left the stage. Bodies of dead
characters had to be carried off, and justification was usually
provided in the script. Little attention was paid to the appearance of
historical accuracy in plays such as Julius Caesar or King Lear. One
major difference from today was that female parts were played by young
boys since it was an Elizabethan custom that women did not act.
  If the scenery was minimal, the performance made up for it in
costumes and spectacle. English actors were famous for their skill
as dancers, and some performances ended with a dance or jig. Animal
blood or red paint was used as blood and was lavished about in the
tragedies. Ghosts made sudden appearances in clouds of swirling fog.
Thunder was simulated by rolling a cannon ball along the wooden
floor of the turret or by rattling a metal sheet.
                                               {GLOBE_THEATRE ^paragraph 10}
  The costumes were handsome and expensive. One "robe of estate"
cost L19, a year's wages for a skilled workman of the time. But the
costumes were a large part of the spectacle that the audience came
to see and were designed to look impressive in broad daylight, with
the audience right up close.
  This structure and the conventions of such a theater offered
Shakespeare a wide range of possibilities for staging his plays. Now
let's take a look at how Richard III might have been performed in a
similar theater when it first appeared in 1592-1593 and later at the
Globe itself.
  Shakespeare wrote his plays for an acting company. Its leading man
was Richard Burbage, who became so identified with the role of Richard
III that for years afterwards, his delivery of the line, "A horse! A
horse! My kingdom for a horse!" (Act V, Scene iv) was famous.
  Richard III ends with a spectacular dueling scene which must be done
properly. Shakespeare's audience would have included men who carried
swords and knew how to use them. They expected a good, realistic duel,
so the actors had to be accomplished swordsmen.
  Few props would have been needed for most of the play's action. King
Henry's coffin, Edward IV's throne, the council table- these could
easily have been taken on and off stage. There would be little need
for the action to move off the main stage except for the "Petition
Scene" when Richard appears aloft between two clergymen on the upper
stage.
                                               {GLOBE_THEATRE ^paragraph 15}
  When you get to Bosworth Field in the last act, the tents for the
two opponents would be set up on either side of the stage. Even though
they might only be twenty feet apart, you would accept that they
were out of sight of each other. The ghosts would emerge through the
trap doors and disappear the same way. Instead of vast crowds of
soldiers, the battle would be suggested by a series of small
personal combats, with individual warriors racing across the stage.
  The duel between Richmond and Richard would be fierce, with
Richard being slain in full view. To highlight the final triumph,
the corpse would be carried off by the victors.

ACT_I|SCENE_I
                               THE PLAY                     (SRICPLAY)
-
                            ACT I, SCENE I
-
  LINES 1-42
  Dispensing with fanfare, a prologue or any other formal method of
introduction, Shakespeare has Richard, Duke of Gloucester, enter the
bare stage and set the scene.
-
                                                {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 5}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: CHARACTER IDENTIFICATION  The Elizabethan audience would
have no trouble identifying the character. Whether or not it was
historically accurate, Richard's crippled stance, one shoulder
higher than the other, a slightly withered arm and a scowling face,
was an accepted picture. It was as recognizable as Lincoln's
stove-pipe hat and bearded face would be to an American audience
today.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  With his first words of the famous opening speech- "Now is the
winter of our discontent"- he lets us know right off where matters
stand. England is at peace. The Yorkist faction, identified by their
family symbol, the sun, is in power. His brother, Edward IV, sits
triumphantly on the throne, retired from the field of battle.
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 10}
  But is all really well? Has the change in government been for the
better? Richard's contempt is obvious as he describes the king's
immoral behavior. Instead of acting like a military leader, King
Edward now passes his time in amorous pursuits.
  None of that for Richard. As he continues, his displeasure spews
forth. Listen as he draws the focus of attention to his own target:
-
     But I, that am not shaped for sportive tricks
                                                  (line 14)
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 15}
-
     I, that am rudely stamped, and want love's majesty
                                                  (line 16)
-
     I, that am curtailed of this fair proportion
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 20}
                                                  (line 18)
-
  With speed and emphasis, Richard draws attention from the king's
wanton pursuits to his own position in the world. It reinforces his
aloneness, his singular concern. Yes, there are the various warring
factions to contend with, as well as the troubled country. Yes,
there is the political and dynastic situation. But Richard's main
concern is Richard.
  Who is this Richard? His descriptive outburst is designed to stir
the audience. Have you begun to feel sympathy for this deformed
Duke? Is he the passive victim of a cruel fate, unable to transcend
his physical handicaps? Or is he, as one critic has suggested,
glorying his uniqueness? Is this his challenge, to see what he can
do with such misshaped raw material? Here is reason to hate a world
that puts him in his brother's shadow, outside the sunlight. Here
are the first clues Shakespeare provides for the motive behind
Richard's subsequent actions.
  Since Richard, the outsider, cannot enter into the pleasure of these
sunny days, he will deliberately choose darkness. The sun will be made
to shine on that negative aspect, his villainy. If he cannot be
appreciated for benevolence, he will be a model of evil. That will
be the source of his pleasure.
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 25}
  There is no hesitation, just grim determination, expressed so
clearly and candidly that there's no time to question it. As he
continues to mull things over, Richard shares the first of his schemes
with the audience. He has created a rift between the king and his
older brother, George, the Duke of Clarence, by clever insinuation.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: DREAMS  Keep in mind that the Elizabethans were great
believers in dreams. To Shakespeare's audience, dreams would have
great prophetic value, and the interpretation of dreams was as
commonplace then as astrological chatter is today. Like those of us
who identify our personal fortunes with our daily horoscopes, the
Elizabethans praised the parts that fit and rationalized those that
didn't.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 30}
-
  Richard continues to share (intimately and generously) with the
audience the pleasures he gets from his ability to act "subtle,
false and treacherous." He has every hope that the king will believe
the suggestion that his heirs will be murdered by someone whose name
begins with the letter "G."
  The choice of the letter "G" did not originate with Shakespeare, but
came from one of his sources. In the context of this play, however,
it's particularly ironic. The letter could easily represent that
part of Richard's title- "Gloucester"- commonly used by intimates. But
as Richard has set it up, the finger clearly points to George, the
Duke of Clarence.
-
  LINES 43-121
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 35}
  As if on cue, Clarence enters, guarded by Brakenbury, the Lieutenant
of the Tower. He is being taken there at the king's command.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: Although it was officially a royal palace and commonly used as
a residence, the Tower of London was also a prison, notorious as a
place where famous people had met their deaths. The mere mention of
the Tower summoned up images of long imprisonment, torture and
execution. In Elizabethan times it had been the scene of Mary, Queen
of Scots' imprisonment and, a few years after Richard III was first
presented, the celebrated Earl of Essex was executed there.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 40}
-
  Clarence explains that his only crime was in being christened
"George." The gullible Edward IV has been told by a wizard that his
heirs will be displaced by someone whose name begins with "G" and he
has used that as an excuse to condemn poor Clarence. Richard's
scheme has begun to work. Now it will be easier to dispose of this
older brother, an obstacle to the throne.
  Apparently commiserating, the wily Richard suggests that
Clarence's predicament is undoubtedly the result of the meddling of
Edward IV's wife, Queen Elizabeth. He refers to her contemptuously
by her former married name, "My Lady Grey."
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 45}
  NOTE: It is difficult today to keep track of the various
15th-century families and their intertwined relationships. But for
Shakespeare's audience, these were familiar names, some still
prominent in Elizabeth I's court. They wouldn't have trouble
remembering that Edward IV's wife Elizabeth had been born a
Woodville and was then married to a man named Grey. But the name had
even greater ironic impact as it recalled another Lady Grey, Jane, who
had claimed the throne unsuccessfully and had been beheaded in 1554.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Richard is lighthearted as he discusses Clarence's problem and makes
snide comments about the king's mistress Jane Shore. He suggests
that it was an appeal to her that enabled Hastings, the Lord
Chamberlain to the king, to gain his release from the Tower. He
generously offers to go to the court to plead for Clarence, telling
him, "I will deliver you, or else lie for you." Does Richard plan to
deliver Clarence from prison or to eternity? The irony of this
statement will be apparent before long. For as soon as Clarence has
been taken away, Richard's hypocrisy explodes. Love Clarence, does he?
So much, he states outright, that he will speed his brother's
journey to heaven.
-
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 50}
  LINES 122-162
  His pleasure in his own guile is interrupted by the entrance of
Hastings. Now freed from imprisonment in the Tower, the Lord
Chamberlain reveals hatred for the queen's relatives who caused his
confinement.
  When Hastings gives the news that the king is ailing, Richard
assumes a pious attitude, still managing to get in a sly reference
to the king's wicked ways:
-
     O, he hath kept an evil diet long
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 55}
     And overmuch consumed his royal person.
                                            (lines 139-140)
-
  For all Richard's cleverness and humor, the politician is at work.
Hastings may hate the queen and her relatives, but he is loyal to
the king and his children. By his intimacy, Richard tries to draw
Hastings closer to himself.
  When Hastings leaves, Richard directs his intimacy to the audience
as he reveals more of his plans. He is charged with energy as he
speaks bluntly and directly about his purpose. Without coming right
out and saying that he is after the crown, what other goal could he be
driving at? Why else should he be concerned that the king may die
before Clarence is out of the way? Why else would he attempt to bind
up old wounds by marrying Lady Anne, the widow of the previous heir to
the throne?
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 60}
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: LADY ANNE  A marriage to Lady Anne would suit Richard for many
reasons. Not only was she the widow of Henry VI's heir, but she and
Queen Margaret were the most prominent living representatives of the
former Lancaster dynasty. Moreover, she was a great heiress whose
property could enhance Richard's position substantially. The great
obstacle to such a match was Richard's claim to having killed
members of her family. Historically, there is no record of his
direct involvement in her father Warwick's death. However, it was
widely held that he may well have slain Anne's husband, the Prince
of Wales, in hand-to-hand combat. And when her father-in-law, Henry
VI, was tried and executed in prison, Richard was listed among the
official observers. It was enough, however, for her to believe him
guilty of such crimes and to despise and oppose him.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_I ^paragraph 65}
  Richard is cold-blooded as he states his plans and purpose.
Recognizing the danger of haste and wasted energy, he tosses off
what might seem like an idle metaphor: "But yet I run before my
horse to market." It will be worth your while to keep that image in
mind.

ACT_I|SCENE_II
                           ACT I, SCENE II
-
  LINES 1-32
  This scene is generally considered one of the greatest ever
written by Shakespeare and among the most difficult to perform. It
involves a single-minded attempt by Richard to make good on his
boast that he will marry Lady Anne, a formidable enemy. Against all
odds, he must not only overcome her loathing of him, but must turn her
so completely in the other direction that she will agree to marry him.
Furthermore, this complete revolution is to take place within a few
minutes on stage. Could any real-life person possibly achieve such
an objective?
  By setting up this incredible challenge so early in the play, is
Shakespeare giving the audience a compressed view of Richard's
energy and powers of persuasion? How much does this tell you about
Richard the actor? By his own admission, you know his motives. There
is nothing to do now but observe the master at his craft.
  The scene opens with a procession that is carrying the coffin of the
late Lancastrian king, Henry VI. It is a striking reminder that even
kings are mortal. Lady Anne, attended by two noblemen, leads the way
as chief mourner for her father-in-law.
  In case anyone in the audience had forgotten the relevant details of
the situation, Shakespeare provides a reminder in Anne's first speech.
Ironically, the one who will become united with the ultimate cause
of her grief pronounces the first curse on Richard. Not only does
she cry for vengeance, but "if ever he have a wife," let her know even
greater misery than Anne knows now.
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_II ^paragraph 5}
  Remember this violent wish of Anne's. Like those repeated
throughout, it is not an idle remark but carries the potential force
of prophecy. Notice, too, the number and kinds of animals she
invokes to curse him, including the lowest forms.
-
  LINES 33-170
  As the funeral procession starts up again, Richard enters and
commands it to stop. The whirlwind courtship is about to take place.
It will take him slightly more than five minutes, speaking forty-three
times, to persuade a woman whose husband and father-in-law he has
acknowledged murdering to become his wife of her own accord. Does this
sound preposterous? Then get set for a lesson in verbal economy.
-
                                              {ACT_I|SCENE_II ^paragraph 10}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: STICHOMYTHIA  In the course of their verbal duel, Richard
and Anne will use that form of patterned speech Shakespeare probably
learned from the works of the Roman playwright, Seneca, which were
popular in his time. It involves a bouncing back and forth, in exact
meter, of parallel expression, roughly a "point" and "counterpoint" to
the same beat. There will be other powerful examples later in the
play, but notice how the device operates here.
-
        ANNE:  I would I knew thy heart.
     RICHARD:  'Tis figured in my tongue.
                                              {ACT_I|SCENE_II ^paragraph 15}
        ANNE:  I fear me both are false.
     RICHARD:  Then never was man true.
                                            (lines 192-195)
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
                                              {ACT_I|SCENE_II ^paragraph 20}
  Anne's first response to his arrival is an outpouring of fresh
curses. But Richard ignores her words and assumes a falsely pious
position, mildly chiding her and launching into his courtship.
  As the honey pours from his lips, a new obstacle arises. In his
presence, the corpse seems to undergo a mystic change and blood begins
to pour out of its wounds. Here is a touch of gore that the
Elizabethan audience, steeped in a tradition of mystical happenings,
would readily accept.
  Richard ignores the fresh stream of insults and curses prompted by
the incident. Instead he quickly returns to his main line of attack-
flattery. He calls Lady Anne the "divine perfection of a woman."
Such praise must startle her, even though she is quick to reply that
he is the "divine infection of a man." No matter. Nothing will stop
him. Even when her contempt reaches its ultimate point, when she spits
in his face, he turns it to his advantage. He adds pity to his
flattery. Not even the savage deaths of his father and brother, the
Duke of Rutland, have filled his eyes with tears. But the thought of
her beauty has. Can such a claim fail to impress?
  In a long speech, he summons up images of personal sorrow and
remorse, and further claims of his sincerity. It gives Lady Anne
enough reason to pause for reflection.
-
                                              {ACT_I|SCENE_II ^paragraph 25}
  LINES 171-263
  Having used intimacy, Richard will now be generous, as well as
daring. He offers her his sword. If she cannot believe that it was her
beauty and his passion for her that drove him to commit murder, then
she must kill him right then and there. Forgive him or be his
executioner.
  Imagine what the weight of such expressed passion must be to Lady
Anne. It is more than she can bear and she drops the sword. If she had
thrust forward, would the course of English history have changed? Do
you think Richard would have allowed her to kill him? Doesn't
Richard seem to know her better than she knows herself? How does his
verbal mastery indicate her psychological insight? Note how many
different stances he takes in a very short period of time. Even though
she cannot do it, she claims he must do the job himself. But there
is no more resistance in her now. Although they continue to exchange
barbs, the game is won and Richard manages to put a ring on her finger
to seal the engagement.
  Has he merely worn her down or has he swept her off her feet? Has
his ugliness and deformity really stood in his way, or has he
exploited it to his advantage by arousing her compassion?
  Obviously, he has advanced a step closer to his goal, but what
else has happened in this perverse courtship scene? Does it tell you
something about Richard's attitude toward winning? Did you feel any
real passion in his wooing- enough to move you?
                                              {ACT_I|SCENE_II ^paragraph 30}
  Any notion that he may have been touched by Lady Anne's own grief is
shattered the moment she leaves. Willfully, he changes the direction
of the funeral cortege for no discernible reason. Is it done out of
spite? Or is it simply a display of his authority and control?
  Once the stage has been cleared, he can barely contain himself. He
seems as surprised by his own success as by Lady Anne's default.
Winning her is sweet, although he admits he "will not keep her long."
  Spurred on by his success with Anne, and despite his physical
shortcomings, he has a seemingly newfound change in attitude. He
will adorn this character of his own creation with new clothes and
will attend to his outward appearance. Remember the "sun" that
spotlighted his deformity? How does he feel about it now?

ACT_I|SCENE_III
                           ACT I, SCENE III
-
  LINES 1-41
  The entrance of Queen Elizabeth, attended by her brother (Lord
Rivers) and her sons from a previous marriage (the Marquess of
Dorset and Lord Grey), signals that the action has moved inside the
royal palace, probably at Westminster.
  Until now, we have had only Richard's word about the political
situation. Is the kingdom secure? Are there political squabbles at
court? Questions have been suggested, but we have had only one point
of view. This scene gives you a chance to enlarge your picture of
outside events.
  Queen Elizabeth expresses her concern over the king's precarious
health. What troubles her most? What will happen to her if he dies.
Even though her son, young Edward, the Prince of Wales, should inherit
the throne, he is underage. Here is the first warning that
succession is no simple matter. It is further established that the
queen fears her brother-in-law, Richard of Gloucester, who has been
named Protector.
-
                                              {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 5}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: PROTECTOR  The position of Protector of the Realm was an
important and powerful assignment. In the event that the king died and
his heir was underage, the Protector was the ultimate authority,
speaking for and acting in the name of the monarch. Richard's
father, the Duke of York, had also held that title under Henry VI
and had used it as a springboard for his attempt to seize the crown.
For those Elizabethans familiar with that story, this first mention of
the title might have suggested that the Wheel of Fortune was turning.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  The Earl of Buckingham enters with Lord Stanley (the Earl of Derby),
and Queen Elizabeth reveals that Derby's wife, the Countess of
Richmond, is still considered her personal enemy on the Lancaster
side, even though the war is over. Was Richard right? How powerful and
petty is this Elizabeth?
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 10}
  But Buckingham and Stanley have more important matters to discuss.
The king, whom they have just left, is improving. He now wishes to
make peace among the various court factions- between the Duke of
Gloucester and the queen's party, between the latter and Hastings, the
Lord Chamberlain.
-
  LINES 42-108
  As Queen Elizabeth expresses her doubts of that happening, Richard
makes a boisterous entrance. He is loudly engaged in what sounds
like a private conversation with Hastings. He swears that he is
being libeled by complaints that he is too harsh. He complains that he
is condemned because he is too honest, that he "cannot flatter and
look fair." Alas, he moans, "Cannot a plain man live and think no
harm?" (I, iii, 51)
  By now you should be familiar with such hypocrisy, but what is its
effect on the characters on stage? Are they any better as they protest
their own innocence of such charges? Is Richard very far from the mark
when he observes:
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 15}
-
     ...the world is grown so bad
     That wrens make prey where eagles dare not perch.
     Since every Jack became a gentleman,
     There's many a gentle person made a Jack.
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 20}
                                              (lines 69-72)
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: Historical records indicate that when she married Edward IV,
Elizabeth brought many relatives into the court and used her
position to help them obtain property and titles through royal
appointments and favorable marriages. Richard's speech reflects the
grumbling that commonly took place by those who were shunted aside
to make room for these "newly-arrived" court favorites.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 25}
-
  No way will that slight go unanswered. The queen insists that envy
is at work. Well, then, if his subtle rhetoric won't work, Richard
will be blunt. He needs the queen, so he claims, to help free his
brother Clarence from the prison to which he has been condemned as a
result of her backbiting.
  Elizabeth's quick denial and support from Rivers provides an
opportunity for Richard to demonstrate his lightning quick shrewdness.
He seizes upon the single word "may" and twists the whole discussion
to his advantage. As he and the queen continue to accuse one
another, old Queen Margaret, the widow of Henry VI (whose corpse was
seen only moments ago) enters the stage unnoticed.
  Shakespeare's condensation of history is compounded by Margaret's
presence here. Not only is this historically inaccurate, but it is
chronologically impossible. To break so blatantly with fact, the
playwright must have seen a genuine need for her presence on stage.
Notice the careful steps that are taken to bring her forward,
gradually but powerfully. At first she appears to be merely a
chorus, commenting on the action although not participating in it. But
she soon becomes a visible force in her own right.
-
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 30}
  LINES 109-318
  As Margaret enters, the present queen, Elizabeth, makes a
prophetic statement as a virtual cue.
-
     Small joy have I in being England's queen.
                                                 (line 109)
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 35}
-
  From here on, as a contrast to the conversation between Elizabeth
and Richard, Margaret continues her bitter side comments. Richard
thunders forth his defense of poor Clarence, his scorn for the queen's
turnabout from the Lancastrian side and for the royal patronage she
has extended to her family and friends. It's enough to draw a
searing curse from Margaret, who has been privately telling the
audience about the wickedness of both Richard and Queen Elizabeth in
the past:
-
     Hie thee to hell for shame, and leave this world.
     Thou cacodemon! There thy kingdom is.
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 40}
                                            (lines 142-143)
-
  Right on the heels of this prophetic wish comes the first hint
that others are aware of Richard's intentions. As Lord Rivers
defends loyalty to the throne, Richard snaps at his words. If he
should be king?
-
     Far be it from my heart, the thought thereof!
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 45}
                                                 (line 147)
-
  Queen Elizabeth continues to harp on her misery. The repetition
serves notice that this is not to be forgotten. Is it mere
self-examination? Or is prophecy at work? Whatever the case, it is too
much for Margaret, who now steps forward and draws attention by the
force of her presence.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 50}
  NOTE: MARGARET OF ANJOU  While the audience might be moved by the
sight of this pitiful old woman, the Yorkists would have less
sympathy. They might well remember, as Richard will point out, her
vicious campaign to keep the crown for her husband and son. Margaret
had been a powerful political force in her own right and had never
shied from bloodying her own hands. According to tradition, the Duke
of Rutland, the younger brother of Edward IV, Richard, and Clarence,
was slain by her forces at the Battle of Wakefield. Margaret then took
a handkerchief dipped in his blood and flourished it gleefully in
Richard's father's face. She later had the Duke of York's head
displayed on the city gates to broadcast her Lancastrian victory. This
was no timid old lady, but a toughened veteran of combat.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  She is the visible reminder of what can happen to the crown as the
Wheel of Fortune changes direction. She directs her curses toward
the newest contender for its possession, and reminds them somewhat
jealously of the price of usurpation:
-
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 55}
     This sorrow that I have, by right is yours,
     And all the pleasures you usurp are mine.
                                            (lines 171-172)
-
  Aren't they all usurpers, guilty of meddling with the rightful
political order? In the end, who will win? What do you think will be
the effect of Queen Margaret's prophecies? Of the curses leveled at
Elizabeth, Rivers, Dorset, and even Hastings? And, most of all, at
Richard? Notice what she wishes for him- that he have no friends he
can trust, no sleep without nightmares, no peace at all. She offers
a checklist for the audience as she curses him by the foulest names,
striking even at his crippled form.
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 60}
  As this duel of words accelerates, it may remind you of another duel
recently performed. In his match with Lady Anne, Richard had the clear
advantage. Is there a difference with Margaret? In your opinion, which
character gains the upper hand? Can you find lines to support your
decision?
  Even though he scorns them as mere pawns or enemies, the women
Richard encounters are never at a loss for words. In his courtship
scenes and face-offs with the women in this play, Richard must push
his intelligence and energy to the limit to keep up with them
verbally.
  As Margaret's ranting mounts, Dorset tries to pass her off as a
lunatic. But she has a few words for this upstart, and for once
Richard can echo her sentiments.
  He quickly turns the focus back to his own nobility. In doing so, he
picks up his original disdain for the sun, and, as it were, the
king. Margaret makes an appropriate response, only now she
represents the shade, the opposing side. Even the intervention of
Richard's future henchman, Buckingham, cannot stop her. He is not a
target for her curses, but she warns him, too, to beware of Richard.
As Buckingham sneers at her warning, she repeats it, now emphatically.
Buckingham has just earned his place in her prophecy of doom at
Richard's hands.
  When Margaret leaves, Richard states that he cannot blame her for
what she has become. Has he been deaf to the greatest cry for
revenge that will be heard on that stage? Or is this a real expression
of a human emotion coming from this apparent fiend? Is it just a
"curve" he throws at the audience and those on stage? As the play
progresses, Richard will frequently come up with the unexpected.
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 65}
  The duality of his character surfaces soon enough when Rivers
praises him for his "virtuous... and Christianlike conclusion."
Richard agrees, but in an aside he quickly shares his diabolical
motivation with the audience.
-
  LINES 319-354
  Catesby, whom you will soon recognize as Richard's close ally,
announces that King Edward has called for them to join him in his
chambers. All leave, except Richard. Rejoicing in his devilish
behavior, he announces his intention to be revenged on Rivers, Dorset,
and Grey- the queen's family- for their affronts. Even this villain
seeks revenge for petty offenses. How will he accomplish all this?
By playing the role of virtuous soul while practicing villainy. Is
there any reason to doubt his ability to act that part?
  He has summoned two murderers who now arrive. They need a warrant to
gain admission to the Tower where they will assassinate Clarence.
Appearances must be maintained. As he hands over the warrant,
Richard warns them to do the job swiftly and not to listen to
Clarence:
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 70}
-
     For Clarence is well-spoken, and perhaps
     May move your hearts to pity if you mark him.
                                            (lines 347-348)
-
                                             {ACT_I|SCENE_III ^paragraph 75}
  Richard fears the power of the spoken word, especially in an
enemy. But the First Murderer is plainspoken and offers his opinion
that "talkers are no good doers," providing the audience with food for
thought.

ACT_I|SCENE_IV
                           ACT I, SCENE IV
-
  LINES 1-73
  Any question about Clarence's gifts for speaking is soon cleared up.
As the scene begins, he is given the perfect straight line by his
jailer: "What was your dream, my lord? I pray you tell me." And he
does, in an impassioned poetic passage. Notice the contrast between
Clarence's lyric speech and the abrupt dialogue or soliloquies we've
been hearing up to now. This is the story of a dream, but it weaves
a spell of its own with its vivid images and lush metaphors that
appeal to all the senses. With their profound belief in the
supernatural, imagine how this must have moved the Elizabethan
audience.
  Clarence relates how he had escaped from prison and had embarked
on a journey by ship, accompanied by his brother Richard. Tempted to
walk along the slippery deck, Clarence was knocked overboard by the
stumbling Richard, whom he tried to save from falling. As Clarence
began to drown, incredible images appeared- rotting ships, great
treasures, corpses, etc. Eventually he was conveyed to the "kingdom of
perpetual night" where he saw the ghosts of those he had wronged and
murdered.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                               {ACT_I|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 5}
  NOTE: In this symbolic journey of political crimes and death,
Clarence's role in several murders also claimed by Richard is
revealed. Is the guilt for these crimes shared by the entire York
dynasty?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  The terror of his dream has triggered remorse as Clarence openly
acknowledges his guilt. Praying that his wife and children be spared
from his punishment, Clarence then lies down to sleep.
-
                                              {ACT_I|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 10}
  LINES 74-286
  Brakenbury, the jailer, enters and reflects on the nature of
royalty. As he looks at this great prince asleep on the prison
floor, he observes how little a difference there is in human beings,
with the exception of outward titles. Shakespeare will often put the
words for such an important statement into the mouth of a relatively
minor character in order to call attention to them. Keep that in
mind and see if it happens again in later scenes.
  Since there has not yet been any humor in the play, the discussion
which takes place as the two murderers arrive presents an
opportunity for broad comic interpretation. Here is an opportunity for
the groundlings to identify with what happens on stage. Shakespeare
understood the need to provide relief from the dark mood. But in those
comic lines, is there perhaps more than a grain of wisdom?
  As they discuss how they will murder Clarence, notice the difference
in their personalities. The Second Murderer has scruples, despite
his profession. He has a conscience which troubles him.
  Clarence asks why they have come, but can't believe his brother, the
king, is the agent of his doom. He recounts the many past services
he has rendered King Edward. But the two men, surprisingly well
informed, deflect his every thrust. Eventually, they reveal that it is
the Duke of Gloucester, Richard, who has arranged for Clarence's
execution.
                                              {ACT_I|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 15}
  Clarence is astonished. By calling Richard "kind," he displays the
depth of his gullibility and the extent of Richard's success as a
schemer.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: The First Murderer answers Clarence's claim that Richard is
"kind" with a flippant, "Right as [just like] snow in harvest."
Shakespeare sprinkled everyday expressions such as this throughout the
play, and usually placed them in the mouths of common people. In doing
so, he gave the average Elizabethan viewers touches of familiarity and
comforting connections between their ordinary world and the world of
kings on stage.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              {ACT_I|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 20}
-
  In desperation, Clarence looks to religion for help. He reminds them
that they will have to answer to God for what they are about to do.
Moreover, those who commissioned the deed will desert them and even
blame them. But these threats of vengeance do no good. His last plea
reaches from the highest to the lowest- "A begging prince what
beggar pities not?" (I, iv, 265)- but to no avail. He is stabbed
and, to insure that he is dead, his body is taken off to be drowned in
a "malmsey butt," a cask of wine.
  Unable to bear the burden of his conscience, the Second Murderer
declares that he rejects the fee. He is genuinely contrite in contrast
to the First Murderer, who shares no such feeling. As the First
Murderer leaves to collect his reward, he acknowledges, however,
that he must then flee for his own safety after word of this deed gets
out.

ACT_II|SCENE_I
                           ACT II, SCENE I
-
  LINES 1-46
  Following this scene of blood and death, there comes a sharp
contrast. We witness our first royal procession as Edward IV enters,
trailed in order of rank by Queen Elizabeth and members of the
court. This includes her brother (Rivers), her sons (Dorset and Grey),
the Lord Chamberlain, Hastings, the Duke of Buckingham and Sir
Thomas Catesby.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: ROYAL PROCESSIONS  This is the second King of England to
appear on stage and the differences are striking. When the corpse of
Henry VI was brought on stage, there would have been a mournful
sound of muffled drums. The tone would be dark and somber. Now, the
presence of this live king is heralded by trumpets, banners and
great ceremony. His courtiers would be dressed in rich finery,
bright and gaily colored. What does this tell you about kingship? Each
procession would have been strictly formal, of course, with
participants ranked in order of nobility or service. Such
processions were a graphic reminder of the importance of order in this
world and the beyond. This tradition was still a fact of life in
Elizabethan times.
                                               {ACT_II|SCENE_I ^paragraph 5}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Aware that he doesn't have long to live, the frail king tries to
make peace in his court before he dies, to perform his kingly function
by re-establishing order. He has arranged a truce between Hastings and
Rivers, who had been bitter enemies. He then makes peace between
Dorset and Buckingham and the queen herself. Swearing his loyalty to
the queen, Buckingham vows to be true to his oath, calling on God to
punish him if he is ever false.
-
  LINES 47-96
                                              {ACT_II|SCENE_I ^paragraph 10}
  At this moment, Richard enters. He claims to be pleased with the
king's peacemaking efforts and professes his desire for harmony,
too. In fact, he claims to be at peace with every Englishman alive.
  Is there a reason why anyone on stage should doubt this? Has Richard
perhaps reformed during the few moments we haven't seen him? This
piety, real or assumed, seems to work. Moved by the spirit of the
moment, Queen Elizabeth asks King Edward to pardon his own brother
Clarence.
  That's Richard's cue. He startles everyone by announcing that
Clarence is already dead. A stay of execution? The order from the king
came too late, he cries.
-
  LINES 97-142
                                              {ACT_II|SCENE_I ^paragraph 15}
  While the shock waves are still rippling, Lord Stanley enters. He
asks King Edward to pardon one of his servants who has killed a man,
possibly in self-defense. Can the king feel compassion for a mere
servant at such a time? Hardly. His thoughts are with Clarence, whom
he now recalls as faithful and dear to him, this brother whom he
imprisoned. He echoes Clarence's story of loyal service and turns
against the others. Why had they never spoken up for Clarence when
Edward lashed out at him? They will pay, they will all pay, he
prophesies as he departs in grief and anger. Another cry for
revenge? Is this what you expect of a king?
  With Edward and his court gone, Buckingham and Richard are left
behind. Richard remarks that he noticed a sense of guilt in members of
the queen's family when Clarence's death was announced. Now he, of all
people, asks God to avenge that deed. Is this a device to deflect
suspicion from himself? Or does he possibly believe himself to be
God's messenger? Is it simply a way to draw Buckingham into his
confidence? There's no time to ponder as they leave to join the others
in consoling the king.

ACT_II|SCENE_II
                           ACT II, SCENE II
-
  LINES 1-100
  Following a scene of treachery and intrigue comes one of great
emotion. You have heard and seen sadness with regard to past events.
Now you witness the grief of a mother and children for an event that
has just occurred on stage. Through such contrasts, Shakespeare
maintains the balance that will hold his audience's interest as the
plot develops.
  The aged Duchess of York, mother of Edward IV, Richard, and
Clarence, enters with Clarence's young son and daughter. She tries
to contain her grief, passing her tears off as concern for their
sick uncle, the king. But these children, the first we meet, are too
wise.
  They know their father is dead. Uncle Richard told them that the
king, "provoked to it by the queen," was the cause. But he has assured
them that they can rely on kindly Uncle Richard. The Duchess cannot
contain her scorn for this deceitful son, referring to him as her
"shame." Still, he seems to have captured the children in his web.
  Queen Elizabeth, followed by Rivers and Dorset, bursts in,
announcing that King Edward IV has just died. A chorus of
lamentation now begins, setting a standard for the cries of women
heard throughout the play.
                                              {ACT_II|SCENE_II ^paragraph 5}
  Again Shakespeare borrows from the classics in his design of this
"wailing chorus" section. As the children, the Duchess, and the Queen,
lament and echo each other's cries, they are following the
antiphonal style established for such moments in ancient Greek and
Roman drama. An "antiphon" is like a psalm or verse sung responsively.
  Amidst all the weeping, Dorset and Rivers maintain their balance.
They urge Queen Elizabeth to have her son (the Prince of Wales)
brought to London. The sooner he is crowned, the safer they all will
be.
-
  LINES 101-154
  Hard on their words, Richard enters, accompanied by what is becoming
his "party"- Buckingham, Derby, and Hastings. After paying respects to
the bereaved queen, he asks for his mother's blessing. But he mocks
her privately in an aside to the audience.
                                             {ACT_II|SCENE_II ^paragraph 10}
  The platform stage which thrust out into the audience made asides
quite common in Elizabethan drama. An actor might stand in one
corner and, by fixing his gaze at a few groundlings (those in the
cheaper, ground area) project a conversation to the entire audience.
He could speak in what seemed like a soft or a loud voice but still be
recognized as being involved in an intimate conversation.
  Buckingham takes the initiative of discussing the future of the heir
to the crown, the Prince of Wales. He suggests that the Prince be
brought quietly to London from his residence in Ludlow, a journey of
about 130 miles. Why such a subdued entrance? Buckingham suggests that
the disagreement in the court has trickled down to the general
population and there is great unrest. It is too soon to test the
late King's peacemaking. Why stir things up? Rivers and Hastings
agree, then go off with the women and children to commence
arrangements.
  Buckingham and Richard, alone on the stage, have something else in
mind. It must be arranged that they are both members of the escort
party, says Buckingham. During the journey, they will separate the
queen's party from the rest in order to further their secret plan.
What is this plan? You may know the end they hope to achieve, but what
about the means?
  Richard claims that these are his very thoughts- even the words he
would have used himself. He lavishes praise on Buckingham, calling him
"my other self." As Buckingham drinks it all in, notice how
Richard's skillful charm is as effective with men as with women.
Buckingham may now be added to the list of the gullible.

ACT_II|SCENE_III
                          ACT II, SCENE III
-
  LINES 1-47
  Until now, attention has been chiefly focused on the great affairs
of state, involving the rulers and members of the nobility. But what
is really going on in the country? How are such affairs perceived at
the lower levels? Shakespeare shifts attention to that in this
scene. Here are three commoners meeting, apparently on a London
street, to discuss what has happened and what is likely to happen to
the country. This is certainly not the broad comedy of the two
murderers in their earlier banter, but it still has the effect of
lightening the texture of the drama. It provides a change of pace.
This allows the darkness of the scenes which follow to have greater
effect.
  These Three Citizens represent a cross section of attitudes. The
First Citizen is a friendly, optimistic man who feels that "All will
be well." The Second Citizen is not so confident. He fears "'twill
prove a giddy world." Even though there is an heir, he is still a
minor and can rule only with the aid of a Council. See how Shakespeare
works the concern for orderly succession into the general
conversation.
  The Third Citizen is pessimistic about the "troublous world"
caused by Edward IV's death. He knows what a king should be and echoes
the biblical sentiment, "Woe to that land that's governed by a child!"
  Shakespeare's borrowings from the Old Testament are not uncommon
in this play. At times such as this, they are almost literal. Whenever
a familiar expression is sounded, it offers a reminder of the Old
Testament God, that fierce avenger of evil who transcends the drama on
stage.
                                             {ACT_II|SCENE_III ^paragraph 5}
  The Third Citizen knows that the presence of a Council will not
insure security since there are so many hostile uncles lurking
about. Notice how he singles out the Duke of Gloucester on one side
and Queen Elizabeth's relatives on the other.
  The three Citizens freely refer to God throughout their
conversation, but the Third Citizen lacks confidence as he points
out the troubled state of their "sickly land." The cause is clear;
Edward IV is gone, and when the "sun sets," darkest night is sure to
follow, despite God's will.
-
     All may be well; but if God sort [arranges] it so,
     'Tis more than we deserve or I expect.
                                            {ACT_II|SCENE_III ^paragraph 10}
                                              (lines 36-37)
-
  This short scene among the three commoners expresses the familiar
Shakespearean notion that whenever there is trouble in high
political places, it is reflected in nature's turmoil of "untimely
storms."

ACT_II|SCENE_IV
                           ACT II, SCENE IV
-
  LINES 1-73
  The confrontation of forces has been slowly building. But before any
eruption will take place, Shakespeare carefully creates tension and
suspicion. Notice how this transitional scene begins with a relatively
calm interlude.
  The Archbishop of York is seen conversing with Queen Elizabeth,
her youngest son (Duke of York) and her mother-in-law (Duchess of
York). They discuss the progress of the escort party bringing the
Prince of Wales to London. The old Duchess has not seen her grandson
in some time and mentions rumors of his great growth.
  We are in the midst of a quiet domestic scene. A slightly jarring
note is introduced when the young Duke of York quotes his uncle,
Richard. The Duke of Gloucester has told him that "Small herbs have
grace, great weeds do grow apace." Obviously, the proverb is not
designed to provide much comfort for the younger boy who has grown
more quickly than his older brother. Does this suggest anything
about the relationship between Richard and his older brothers?
  Taking him literally, the Duchess states that Richard is not a
good example of the saying's message. The boy continues to jest
about his uncle, relating the rumor he has heard that Richard was born
with a full set of teeth!
                                              {ACT_II|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 5}
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: This was just one of the rumors surrounding Richard's birth.
The superstitious Elizabethans believed that getting teeth early was
the sign of a troublesome child, an evil temper, and a capacity for
mischief. Silly as that may sound, is it any different from the recent
attitude that a high brow is the sign of an intellectual?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
                                             {ACT_II|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 10}
  The boy is scolded for his boldness when a messenger enters with
more news. The Prince of Wales is well, but Rivers and Grey, along
with Sir Thomas Vaughan, another member of the queen's party, have
been sent to Pomfret Castle as prisoners. Gloucester and Buckingham
have committed them for unknown reasons.
  Queen Elizabeth rightly perceives that Richard has moved to
consolidate his power. She sees the danger to her son and the
political peril in almost equal balance. The Duchess of York recalls
the tragic loss of her own husband in his quest for the crown. She
prays for an end to her misery.
  But Queen Elizabeth moves to protect her remaining child. They
must flee to the sanctuary.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             {ACT_II|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 15}
  NOTE: SANCTUARY  According to medieval tradition, the protection
of the Church was extended to all those within the boundaries of the
cathedral. No one could be forcibly removed from a place of
sanctuary against his or her will. Designated places of sanctuary
included Westminster Abbey in London where the queen was now headed.
So great was the sanctity of such a place that it was considered the
ultimate sin to violate a place of sanctuary.
---------------------------------------------------------------------

ACT_III|SCENE_I
                           ACT III, SCENE I
-
  LINES 1-59
  The long-awaited entry into London by the Prince of Wales now
takes place. He enters to the sound of trumpets, followed by
Richard, Buckingham, Catesby, Cardinal Bourchier, the Archbishop of
Canterbury, and other members of the court with all their attendants.
  The Prince is dissatisfied that his maternal uncles are not there to
greet him. Richard assures him that they were a threat to his
safety. As the Prince disagrees, showing some spirit, there is a
reminder that technically this boy is the king, although not yet
crowned. Here, you see another view of a king on stage.
  By way of contrast, the Lord Mayor arrives to offer his welcome.
He is followed by Lord Hastings, who informs everyone that Queen
Elizabeth and the Duke of York have gone into sanctuary. The elegant
gathering begins to turn into a family spat.
  Buckingham orders the Cardinal to extract the young duke- by
force, if necessary. The Cardinal warns that such an act would be an
infringement of the privilege of sanctuary. But Buckingham argues
persuasively that the boy is too young to have sought sanctuary on his
own, and thus not technically entitled to its protection. The
spineless Cardinal is easily convinced. For all his bluster, he
crumbles under pressure and leaves with Hastings to bring the boy to
his brother.
                                              {ACT_III|SCENE_I ^paragraph 5}
-
  LINES 60-94
  As Lord Protector, the guardian of the realm and of the young
king, Richard has some authority, which he now exercises. He reveals
that he has chosen the Tower of London as the best place for the two
princes to await the coronation. But the Prince of Wales does not like
the idea of the Tower. In a clever dialogue with Richard, he shows his
brand of precocity, prompting his uncle to remark snidely in an aside:
"So wise so young, they say do never live long" (III, i, 79). But this
ironical comment is only half-heard by the alert prince. So Richard
revises it in repetition. Then, in another aside, he gloats over his
own cleverness, comparing himself to "the formal Vice, Iniquity."
  As the prince continues to expound on the virtue of brave acts, he
keeps rubbing Richard the wrong way. Has anyone been able to provoke
the Duke of Gloucester in this way? In an aside, using another
proverb, Richard continues to predict a bad end for this prince.
Hastings and Cardinal Bourchier then return with the younger
brother, the Duke of York.
-
                                             {ACT_III|SCENE_I ^paragraph 10}
  LINES 95-200
  A warm but formal greeting follows. All must acknowledge this
youngster because of his royal status. But the respect shown to
these children must appall Richard and remind him that they stood in
his way. Nevertheless, the picture is not as clear-cut as it may seem.
Even though Richard is the obvious villain, where is the opposing view
of goodness? How well do the princes represent virtue and innocence?
  Richard has had enough and announces that the boys are to be
housed in the Tower. When young York hears that this is to be their
destination, he expresses fear that the ghost of his late uncle
Clarence will haunt them there. He claims that he was told by his
grandmother, the Duchess of York, that Clarence had been murdered in
the Tower.
  The older prince assures his brother that he fears no dead uncles.
The foxy Richard replies, "Nor none that live, I hope" (III, i,
147). Imagine, then, how this young King Edward V's parting words
would touch the audience who knew, or believed they knew, his fate:
-
                                             {ACT_III|SCENE_I ^paragraph 15}
     And if they live, I hope I need not fear.
     But come, my lord; with a heavy heart,
     Thinking on them, go I unto the Tower.
                                            (lines 148-150)
-
                                             {ACT_III|SCENE_I ^paragraph 20}
  In an orderly recessional, all leave the stage except Richard,
Buckingham and Catesby. Buckingham tells us that he does not admire
"this prating little York" who appears to be prompted by his mother to
harass his uncle. Richard agrees, but not without admiration. To
him, the youngster is "bold, quick, ingenious, forward, capable"
(III, i, 155). Instead of expressing contempt, Richard surprises us
yet again.
  Assuming the role of campaign manager, Buckingham sends Catesby
off to find out how Hastings feels about Richard becoming king.
There can be no doubt about their intention to install Richard on
the throne. They now need support from Hastings and Stanley.
  As Catesby goes off, Richard suggests he notify Lord Hastings that
his former enemies, the prisoners at Pomfret, are about to be
executed. He adds a greeting, too, for Jane Shore, who has moved
from his master the king's bed to Hastings'.
  Catesby has barely left before Buckingham asks what they will do
if Hastings doesn't come over to their side:
-
                                             {ACT_III|SCENE_I ^paragraph 25}
     RICHARD:  Chop off his head!
                                                 (line 193)
-
  No hesitation, no question of mercy. This is serious
life-and-death business.
  But Richard tempers his harshness by soothing Buckingham with
promises of great rewards for his faithful service. He will receive
the earldom of Hereford as well as much of the late king's household
treasure. Richard promises Buckingham that he will "have it yielded
with all kindness," as the two go off to dinner and further
plotting. Richard's promises will be worth remembering when Buckingham
comes for his reward.

ACT_III|SCENE_II
                          ACT III, SCENE II
-
  LINES 1-34
  As the list of Richard's victims grows, Shakespeare carefully
provides you with a character sketch of each. Before they are
condemned to their fates, their gullibility and weaknesses are exposed
plainly. Hastings has been a mere functionary until now. Here you
see him on his own ground.
  A messenger sent by Stanley arrives in the middle of the night at
Hastings' door. Stanley has had a strange dream, warning him of
impending danger to those who oppose "the boar," Richard's personal
symbol. And, if that is not enough of an omen, Stanley has heard
that there will be two Council meetings on the following day, a public
and a private one. At the latter, the fate of those loyal to the
late king and his family may be decided. They must do something
about this, Stanley urges.
  Hastings wonders how anyone can believe in dreams. Yet the
Elizabethans placed great store in them and their prophetic value.
  Hastings continues. All this nonsense about boars might only stir up
quiet waters. As for the private Council meeting, his good friend
Catesby will be there and will surely report everything that takes
place.
                                             {ACT_III|SCENE_II ^paragraph 5}
-
  LINES 35-70
  As the messenger leaves, Catesby enters and gets right to the point.
There is unrest in the land and there will be no true peace until
Richard wears the crown. Aghast, Hastings points to his head and
declares:
-
     I'll have this crown of mine cut from my shoulders
                                            {ACT_III|SCENE_II ^paragraph 10}
     Before I'll see the crown so foul misplaced.
                                              (lines 43-44)
-
  Another of Richard's doomed victims has pronounced his own sentence.
Even the news of his enemies' execution at Pomfret Castle cannot
change Hastings' mind. Catesby continues to bait him, but Hastings
only confirms his loyalty to the children of his late master, Edward
IV. Besides, he smiles confidently, his safety is virtually guaranteed
by his friends, the Dukes of Gloucester and Buckingham. Catesby, of
course, knows better. He confides to the audience that they'll end
up treating Hastings like a traitor.
-
                                            {ACT_III|SCENE_II ^paragraph 15}
  LINES 71-122
  Hastings welcomes Stanley, who arrives in a state of anxiety. When
he openly expresses concern about the two Council meetings, Hastings
insists that there is no danger. Would he risk his life if there were?
Stanley reminds him that the prisoners at Pomfret were just as
confident a short while ago. And where are they today? Beheaded,
replies Hastings with obvious delight at the fate of his enemies.
He, too, can be vengeful. But Stanley is not as confident and
distrusts the situation. Hastings will hear no more, so he dismisses
Stanley and Catesby.
  Having barely left for the only Council meeting there really will be
at the Tower, Hastings comes upon a "pursuivant," a state messenger.
He recognizes this man as the same person he had met once before
when he was, coincidentally, on his way to imprisonment in the
Tower. Now he can share his pleasure at this twist of Fate that has
brought revenge on those very enemies who had been responsible for
that imprisonment.
  The passing parade continues as Shakespeare presses the point of
Hastings' naivete even further. To the next passerby, a priest,
Hastings makes a vow to meet with him "come the next Sabbath." A day
of rest? For Hastings that rest will be eternal.
  Buckingham arrives during this conversation and assures Hastings
that he needs no priest. Rather, he tells him, they could have used
one at Pomfret. As they walk along toward the Council meeting at the
Tower, Hastings remarks that he will probably be there long enough
to have a midday meal. Buckingham adds in an aside that he will
undoubtedly be there at suppertime, too.

ACT_III|SCENE_III
                          ACT III, SCENE III
-
  LINES 1-25
  For all the talk of their execution, Rivers, Grey and Vaughan are
not dead. They are now being led to the block by Ratcliffe, one of
Richard's henchmen. This brief scene takes place at Pomfret Castle,
where Richard II was, according to tradition, "hacked to death" in
1400. This set off the struggle for kingly power that has led to the
present chaos, usurpations, revenge, and political crimes. Grey
recalls Margaret's curses. But Rivers points out that she has cursed
Richard and Buckingham as well. In his final moments, he prays that
God will remember those particular names.

ACT_III|SCENE_IV
                          ACT III, SCENE IV
-
  LINES 1-57
  This scene takes place within the Tower at the Council meeting. To
establish that, it would probably be preceded by the formal
placement of a table and seats. Then the members of the Council
would enter in orderly fashion and take their places, according to
their ranks. Ritual underscored the importance of order on the surface
while disruption seethed below. The ironic setting of the Tower,
too, would not be lost on the Elizabethan audience.
  The Council has gathered to set a date for the coronation of the
young King Edward V. Everyone is there except Richard. Without him,
the Protector, they cannot confirm the proposal made by the Bishop
of Ely to have the coronation the next day. Now watch how Buckingham
starts to maneuver the victim. He asks if anyone knows how Richard
might feel about the proposed coronation date. Hastings is singled out
as the closest to Richard, giving that foolish man an opportunity to
save himself by the tiniest display of humility. But Hastings,
confident of Richard's approval, announces he will take the
responsibility for voting as his proxy.
  Just then Richard enters the meeting, apologizing for having
overslept. This is the first we've heard of Richard's nocturnal rest
and should be noted. When told that Hastings was about to answer for
him, he seems to find nothing wrong with that. With his well-known
moodiness, Richard has no trouble in suddenly distracting them from
the business before the Council. On the pretext of having seen some
strawberries he desired in the Bishop's garden, he sends that
councilor off to bring him some. He then steps aside for a private
meeting with Buckingham. Quickly discussing Hastings' refusal to go
along with them, they leave the meeting room to conspire further.
-
                                             {ACT_III|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 5}
  LINES 58-106
  Well-rehearsed, they return to the meeting, in which no agreement
has been reached about the coronation date. Richard is now in a
lather. He is suffering, his crippled body is in pain. He accuses
someone of using witchcraft to torment him. Hastings shouts that
anyone who did so surely deserves death. Displaying his withered
arm, Richard accuses both Queen Elizabeth and Mistress Shore. The trap
is set. Will Hastings take the bait? How will it be sprung?
  Hastings gasps, "If they have done this deed." "If!" The word
strikes like a thunderbolt. Upon that wavering of an instant and
that single word, Richard pounces and condemns Hastings as a guilty
accessory. What was it Hastings had said the guilty party deserved?
Richard pronounces the sentence: "Off with his head." Swearing that he
will not be able to eat until the sentence is carried out, he storms
out, leaving Ratcliffe and Lovel to deal with the condemned man.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            {ACT_III|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 10}
  NOTE: Lovel and Ratcliffe, along with Catesby, were to become
three of the historic Richard's closest allies. When he became King,
Richard granted them lavish promotions and allowed them to exercise
great power. It was widely felt that they abused this power. So well
known was this threesome and their relationship to the king (whose
symbol was a boar), that a dissident posted a notice on a cathedral
door in 1484:
-
     The Cat, the Rat, and Lovel our dog
     Ruleth all England under a Hog.
-
                                            {ACT_III|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 15}
  Their notoriety became famous by that couplet, which is still
studied by some English schoolchildren as part of their history
lessons.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Now Hastings grieves over his own stupidity. He recalls all the
warnings he has ignored, particularly Margaret's curse. In his agony
you may hear the echo of Clarence's vision of the hazardous journey to
death. In his last words, he prophesies troubled times ahead for his
poor country, and for his executioners.
  The truth of his words will soon be known. Meanwhile, you've just
heard another recapitulation of Margaret's curses and a demand for
vengeance.

ACT_III|SCENE_V
                           ACT III, SCENE V
-
  LINES 1-70
  The empty stage is soon filled by the arrival of the two
conspirators, Richard and Buckingham, described by Shakespeare as
wearing "rotten armour, marvellous ill-favoured." Whatever happened to
that Richard who was going to buy new clothes and dress up? It is a
severe contrast with preceding stage pictures and another surprise
from Richard, the master of deceit.
  In a hurried discussion, Richard and Buckingham compare their skills
as actors when Catesby enters with the Lord Mayor. The two battered
dukes pretend to be frightened by the threat that surrounds them. They
seem to see enemies everywhere, adding to the notion of civil unrest.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              {ACT_III|SCENE_V ^paragraph 5}
  NOTE: The Lord Mayor, who has appeared briefly before, now emerges
as a fully developed comic figure. In each of Shakespeare's plays
there is generally such a character, a carryover from the touring
companies which had such stock characters in all their plays. The
wide-eyed, easily duped, pompous fool was a great favorite with
audiences.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Ratcliffe and Lovel arrive next with Hastings' head, the blood
dripping from their hands. What does Richard do? How does he greet
this evidence of an execution he had just ordered? Crocodile tears.
Sobbing, he tells how much he had loved this man. Never had he
suspected Hastings' sinister side or his dealings with that witch,
Mistress Shore.
  Buckingham elaborates on Hastings' guilt, telling the Lord Mayor
that the two dukes were even threatened with murder by the Lord
Chamberlain. But though the Lord Mayor is taken aback, he hesitates.
Angrily, Richard protests that they are law-abiding people. Would
anything less than the country's security have driven them to have
Hastings executed?
                                             {ACT_III|SCENE_V ^paragraph 10}
  It is imperative that there be no suspicion, no blot on Richard's
record when he is ready to claim the crown. The official report must
show that Hastings was judged according to the law. Buckingham finally
convinces the Lord Mayor, who willingly agrees that their story must
be true.
-
  LINES 71-109
  Now Richard takes charge of the situation. He no longer needs a
"stage manager" to do the job Buckingham has performed. But he still
needs an ally. He becomes the master of the proceedings, the chief
puppeteer.
  Buckingham is directed to follow the Lord Mayor to the public
forum at Guildhall and spread the story that Richard would have
everyone believe. He is to suggest, namely, that Edward IV's
children are illegitimate, due to a technicality in a rumored previous
marriage, and that the late king himself may have been of unsure
birth. The latter point is to be handled delicately, adds Richard,
"because, my lord, you know my mother lives." Is this a concern for
her reputation? Or perhaps a fear that some stigma may attach to his
own birth? Or is it a cunning awareness that an outraged Duchess of
York could be a dangerous enemy? Knowing what you now know of Richard,
how would you explain his action?
                                             {ACT_III|SCENE_V ^paragraph 15}
  Richard's next move is to have Lovel and Catesby bring two prominent
clergymen to him at his residence where he will await word from
Buckingham. When they depart, once more he shares his secret plans
to clear the path to the throne. Clarence's children will be easily
pushed aside. Then he will isolate the main obstacle, Edward IV's
sons. Since no one will be allowed to visit them in the Tower, he will
be able to proceed with his next step. As he continues with his
schemes, his energy knows no bounds.

ACT_III|SCENE_VI
                          ACT III, SCENE VI
-
  LINES 1-14
  This short scene serves a number of purposes. For one thing, through
the scrivener (notary), Shakespeare suggests that the "man in the
street" may be onto Richard's tricks. It also relieves the breakneck
speed of action and gives the audience a chance to consider
Richard's boldness in his disposal of Hastings- the sheer illegality
of the proceeding.
  From this ordinary man's point of view, it's indeed a fine world
where such things may occur, a sentiment likely to be shared by the
audience. Moreover, the scrivener admits that the atmosphere
throughout the country is too dangerous for anyone to even speak up
about such matters. In other words, there is a lack of order in this
unlawful state. And there must be an upheaval to restore it.

ACT_III|SCENE_VII
                          ACT III, SCENE VII
-
  LINES 1-54
  The truth of this warning about Richard's lack of popular support
comes home soon. Buckingham has bad news to report. "The citizens
are mum," he tells Richard when asked what happened at Guildhall. He
repeats all the arguments he had used.
  The moment is carefully placed. Up until now you've heard nothing
about Richard's actual accomplishments, which were in fact
considerable. Now you're told about his "victories in Scotland...
discipline in war, wisdom in peace" as well as his virtue and "fair
humility." The historic Richard was the great peacemaker in the
north of England and had maneuvered the ever-warring border factions
into accepting a truce. Buckingham reminds you of this, just as
Richard is at the threshold of his greatest villainy, but when it is
most important for him to be cast as a worthy candidate for kingship.
  Closing his recital, Buckingham finally speaks the words that are
music to Richard's ears: "God save Richard, England's royal king!" But
even the repetition of these words by an official spokesman,
allowing for no misunderstanding, had not moved the crowd. Once again,
Buckingham takes charge of the situation, preparing for the next step.
Richard seems to allow himself to be ordered into a passive role. Is
it a form of preparation as Buckingham instructs Richard to assume a
pious pose, to fake disdain, but ultimately accept what's offered?
-
                                            {ACT_III|SCENE_VII ^paragraph 5}
  LINES 54-218
  Richard departs as the Lord Mayor arrives, accompanied by several
aldermen and a delegation from the City of London.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: The Lord Mayor was an elected official whose chief function
was ceremonial. However, he acted as spokesman for the Board of
Aldermen, who represented the general population. In times of
crisis, they could petition for relief from any danger they perceived.
They did not actually choose a king, but within the framework of their
authority was the chance to seek relief from peril through the
succession of an eligible candidate such as Richard.
                                           {ACT_III|SCENE_VII ^paragraph 10}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Buckingham repeatedly calls for Richard to come forward. He
reminds the delegation in his absence of his great qualifications,
especially in comparison to the late King Edward IV, who is
described as sexually promiscuous.
  Finally, Richard appears, surrounded by clergymen to strengthen
the picture Buckingham has painted. The charade then begins in
earnest. Buckingham begs Richard's pardon for disturbing him at his
devotions. Richard then asks his pardon for not appearing sooner.
But why do they seek him? Has he offended someone?
  Buckingham says that his only offense lies in the rejection of the
crown that is "due at birth," rather than that "of a blemished
stock" (namely, Edward IV's undoubtedly illegitimate children). He
pleads with Richard to restore legitimacy by accepting this call to
the throne. Again and again, Buckingham stresses that single note- the
right of birth, the legitimate bloodline.
                                           {ACT_III|SCENE_VII ^paragraph 15}
  Richard's reply is a masterpiece of cunning. His respect for these
people is great. He would not insult them, but he must reject the
merest suggestion of any interest in "the yoke of sovereignty."
Besides, he reminds them, "the royal tree hath left us royal fruit."
  That issue must not be avoided. Before he can move an inch closer to
the throne, those who beg him to do so must acknowledge that the
claims of Edward IV's children are not valid. Commending him on his
humility, Buckingham nevertheless raises the story of a previous,
suspected marriage that had taken place between Edward IV and a
"Lady Lucy."
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: There was historical substance behind this allegation of
bigamy. Although proved untrue, there were several alleged
betrothals or marriages claimed for Edward IV, with not only Elizabeth
Lucy and Eleanor Butler in England, but with Lady Bona, the sister
of the king of France.
                                           {ACT_III|SCENE_VII ^paragraph 20}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  So Richard would be doing the nation a service by not allowing an
unlawful heir to ascend the throne when a perfectly legitimate one was
available- namely, Richard.
  Richard protests. Buckingham insists. Richard asks them not to "heap
this care" on him, claiming that he is unfit and will not yield.
  In a final plea, Buckingham swears that even if Richard will not
accept, Edward IV's children will never sit on the throne. With that
final threat, he stalks out with the Lord Mayor and his delegation.
                                           {ACT_III|SCENE_VII ^paragraph 25}
-
  LINES 219-246
  What can Richard do? What do you think? He sends Catesby after
them to avoid any appearance of running after the crown. When they
return, he reluctantly gives in, against his better judgment and
only "for the good of the country." But Richard makes a strong
point, warning them that he is the servant of their wishes and that,
"if black scandal or foul-faced reproach" follows, they must bear
the burden of guilt. He goes so far as to call on the Almighty to
witness how far he is "from desire of this." Could there be a
greater example of his blasphemy?
  Buckingham offers the first recognition by hailing him with the
royal title, "King Richard, England's worthy king!" And now, what
about a coronation date? Contrast this discussion with the Council
meeting on the same topic. They instantly decide to crown Richard
the next day.

ACT_IV|SCENE_I
                           ACT IV, SCENE I
-
  LINES 1-27
  How will the news of Richard's great fortune be received in other
quarters? Shakespeare doesn't keep you in suspense long. In this
scene, the focus of Richard's opposition has gathered. Making their
way to the Tower to visit the young boys are Queen Elizabeth, her
son Dorset, and the Duchess of York. Coming from another side are Lady
Anne with Clarence's daughter. They are interrupted by Brakenbury, who
tells them they are not permitted to enter, by order of the "king."
Shakespeare teases by having Brakenbury correct himself to say "the
Lord Protector." As the women demand entry, Stanley arrives to
reveal that Lady Anne must go to Westminster to be crowned queen
immediately.
  When she hears this news, Queen Elizabeth clearly sees the extent of
the danger which threatens her family. She orders her son Dorset to
leave for France, where he may join up with Stanley's stepson,
Richmond.
  Richmond, the many-times-removed, but nonetheless chief
Lancastrian heir, had fled to France to escape persecution by the
Yorkists' regime. The first mention of his name would touch the
Elizabethan audience, who knew him to be the grandfather of their
own queen.
  It is now the old Duchess' moment to blame herself for having
brought the evil Richard into this world. But Stanley rushes Anne to
the coronation, though she would rather suffer a band of hot steel
around her head than the crown. She recalls her earlier curses and her
damnation of that pitiful woman who would marry Richard. And she
sees that her curse has been fulfilled.
                                               {ACT_IV|SCENE_I ^paragraph 5}
  The eighty-year-old Duchess now seems to shrink under the weight
of her misery. She urges Elizabeth to return to the sanctuary as she
declares her intention to await her own death. As these women cast a
final glance at the Tower, you are reminded of the prisoners within.

ACT_IV|SCENE_II
                           ACT IV, SCENE II
-
  LINES 1-27
  That mournful scene is followed by one of great ceremony. King
Richard enters "in pomp," followed by the members of his court,
including all his favorites.
  As the scene begins, it appears that Buckingham and Richard are
still very intimate. Assisted by Buckingham, Richard moves up to the
throne, a gesture he lavishly acknowledges. But what next, now that
the great goal has been achieved? Is he secure? Richard sounds the
first warning:
-
     But shall we wear these glories for a day?
                                              {ACT_IV|SCENE_II ^paragraph 5}
     Or shall they last, and we rejoice in them?
                                                (lines 5-6)
-
  Is Richard, the great actor, really that casually concerned with
such an important matter? What about those two boys in the Tower? He
baits Buckingham about this obstacle to his peace of mind- and his
claim of legitimacy. It is now his chief concern. Pressed on the
subject, Buckingham is hesitant, even when Richard declares
outright, "I wish the bastards dead." Buckingham asks for leave to
consider the matter and steps outside, a move that will prove fatal to
him.
-
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_II ^paragraph 10}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: If you can fix a mental image of Fortune's Wheel, you might be
able to detect some movement here. Up to this point, everything has
gone Richard's way. His victims have stepped right into his traps. His
wishes have come true. This is the first flaw in his perfect world.
And look at the way he responds.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  We see a different Richard, one you might not have imagined. Even
Catesby observes, "The king is angry. See, he gnaws his lip."
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_II ^paragraph 15}
-
  LINES 28-81
  Richard hammers away at his wish to have the two prisoners in the
Tower out of the way, even without the help of "High-reaching
Buckingham." He sends for a man with fewer scruples, trusting a mere
page's recommendation of someone named "Tyrrel." When the page goes
off, Richard reveals that Buckingham will now be excluded from his
inner circle.
  Meanwhile, Stanley arrives with the news of Dorset's flight to
France. The moving Wheel picks up momentum. This stirs the old Richard
into action. Cool and calculating, he formulates plans to strengthen
his position. His wife, no longer needed, will be disposed of in due
course. He will marry off Clarence's daughter and confine his
dim-witted son. Then he reveals a shocking intention: he must marry
his niece, Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV. Nothing is beyond his
scheming.
  But the gusto seems to have disappeared as Richard moves into a
defensive position. First, he must deal with the assassin, Tyrrel, who
now enters. There is no mincing of words. The order is clearly
given. The monarch dispatches the killer to do the job.
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_II ^paragraph 20}
-
  LINES 82-121
  When Buckingham returns, Richard is no longer interested in what
he has to say. More important is the news of Dorset's flight to
Richmond. Watch what happens now as Buckingham pleads for his
reward. The episode demonstrates Shakespeare's skill at showing
three things at once: Richard's concern with Stanley's loyalty, his
rebuff of Buckingham, and his recollection of an old prophecy from the
reign of Henry VI. It was predicted at that time that Richmond would
someday be king. An agitated Richard whines that the prophet did not
predict that he would be king, or that he would kill Richmond. To
add to his fury, an Irish poet has independently forewarned of doom
for Richard once he has seen Richmond. Keep in mind that Richmond
has been in exile all this time.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_II ^paragraph 25}
  NOTE: What does Richard make of this? And why does Shakespeare
introduce such a prophecy this late in the play? Is it possible that
the Richard who has scoffed at Queen Margaret's curses is now becoming
superstitious?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Buckingham continues to interrupt, but Richard silences him in a
chilling display of the royal will. King Richard announces that he
is "not in the [giving] vein."
  What does this mean for Buckingham? He remembers Hastings and,
fearing for his own head, he flees to his castle in Wales.

ACT_IV|SCENE_III
                          ACT IV, SCENE III
-
  LINES 1-35
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: Do you think Clarence's murder was as cruel and gory an
on-stage action as you could bear? So did Shakespeare. It's one
thing to execute a grown man on stage, but putting the two
youngsters to death would have been more than his audience could
witness without horror. Still, he wanted to sustain the impact of
the deed. What does he do? He uses tightly controlled verse to amplify
the description. Imagine the effect of this scene on an audience
trained in grasping vivid images.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_III ^paragraph 5}
-
  Tyrrel marches in to announce:
-
     The tyrannous and bloody act is done,
     The most arch deed of piteous massacre
                                            {ACT_IV|SCENE_III ^paragraph 10}
     That ever yet this land was guilty of.
                                                (lines 1-3)
-
  Wait a minute: Though he had hired Dighton and Forrest to do the
actual deed, isn't he guilty? Isn't Richard? Notice how Shakespeare
deals with blame, reminding us that guilt is a larger matter. Tyrrel
spares no pertinent details in his description of what took place.
Even the hardened murderers wept like babies when they viewed the
horror of their deed.
  When he finishes, Richard enters and asks Tyrrel if he has happy
news for him. That single word "happy" links him in the most
horrifying way to the bloody crime.
                                            {ACT_IV|SCENE_III ^paragraph 15}
  To Richard's question of where the children are buried, Tyrrel gives
an evasive reply. In fact, the bodies of the two boys were never
found, leading to the age-old question of whether or not they were
really killed. Centuries later, relics were found and identified as
the bodies of children of that time, but whether or not they were
Edward IV's sons has never been proved.
  Bidding Tyrrel to come to him later and re-create the details of the
execution, Richard now turns to the audience and reviews his program
for consolidating his power.
-
  LINES 36-57
-
                                            {ACT_IV|SCENE_III ^paragraph 20}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: Again, Shakespeare is careful of history in the matter of
Anne's death. Quite possibly, she had passed away from natural causes.
There was no proof that Richard's bloody hand was involved. Of course,
there were those who felt that he influenced it and therefore was
guilty. But here, he merely says, "Anne my wife hath bid this world
good night."
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Richard is now free to pursue a marriage to Edward's daughter, his
own niece. The prospect excites him, drawing forth the old,
exuberant Richard, the man who loves a challenge.
                                            {ACT_IV|SCENE_III ^paragraph 25}
  But Ratcliffe enters with grim news. Richmond is gaining strength
from desertions by Richard's allies. And Buckingham has raised a small
army and is marching against Richard. The Richmond threat is the
greater, says Richard. The military leader is now seen for the first
time, assessing the situation and making command decisions. Does
this surprise you? How does Shakespeare prepare you for
understanding this side of Richard's character?

ACT_IV|SCENE_IV
                           ACT IV, SCENE IV
-
  LINES 1-135
  Queen Margaret, the embodiment of Fortune's Wheel, enters and
reminds us of the events that have borne out her prophecies. This is
only the second time she appears on stage, but haven't you felt her
presence throughout? Now she sees the once-ascendant Richard's fortune
beginning to turn on the down side. Her need for revenge will be
satisfied. But first, Queen Elizabeth and the Duchess of York, her
counterparts in age and station, enter, mourning the deaths of the
boys in the Tower.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: The formal chorus of their lament is designed to heighten
the effect of their sorrow. The rhythm might have been borrowed from
the classics. It sounds to many like a church service, perhaps a
requiem.
                                              {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 5}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Despite their differences and their ancient feud, these women are
joined by a mutual hatred of Richard. They curse him fiercely, but
it is Margaret who sees through their misfortune to a fulfillment of
her vision.
-
  LINES 136-196
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 10}
  All they have is words to remind them of their calamity- words
that try to soothe, but fail. Queen Elizabeth and the Duchess of
York have exhausted their tears when a trumpet flourish announces
the arrival of King Richard.
  Here, for the first time, is Richard in a new guise: the warrior
king. Ironically, his first skirmish will not be with the enemy
awaiting him outside the capitol. Do you remember how he looked
earlier in "rotten" armor? Compare that with this image. See how
Shakespeare gets full value from such small details.
  They stop him with questions regarding their losses, reminding us of
his participation in so many deaths. Does he answer them as cleverly
as he once did? What do you think of this picture of a king under
attack by these women?
  Obviously having the upper hand, they prolong the confrontation. Now
it is the Duchess of York who says that she will be calm in speaking
to him. But she lingers over the loathsome repetition of the details
of his birth and childhood. Her final words are a curse that he will
be so wearied in battle that he will be unable to stand and will be
defeated.
-
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 15}
  LINES 197-430
  But Richard will not be dissuaded from his purpose. When the Duchess
of York departs, he stops Queen Elizabeth. Despite any opposition
she may offer, he must attempt to woo her daughter through this proxy.
Richard has announced a goal and he must succeed in it. Thus begins
the second of the great courtship scenes of this play.
  Now, where is the virtuoso actor who could strike all the right
poses, quickly and cleverly? This long, drawn-out duel seems
labored, dominated by Elizabeth's mastery of the situation rather than
Richard's. Who is on the defensive now?
  She vows that there is nothing she will not do to prevent such a
match. She has an answer for every thrust he makes. He tries to
threaten, claiming her daughter's only real safety is in marrying him.
But she reminds him that her sons were entrusted to him, too. What
does it take to win her daughter, he asks. She then calmly offers in
vivid images a horrifying capsule of his villainy.
-
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 20}
     Send to her by the man that slew her brothers
     A pair of bleeding hearts; thereon engrave
     "Edward" and "York." Then haply will she weep;
     Therefore present to her- as sometimes Margaret
     Did to thy father, steeped in Rutland's blood-
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 25}
     A handkerchief, which, say to her, did drain
     The purple sap from her sweet brother's body,
     And bid her wipe her weeping eyes withal.
                                            (lines 271-278)
-
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 30}
  Is there no end to the horror? In that heap of bloody deeds, do
you hear the sound of despair, the whispered cry for revenge? And what
effect does it have on Richard?
  He plods ahead. He uses every imaginable argument. Which of them
do you think is the most impressive? Finally, he swears that the
marriage must take place for England's sake. It is the only way to
avoid "Death, desolation, ruin, and decay."
  The argument, presented with his inexhaustible energy, weakens
her. She can barely lift her voice to remind him that he had slain her
little boys. But the fiendish Richard knows that he has her. He
gives her the sweetest reply he can muster.
-
     But in your daughter's womb I bury them,
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 35}
     Where in that nest of spicery they will breed
     Selves of themselves, to your recomforture.
                                            (lines 423-425)
-
  Compare that extravagant language to the rest of his speech during
their duel. Would he dare to use such fantastic images before the
battle had been won?
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 40}
  Her consent, however, is not enthusiastic and there is something
uncertain in her promise to do as he has asked. But he takes this
for victory and the minute she is gone he dismisses her with contempt.
-
  LINES 431-538
  Ratcliffe and Catesby now enter with military news. Richmond has
sailed from France and plans to join forces with Buckingham. This
calls for a command decision from Richard. He starts to tell Catesby
to go to the Duke of Norfolk with a message, but forgets that he has
not provided its content. Has Richard ever hesitated before? Has he
ever appeared confused? Recovering, he sends Catesby off with word
to meet him at Salisbury.
  Now it's Stanley's turn to enter with bad news. He repeats the
report that Richmond is en route by sea. Why, asks Richard, is
Richmond on the move? When Stanley gives the obvious reply- to claim
the crown- Richard is outraged. He screams that he is the only
legitimate heir, the only true descendant of the Yorkist line. What
right has anyone to claim his throne?
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 45}
  Stanley becomes a pivotal figure. Even though he is Richmond's
step-father, there has been no reason to question his loyalty. But
Richard taunts him with his difficult position. Stanley must find a
way out. He claims he must travel north to muster his substantial
forces. Richard needs this added strength and can't disagree. But he
is no fool. He will hold Stanley's son, George, as a hostage until his
father's troops join in on Richard's side.
  One messenger after another arrives with bad news. First one group
of nobles, then another, has gone over to the enemy. When a third
messenger comes in, Richard automatically strikes him before he can
speak up. For all the animosity and tension that have been evident, no
blow has ever been struck in this play before. This loss of control in
a king is a pointed indication of his declining power.
  But it is good news. Buckingham's forces have been defeated and that
rebellious duke is in flight. Richard apologizes to the messenger
and offers a reward to the man who captures Buckingham. Have you
ever seen him show so many different facets of his personality so
rapidly? What is Shakespeare's purpose in placing so much pressure
on Richard now?
  A final burst of news arrives. A storm has destroyed Richmond's
naval forces and their commander has sailed back to France. Richard is
delighted and comments that this will give his troops a chance to move
against the domestic opposition.
  But Catesby returns to reveal that Buckingham has been captured
and that Richmond had indeed managed to land.
                                             {ACT_IV|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 50}
  One thing at a time, says Richard. They are bound for Salisbury
and there they will go. As they march off, he calls for Buckingham
to be brought to him there.
  In the breath of time before the next scene begins, consider all
that has taken place and compare your impression of Richard with
what you have heard of him as a military leader. How well do you think
he will do when the real crunch comes?

ACT_IV|SCENE_V
                           ACT IV, SCENE V
-
  LINES 1-21
  This brief scene is a welcome change of pace. Stanley is talking
with a priest, through whom he sends a message to Richmond. He
explains that George Stanley is being held hostage and that that is
the reason he cannot yet ally himself openly with his stepson.
  Although the focus is on Stanley, this is another expression of
Shakespeare's point of view regarding the clergy. How does this
clergyman compare with others you've already met?
  More important at the moment is the revelation that Queen
Elizabeth has agreed to a marriage of her daughter with Richmond. This
is the first we have heard of this decision. What does it do to
Richard's string of victories? Will he learn of it? And how will he
react? See how his presence is maintained even when he is not on
stage?

ACT_V|SCENE_I
                            ACT V, SCENE I
-
  LINES 1-24
  The once proud Buckingham now appears in chains. He points out,
ironically, that it is All Soul's Day, but also his very personal
doomsday. Here is the last of Richard's victims displaying his
recognition of the sources of his downfall- his broken vows to the
late King Edward, along with his contempt for Margaret's curses and
warnings. Yes, Richard has been the instrument, but where does the
guilt lie? How do you feel about justice? Revenge? Retribution? Does
Buckingham's execution make you question or change your opinions?

ACT_V|SCENE_II
                           ACT V, SCENE II
-
  LINES 1-24
  At last Richmond arrives with his troops. Do you think it would have
added to the drama if he had been involved earlier? Or was the
anticipation more important?
  In his first words, Richmond sounds a note of sincerity, speaking to
his "loving friends." Think back and try to recall hearing the word
"love" at any time before. Was it used often?
  As he describes his opponent, Richmond touches on all the
essential points. Equating Richard with his personal insignia,
Richmond calls him "the wretched, bloody, and usurping boar." He links
both the usurper and the murderer. Those are at the top of the list,
but the evil of this enemy goes to the personal concern of every
citizen in the land, to the fields and vines that provide them with
food. Is this what a king should be?
  His comrades are convinced that even Richard's allies will see the
light and desert him. Richmond's hopes and spirits are so high, he
feels he can achieve anything- "Kings it makes gods, and meaner
creatures kings." Does this combination of confidence and humility
seem appropriate?

ACT_V|SCENE_III
                           ACT V, SCENE III
-
  LINES 1-19
  Richard enters, followed by his troops. We are at Bosworth Field
on the eve of battle.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: The words "Bosworth Field" would have had much the same effect
on Elizabethans as "Wounded Knee" or "Gettysburg" would have on
Americans. This gives Shakespeare a choice. He could either dwell on
the military details or on the participants to tell the story of
this great event. He chose the latter. Would you have done the same?
How does that satisfy all that has come before?
                                              {ACT_V|SCENE_III ^paragraph 5}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Richard's tent is set up on one side of the stage. He reviews the
military situation, pleased that he has three times the number of
soldiers on his side. Moreover, he adds, "the king's name is a tower
of strength" (V, iii, 12). Does that agree with the prediction of
desertions just heard? And how does the word "tower" sound to you now?
Does it call up favorable images?
-
  LINES 20-46
                                             {ACT_V|SCENE_III ^paragraph 10}
  When Richard's group withdraws with him to go over plans, the action
shifts to the other side of the stage. Richmond enters with his
troops. For dramatic balance, his tent is pitched opposite Richard's
with a clear, wide space between them. As Richmond begins to outline
his battle plan, his military credentials are quickly established.
Before withdrawing with his cabinet, he hears that Lord Stanley is
nearby and sends him a message.
-
  LINES 47-79
  Richard returns with a few of his followers. He, too, sends a
message to Stanley reminding him of the peril of his hostage son,
George. But what is Richard's real mood like now? His lack of zest for
what he faces is apparent when he states, "I have not that alacrity of
spirit." Is this the same Richard who once claimed that the proper
occupation of a king was waging war?
-
                                             {ACT_V|SCENE_III ^paragraph 15}
  LINES 80-177
  Stanley arrives at Richmond's tent, where he offers moral support.
He must hold off coming out openly as long as George Stanley is in
danger. When all have left, Richmond prays to God for help in crushing
the "usurping helmets" of his adversaries. The theme of usurpation
is being hammered home.
-
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: Throughout the play we have heard of the supernatural, but now
we get to see a representation. So widespread was the Elizabethan
belief in ghosts that this would require little in the way of
special make-up or trick effects to be entirely believable.
                                             {ACT_V|SCENE_III ^paragraph 20}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  The ghost of Edward, son of Henry VI, rises from below and goes to
the center of the stage between the two tents. As the first of
Richard's victims, he will be followed by nine others, in order of
their deaths. Each places a curse on Richard and a blessing on
Richmond. Each ends by expressing a wish that Richard suffer in battle
as well as die, and that Richmond not only survive, but flourish.
-
  LINES 178-223
                                             {ACT_V|SCENE_III ^paragraph 25}
  When all the ghosts vanish, Richard is startled awake. In the same
breath, he cries for mercy and a horse. Is this a symbol of escape?
Where have you heard him mention a horse before? Now where is that
swagger? Listen to him talk of conscience. Hear him acknowledge his
sins. He freely admits his guilt as a liar and a common murderer.
  But Richard can only be true to his own nature. He recognizes this
clearly. For all his earlier revelations, for all his play acting, has
he ever shown himself more fully than here, in this dark hour when
there is no one else to listen?
  He continues to balance the account. He acknowledges the curses
heaped on him and where he stands. And he asks for no pity. Was
there ever a clearer cry that he will face the consequences as he
always has- alone?
  Ratcliffe enters to help him dress for battle. A flicker of his
old spirit and roguish behavior surfaces as he invites Ratcliffe to
join him in eavesdropping outside the tents. Does this commander
suspect disloyalty from his troops?
-
                                             {ACT_V|SCENE_III ^paragraph 30}
  LINES 224-352
  As they leave, Richmond is awakened in his tent. Contrary to
Richard's dream, Richmond's dreams are sweet and full of favorable
signs. With that in mind, he steps out to deliver a final word of
encouragement to his troops.
  It is a warm and noble oration. "God and our good cause fight on our
side," he tells them. The "prayers... of wronged souls" are with
them as they fight this "bloody tyrant... and homicide." Emphasizing
his point, Richmond closes with a reminder that they are the true
representatives of all whom Richard has wronged. They are the
embodiment of the true England.
  When they march off, Richard returns with his forces. Now it is time
for his pep talk.
-
                                             {ACT_V|SCENE_III ^paragraph 35}
---------------------------------------------------------------------
  NOTE: The perfect symmetry of the stage setting, the formal
appearance of the ghosts, and now the balance of the two orations is
designed deliberately to give a sense of order. It is almost a
ritual that goes beyond the realistic action on the stage. Does it
increase your anticipation of what you surely know by now will take
place?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
-
  Richard begins with a few words to his officers, whom he warns not
to be bothered by foolish things such as conscience. What is that
after all but a word? Their conscience will lie in their swords.
                                             {ACT_V|SCENE_III ^paragraph 40}
  He tells his troops that they are fighting to suppress "vagabonds,
rascals, and runaways," a "scum of Britains and base lackey peasants."
  As they depart for battle, a messenger tells Richard that Lord
Stanley has not moved. The still imperious Richard cries, "Off with
his son George's head." But is that really of any use to him now?
Calling on England's patron saint- St. George, ironically- Richard
rushes off to fight.

ACT_V|SCENE_IV
                           ACT V, SCENE IV
-
  LINES 1-13
  The battle rages. The floorboards of the stage would probably
creak with the roaring of actors creating the mood of combat. Troops
march across the stage to the sounds of horns and drums. In a
momentary pause, Norfolk and Catesby enter. Catesby reports that
Richard has been fighting with incredible strength and bravery,
without regard to his personal safety. What does that tell you of
his physical handicap?
  Richard now enters, calling for a new horse to replace his lost
mount. When Catesby urges him to withdraw to safety, Richard
refuses. He candidly declares his intention to fight to the finish:
-
     Slave, I have set my life upon a cast,
                                               {ACT_V|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 5}
     And I will stand the hazard of the die.
                                               (lines 9-10)
-
  This is the Richard of old. This is Richard alone. He has already
slain five men dressed as Richmond- they were decoys- but he will
not rest until he meets the real one.
  Earlier you read about Richard's courage in battle, but it may
have sounded like so much propaganda coming from Buckingham. How do
you feel about that now? Can you credit him with heroism? Does this
begin to explain why he has fascinated audiences and intrigued
scholars for centuries?
                                              {ACT_V|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 10}
  No matter what else, Richard will fight to the bitter end. His final
words make it clear that for him, winning is still everything:
-
     A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!
                                                  (line 13)
-
                                              {ACT_V|SCENE_IV ^paragraph 15}
  He will sacrifice everything for a chance to continue fighting.

ACT_V|SCENE_V
                            ACT V, SCENE V
-
  The battle intensifies as the sound of trumpets is heard. Richard
and Richmond fight a bloody duel, and Richmond slays Richard.
  As Richard's body is dragged aside, Richmond comes forward with
Stanley, who places the crown, taken from "usurped royalty," on
Richmond's head.
  Assured that his half-brother, George Stanley, is safe, Richmond
proceeds with the business of wrapping things up. Richard III is
typical of most Shakespearean noncomedies in its ending. A strong
man steps forward to take charge of the mess that has been made in the
past.
  Richmond orders that the bodies of the slain be buried in accordance
with their rank by birth. Order is to be restored. He then pardons
those conquered enemies who will now pledge their loyalty to him. He
speaks the words that were most cheering to his audience. As he had
sworn,
-
                                                {ACT_V|SCENE_V ^paragraph 5}
     We will unite the White Rose and the Red.
                                                  (line 19)
-
  His marriage to Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV, will produce a
union upon which heaven will truly smile.
  The battle has ended. All the virtues have triumphed, and England
emerges victorious. The audience which saw Richard III slain in battle
was witness to the last death of an English king on a battlefield.
Never again was one to fall to a military foe.
                                               {ACT_V|SCENE_V ^paragraph 10}
  Richmond ends the play with a prayer for an everlasting peace, now
that "civil wounds are stopped."

TESTS_AND_ANSWERS
                            A STEP BEYOND
                          TESTS AND ANSWERS                 (SRICTEST)
-
                                TESTS
-
  TEST 1
-
  _____  1. In his opening soliloquy, Richard complains that the king
            is too involved with love-making to pursue the more
            important activity of
-
            A. tax collecting
            B. waging war
            C. foreign trade
-
  _____  2. Which animal is not included among the many identified
            with Richard?
-
            A. boar
            B. horse
            C. toad
-
  _____  3. Richard and Buckingham dress in battered armor in order to
-
            A. infiltrate the enemy
            B. pass as common soldiers
            C. deceive the Lord Mayor
-
  _____  4. How do we know that Richard is not a good sleeper?
-
            A. his complaints at the Council Meeting
            B. Lady Anne's revelation before her coronation
            C. the Duchess of York's description of his childhood
-
  _____  5. Which of Richard's cohorts is known to us by two names?
-
            A. Buckingham
            B. Hastings
            C. Stanley
-
  _____  6. What prop is used by Richard to convince the Lord Mayor
            that he was the innocent victim of treachery?
-
            A. a prayer book
            B. Hastings' head
            C. his own sword
-
  _____  7. Richard often scoffs at superstition, but he exploits it
            to serve his immediate purpose when he
-
            A. rallies his troops
            B. tells the council he has been bewitched
            C. enlists Buckingham on his side
-
  _____  8. Who fears that God's "justice will take hold / On me and
            you, and mine and yours, for this?"
-
            A. The Duchess of York
            B. Queen Margaret
            C. King Edward IV
-
  _____  9. In which of these quotations do you find a good example of
            irony?
-
            A. "When clouds are seen, wise men put on their cloaks."
            B. "I'll have this crown of mine cut from my shoulders /
               Before I'll see the crown so foul misplaced."
            C. "Bad is the world, and all will come to nought / When
               such ill dealing must be seen in thought."
-
  _____ 10. Which of the following statements is true?
-
            A. Richard brags about killing his wife, Anne.
            B. Richmond's sweet dream is Richard's nightmare.
            C. All Queen Elizabeth's children are murdered in the
               play.
-
  11. What is Shakespeare's view of women in this play?
-
  12. Discuss the importance of religion in Richard III.
-
  13. What role does violence play in the unraveling of the drama?
-
  14. How well does Richmond fulfill the role of "hero"?
-
  TEST 2
-
  _____  1. Before he dies, King Edward IV makes peace between
-
            A. Rivers and Grey
            B. Hastings and Rivers
            C. Buckingham and Stanley
-
  _____  2. Buckingham is told to play down the suggestion of Edward
            IV's possible illegitimate birth out of consideration for
-
            A. the Duchess of York
            B. Queen Margaret
            C. Queen Elizabeth
-
  _____  3. To win her daughter's hand, Queen Elizabeth suggests that
            Richard send
-
            A. a lock of his hair
            B. a pair of bleeding hearts
            C. two white doves
-
  _____  4. When discussing the murder of the princes in the Tower,
            Tyrrel cannot supply one detail. Is it the
-
            A. place of burial?
            B. names of their executioners?
            C. method of execution?
-
  _____  5. According to Richard's recollection, who prophesied "that
            Richmond should be king?"
-
            A. Henry V
            B. Henry VI
            C. Henry VII
-
  _____  6. After the death of King Edward IV, Jane Shore became the
            mistress of the
-
            A. Lord Protector
            B. Lord Chamberlain
            C. Mayor of London
-
  _____  7. Which of the following statements is true?
-
            A. Buckingham bribed the Lord Mayor to offer Richard the
               crown.
            B. Catesby deserted Richard during the final battle.
            C. Richard claimed to prefer making war to making love.
-
  _____  8. Who complained "But for my brother not a man would speak?"
-
            A. King Edward IV
            B. the young Duke of York
            C. the Marquess of Dorset
-
  _____  9. The night before the final battle, Richard calls for
-
            A. a bowl of strawberries
            B. good wishes
            C. wine
-
  _____ 10. Which of these statements shows that Clarence has been
            deceived by Richard?
-
            A. "He sends you not to murder me for this."
            B. "O, do not slander him for he is kind."
            C. "I shall be reconciled to him again."
-
  11. What is the role of ambition in Buckingham's downfall?
-
  12. Is Richard's physical deformity really the handicap he claims it
to be?
-
  13. How do Margaret and Richard differ in their use of direct
speeches to the audience?
-
  14. Was Stanley, the Earl of Derby, a traitor? Justify your answer.
-
                               ANSWERS
-
  TEST 1
-
  1. B     2. B     3. C     4. B     5. C     6. B     7. B
  8. C     9. B    10. B
-
  11. You must separate the two attitudes- Richard's and
Shakespeare's. Richard repeatedly shows the same contempt for women
that he does for anyone who gets in his way. To serve his purposes, he
exploits what he sees as their "feminine weaknesses." Afterwards he
sneers at them.
  It might seem that Shakespeare has the same view until you
consider Richard's character. Could the playwright possibly agree with
someone he depicts as such an outrageous villain? Even though
Shakespeare appears to accept the common attitude toward the natural
order- that women's proper role was as wives and mothers- he gives the
women in this play an added dimension. They are strong, courageous and
intelligent. One of the playwright's great talents lies in his
providing the language for them to speak clearly. Look at how he
uses Queen Margaret as a foil for Richard. Look at the Duchess of
York's ordeals and her perseverance. And note Queen Elizabeth's
ability to withstand the pressure of his proxy courtship of her
daughter.
  Shakespeare was not a revolutionary. Note the absence of women as
"common folks" in this play. But he shows a broader outlook than might
be expected for his time. Examination of this play may show you
signs of creeping "liberalism," if not liberation.
-
  12. Consider several approaches to religion, starting with Richard's
rejection of religion's power over him. He claims he is above God's
law. In the course of his pursuits, he mocks religion while exploiting
it at the same time. Just when he is about to commit his most
serious political crime, he wraps himself in a cloak of holiness,
between two priests. And how he must laugh at the Bishop who
surrenders so easily to Buckingham's absurd argument to remove the
young prince from the sanctuary. Richard scorns religion constantly,
but turns to it the moment he dreams of impending doom. This mighty
villain suddenly quakes before the thought of God's vengeance. And
ultimately he pays for his abuse of God's laws. While he may
temporarily function as an instrument of divine retribution, dealing
out justice to previous usurpers of the throne of "God's anointed," it
is his enemy, Richmond, who triumphantly represents the moral,
religious force of opposition.
-
  13. Were the Elizabethans more bloodthirsty or tolerant of
violence on stage than we are? In addition to the visible
bloodletting, there is endless discussion of past gory deeds. Offstage
violence is even brought into view in the form of a severed head. It's
almost as though such over-exposure is designed to make it ordinary.
At the same time, consider the basic topic of the play, the usurpation
of the crown of England and its consequences. These are dramatic
events. They can support the highly charged atmosphere of bloody
actions on stage as well as off. By witnessing Clarence's murder,
which has been carefully set up, we develop a greater revulsion for
its instigator. And even though we are spared the sight of the slaying
of the young princes in the Tower, Richard's involvement before and
after is carefully exploited. Every drop of blood referred to on stage
or in the speeches helps build the effect Shakespeare wishes to
achieve. The peace which comes after Richard's death is both a
relief and a reward.
-
  14. The Elizabethan audience knew from the start that Richmond was
to become Henry VII, the first Tudor king of England and the
grandfather of their own queen, Elizabeth I. As such, he had only to
appear victorious at the play's conclusion. By the time he shows up,
matters have progressed to a point where Richard's downfall is
inevitable. But what good would victory be if the opposition had
merely caved in? Shakespeare had to build Richmond's importance not
only to satisfy history but to fulfill the dramatic development of the
plot. By sprinkling his name into the preceding scenes, Shakespeare
makes Richmond's arrival a matter of importance. Once Richmond appears
on stage, he never makes a false step or says the wrong thing. If
his dialogue sounds slightly flat, it may be a deliberate contrast
to that of the fiery, passionate Richard. Here is a man of reason
who makes his mark with heroic action rather than words. In the duel
scene, Richmond has an opportunity to achieve the stature denied him
in speech.
-
  TEST 2
-
  1. B     2. A     3. B     4. A     5. B     6. B     7. C
  8. A     9. C    10. B
-
  11. From the start, Buckingham is only too willing to provide his
support for Richard's schemes. He immediately allies himself with
Richard by scorning his exemption from Margaret's curse. From then on,
he willingly shares the risk for his share of the spoils. Remember,
patronage is an important issue. During Edward IV's reign, Queen
Elizabeth saw to it that her relatives and supporters were taken
care of. Buckingham saw Richard as his key to prosperity. His
insistence on his reward in the face of his hesitation to
participate in the killing of the princes leads to his loss of
Richard's trust- and to his final destiny.
-
  12. The actor playing the role of Richard must have great strength
to endure the demands of being on stage in so many different
situations and for such a long time. But what of the character
Richard? Could he have been the successful warrior he is credited with
being in the past if he were seriously crippled? Could he have
performed the physical demands required by the battle in the final
scenes? If he is "unhorsed," surely he is capable of riding. And
what about his rapid, sudden turns throughout the play? Review the
physical action that must accompany so much of his dialogue and see if
you think his deformity was as much a handicap as a convenient excuse.
The judgment of Hastings is one place where he certainly exploits
it, but see if you can find others.
-
  13. From the beginning, Richard develops an intimate association
with the audience as he shares his innermost thoughts. Couched as a
sort of "confessional," he confides that he is going to behave
wickedly. As such, he virtually invites the audience to come along
with him as he proceeds with his business. Periodically, he reviews
and recaptures that spirit. Margaret, on the other hand, treats the
audience as more of a witness than a partner. She speaks less in
soliloquies than in choral recitations. Because so much of
Margaret's presence is a symbolic as well as an actual reminder of
past events, she is less involved in the action. Her power rests
mainly in her ability to witness the past and predict the future.
Those on stage may choose to ignore her, but those out front cannot.
-
  14. Stanley walks a narrow line throughout the play. Although an
easy answer might be that he never actually did anything to oppose
Richard, wasn't his act of withholding support just as harmful? This
is how Richard saw things when he ordered George Stanley to be
beheaded. But can you accept Richard's judgment? Stanley, more than
any other, represents the middle road, or at least a firm commitment
to neutrality. Some may find his professed loyalty to Richard and
secret meeting with Richmond enough to condemn him as a traitor.
Others may find him the victim of a conscience that allows him to make
no open choice. Remember the Stanley who dreamed of impending
disaster? Contrast him with the hasty, naive Hastings.

TERM_PAPER_IDEAS
            TERM PAPER IDEAS AND OTHER TOPICS FOR WRITING   (SRICTERM)
-
   1. Richard III has been called Shakespeare's first fully
developed character in that we see many sides of his personality. Do
any other characters in this play show more than one side? If so, who?
And how?
-
   2. What part do children play in Richard III? Are they believable?
-
   3. How important are clergymen, the archbishops, bishops, and
priests in Richard III? Are they different from other members of the
court? Discuss.
-
   4. Discuss the role of Buckingham. Is he better or worse, wiser
or more foolish than Richard's other victims?
-
   5. Revenge and the quest for justice dominate the action in Richard
III. Discuss individual examples and their relevance to this major
theme.
-
   6. Discuss the attitude toward adultery in Richard III.
-
   7. How successful is the use of stychomythia, the short staccato
dialogue used frequently by Richard and others? What effect does it
create in the courtship scenes?
-
   8. Animal imagery is used repeatedly. What dramatic function does
it fulfill?
-
   9. Discuss the importance of the scenes involving common people
such as murderers, the scrivener, and the pursuivant?
-
  10. Richard is a brother, a husband, an uncle, and a son to
various characters in the play. Analyze his behavior in each case.
-
  11. We often hear the lamentations of mothers in Richard III, but
there are fathers in the play too. Discuss their relationships to
their children.
-
  12. One objective of Richard III is to conclude the events set in
motion by the first usurpation, the overthrow of Richard II. Do you
feel this play explains and wraps it all up successfully?
-
  13. Compare your own knowledge of the historic Richard with
Shakespeare's Richard. What obvious changes in history did Shakespeare
make? Why did he do so?
-
  14. Corrupt governments can be found in all historical periods.
Compare the corrupt administration of either Richard III or Edward
IV with a 20th-century example.
-
  15. Although political executions take place throughout Richard III,
there is some concern for due process. Cite various examples and
discuss their significance to the play as a whole.

CRITICS
                             THE CRITICS                    (SRICCRIT)
-
  ON RICHARD'S CHARACTER
  If Richard is something like the Renaissance will incarnate, he is
equally, in his total, eager submission to it, evil incarnate.
Whatever his lusty attractiveness, we cannot deny that he treats all
men, even himself finally, as mere objects. Too late he discovers,
to his amazement and confusion, that he too has feelings, is
subjective and subjected, in more than will and conscious
self-control. Herein lies his repulsiveness. His is a Dionysianism
so passionately self-serving, so deliberate if not cold-blooded, that,
corrosive rather than life-giving like the Dionysian at its best, it
turns all not only to destruction but to cheapness, ignominy,
pointlessness.
                -Theodore Weiss, The Breath of Clowns and Kings, 1974
-
  The great stories of murder are about men who could not have done it
but who did. They are not murderers, they are men. And their stories
will be better still when they are excellent men; not merely brilliant
and admirable, but also, in portions of themselves which we infer
rather than see. Richard is never quite human enough. The spectacle
over which he presides with his bent back and his forked tongue can
take us by storm, and it does. It cannot move our innermost minds with
the conviction that in such a hero's death the world has lost what
once had been or might have been the most precious part of itself.
Richard is never precious as a man. He is only stunning in his
craft, a serpent whose movements we follow for their own sake, because
in themselves they have strength and beauty.
                                   -Mark Van Doren, Shakespeare, 1939
-
  ON RICHMOND'S FUNCTION
  The astonishing thing about this play is that until almost the
end, there is no sign of a possible antagonist, no visible secular
force that can bring the tyrant down. Richmond is not even mentioned
until Act IV, and appears in only the last three scenes. He is
little more than a deus ex machina let down from above to provide a
resolution both for the immediate action of this play and for the
long-continued drama of conflict between York and Lancaster.
                     -George J. Becker, Shakespeare's Histories, 1977
-
  RICHARD III AS TRAGEDY
  Thus Shakespeare pictured the dominating sins in the play as perjury
and murder, sins against the moral order. He portrayed and analyzed
the passion of ambition that caused Richard to sin and the passion
of fear that at the same time punished him for his sins and forced him
to wade still further in blood. He inserted non-historical scenes
developing the Elizabethan philosophy of revenge. He used the
supernatural to enhance the horror of the play and to contribute to
the impression of a divine vengeance meting out punishment for sin. He
showed God's revenge exacted through the agency of the evil Richard,
who was nevertheless to be held to account for his evil-doing. He made
use of the pathos of the death of the royal children. These are the
common methods of Shakespearean tragedy, and they justify those who
hold Richard III to be a tragedy.
                        -Lily B. Campbell, Shakespeare's "Histories:"
                                 Mirrors of Elizabethan Policy, 1968.
-
  COMEDY IN RICHARD III
  Richard's sense of humor, his function as clown, his comic
irreverences and sarcastic or sardonic appropriations of things to (at
any rate) his occasions: all those act as underminers of our assumed
naive and proper Tudor principles; and we are on his side much
rather because he makes us (as the Second Murderer put it) "take the
devil in [our] mind," than for any
"historical-philosophical-Christian-retributional" sort of motive.
In this respect a good third of the play is a kind of grisly comedy;
in which we meet the fools to be taken in on Richard's terms, see them
with his mind, and rejoice with him in their stultification (in
which execution is the ultimate and unanswerable practical joke, the
absolutely final laugh this side of the Day of Judgment).
       -A. P. Rossiter, "Angel With Horns: The Unity of Richard III,"
             in Shakespeare, The Histories, ed. Eugene M. Waith, 1965

ADVISORY_BOARD
                            ADVISORY BOARD                  (SRICADVB)
-
  We wish to thank the following educators who helped us focus our
Book Notes series to meet student needs and critiqued our
manuscripts to provide quality materials.
-
  Sandra Dunn, English Teacher
  Hempstead High School, Hempstead, New York
-
  Lawrence J. Epstein, Associate Professor of English
  Suffolk County Community College, Selden, New York
-
  Leonard Gardner, Lecturer, English Department
  State University of New York at Stony Brook
-
  Beverly A. Haley, Member, Advisory Committee
  National Council of Teachers of English Student Guide Series
  Fort Morgan, Colorado
-
  Elaine C. Johnson, English Teacher
  Tamalpais Union High School District
  Mill Valley, California
-
  Marvin J. LaHood, Professor of English
  State University of New York College at Buffalo
-
  Robert Lecker, Associate Professor of English
  McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
-
  David E. Manly, Professor of Educational Studies
  State University of New York College at Geneseo
-
  Bruce Miller, Associate Professor of Education
  State University of New York at Buffalo
-
  Frank O'Hare, Professor of English and Director of Writing
  Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
-
  Faith Z. Schullstrom, Member, Executive Committee
  National Council of Teachers of English
  Director of Curriculum and Instruction
  Guilderland Central School District, New York
-
  Mattie C. Williams, Director, Bureau of Language Arts
  Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, Illinois
-
-
                    THE END OF BARRON'S BOOK NOTES
                  WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S RICHARD III


                               BIBLIOGRAPHY                 (SRICBIBL)

RICHARD_III
                           FURTHER READING
-
                        HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
-
  Fraser, Antonia, ed. The Lives of the Kings and Queens of England.
London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980. Covers the reigns of Henry
VI, Edward IV, and Richard III.
-
  Saccio, Peter. Shakespeare's English Kings. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1977.
-
  Seward, Desmond. Richard III, England's Black Legend. New York:
Franklin Watts, 1984. A strong argument for the traditional view of
Richard as the evil murderer and usurper.
-
                            CRITICAL WORKS
-
  Becker, George J. Shakespeare's Histories. New York: Unger, 1977.
A review of the ten history plays and their common themes.
-
  Blankpied, John W. Time and the Artist in Shakespeare's Early
Histories. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1983.
-
  Campbell, Lily B. Shakespeare's "Histories:" Mirrors of
Elizabethan Policy. San Marino, California: The Huntington Library,
1968. Detailed review of topical themes.
-
  Rossiter, A. P. "Angel With Horns: The Unity of Richard III," in
Shakespeare, The Histories, ed. Eugene M. Waith. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1965.
-
  Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare's History Plays. London: Chatto &
Windus, 1964. A study of the underlying principles found in
Shakespeare's history plays with emphasis on their origins.
-
  Weiss, Theodore. The Breath of Clowns and Kings. New York: Atheneum,
1974. The use of language in Shakespeare's early comedies and
history plays.
-
  Van Doren, Mark. Shakespeare. New York: Henry Holt, 1939.
-
                            AUTHOR'S WORKS
-
  Shakespeare wrote 37 plays (38 if you include The Two Noble Kinsmen)
over a 20-year period, from about 1590 to 1610. It's difficult to
determine the exact dates when many were written, but scholars have
made the following intelligent guesses about his plays and poems:
-
        PLAYS
-
             1588-93          The Comedy of Errors
             1588-94          Love's Labour's Lost
             1590-91          2 Henry VI
             1590-91          3 Henry VI
             1591-92          1 Henry VI
             1592-93          Richard III
             1592-94          Titus Andronicus
             1593-94          The Taming of the Shrew
             1593-95          The Two Gentlemen of Verona
             1594-96          Romeo and Juliet
             1595             Richard II
             1594-96          A Midsummer Night's Dream
             1596-97          King John
             1596-97          The Merchant of Venice
             1597             1 Henry IV
             1597-98          2 Henry IV
             1598-1600        Much Ado About Nothing
             1598-99          Henry V
             1599             Julius Caesar
             1599-1600        As You Like It
             1599-1600        Twelfth Night
             1600-01          Hamlet
             1597-1601        The Merry Wives of Windsor
             1601-02          Troilus and Cressida
             1602-04          All's Well That Ends Well
             1603-04          Othello
             1604             Measure for Measure
             1605-06          King Lear
             1605-06          Macbeth
             1606-07          Antony and Cleopatra
             1605-08          Timon of Athens
             1607-09          Coriolanus
             1608-09          Pericles
             1609-10          Cymbeline
             1610-11          The Winter's Tale
             1611-12          The Tempest
             1612-13          Henry VIII
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        POEMS
-
             1592             Venus and Adonis
             1593-94          The Rape of Lucrece
             1593-1600        Sonnets
             1600-01          The Phoenix and the Turtle
-
-
         THE END OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR BARRON'S BOOK NOTES
                  WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S RICHARD III