The terminology used here reflects the fact that Emacs was developed on
environments that had only one window, which took up the entire screen.
<DL COMPACT>
<DT>Screen
<DD>In many environments, such as a tty terminal, an Emacs screen
literally takes up the whole screen. If you are
running Emacs in a multi-window system like the X Window System, the
Emacs screen takes up one X window. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC13">Using Emacs Under the X Window System</A>, for more
information.
<DT>Window
<DD>No matter what environment you are running in, Emacs allows you to look
at several buffers at the same time by having several windows be part of
the screen. Often, the whole screen is taken up by just one window, but
you can split the screen into two or more subwindows. If you are
running Emacs under the X window system, that means you can have several
<DFN>Emacs windows</DFN> inside the X window that contains the Emacs screen.
You can even have multiple screens in different X windows, each with
their own set of subwindows.
</DL>
Each Emacs screen displays a variety of information:
The biggest area usually displays the text you are editing. It may
consist of one window or of two or more windows if you need to look at two
buffers a the same time.
Below each text window's last line is a <DFN>mode line</DFN> (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC12">The Mode Line</A>), which describes what is going on in that window. The mode line
is in inverse video if the terminal supports that. If there are several
Emacs windows in one screen, each window has its own mode line.
At the bottom of each Emacs screen is the <DFN>echo area</DFN> or <DFN>minibuffer
window</DFN>(see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC11">The Echo Area</A>). It is used by Emacs to exchange information
with the user. There is only one echo area per Emacs screen.
If you are running XEmacs under the X Window System, a
menu bar at the top of the screen makes shortcuts to several of the
commands available (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC23">XEmacs Pull-down Menus</A>).
</UL>
You can subdivide the Emacs screen into multiple text windows, and use
each window for a different file (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC153">Multiple Windows</A>). Multiple Emacs
windows are tiled vertically on the Emacs screen. The upper Emacs window
is separated from the lower window by its mode line.
When there are multiple, tiled Emacs windows on a single Emacs screen,
the Emacs window receiving input from the keyboard has the <DFN>keyboard
focus</DFN> and is called the <DFN>selected window</DFN>. The selected window
contains the cursor, which indicates the insertion point. If you are
working in an environment that permits multiple Emacs screens, and you
move the focus from one Emacs screen into another, the
selected window is the one that was last selected in that screen.
The same text can be displayed simultaneously in several Emacs
windows, which can be in different Emacs screens. If you alter the text
in an Emacs buffer by editing it in one Emacs window, the changes are
visible in all Emacs windows containing that buffer.
The <B>Edit</B> pull-down menu contains the <B>Undo</B>, <B>Cut</B>, <B>Copy</B>,
<B>Paste</B>, and <B>Clear</B> menu items. When you select a menu item, Emacs
executes the equivalent command. Most commands on the <B>Edit</B> menu
work on a block of text, the X selection. They appear faded until you
select a block of text (activate a region) with the mouse. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC77">Using X Selections</A>, see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC69">Deletion and Killing</A>, and see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC73">Yanking</A> for more
information.<P>
<A NAME="IDX86"></A>
<A NAME="IDX87"></A>
<A NAME="IDX88"></A>
<A NAME="IDX89"></A>
<A NAME="IDX90"></A>
<A NAME="IDX91"></A>
<A NAME="IDX92"></A>
<A NAME="IDX93"></A>
<DL COMPACT>
<DT><B>Undo</B>
<DD>Undoes the previous command. <B>Undo</B> is equivalent to
the Emacs command <CODE>undo</CODE> (<KBD>C-x u</KBD>).
<DT><B>Cut</B>
<DD>Removes the selected text block from the current buffer, makes it the X
clipboard selection, and places it in the kill ring. Before executing
this command, you have to select a region using Emacs region selection
commands or with the mouse.
<DT><B>Copy</B>
<DD>Makes a selected text block the X clipboard selection, and places it in
the kill ring. You can select text using one of the Emacs region
selection commands or by selecting a text region with the mouse.
<DT><B>Paste</B>
<DD>Inserts the current value of the X clipboard selection in the current
buffer. Note that this is not necessarily the same as the Emacs
<CODE>yank</CODE> command, because the Emacs kill ring and the X clipboard
selection are not the same thing. You can paste in text you
have placed in the clipboard using <B>Copy</B> or <B>Cut</B>. You can also
use <B>Paste</B> to insert text that was pasted into the clipboard from other
applications.
<DT><B>Clear</B>
<DD>Removes the selected text block from the current buffer but does not
place it in the kill ring or the X clipboard selection.
<DT><B>Start Macro Recording</B>
<DD>After selecting this, Emacs will remember every keystroke you type until
<B>End Macro Recording</B> is selected. This is the same as the Emacs
To insert printing characters into the text you are editing, just type
them. This inserts the characters into the buffer at the cursor (that
is, at <DFN>point</DFN>; see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC10">Point</A>). The cursor moves forward. Any
characters after the cursor move forward too. If the text in the buffer
is <SAMP>`FOOBAR'</SAMP>, with the cursor before the <SAMP>`B'</SAMP>, and you type
<KBD>XX</KBD>, the result is <SAMP>`FOOXXBAR'</SAMP>, with the cursor still before the
<SAMP>`B'</SAMP>.
<A NAME="IDX145"></A>
<A NAME="IDX146"></A>
To <DFN>delete</DFN> text you have just inserted, use <KBD>DEL</KBD>.
<KBD>DEL</KBD> deletes the character <VAR>before</VAR> the cursor (not the one
that the cursor is on top of or under; that is the character <VAR>after</VAR>
the cursor). The cursor and all characters after it move backwards.
Therefore, if you type a printing character and then type <KBD>DEL</KBD>,
they cancel out.
<A NAME="IDX147"></A>
<A NAME="IDX148"></A>
To end a line and start typing a new one, type <KBD>RET</KBD>. This
inserts a newline character in the buffer. If point is in the middle of
a line, <KBD>RET</KBD> splits the line. Typing <KBD>DEL</KBD> when the cursor is
at the beginning of a line rubs out the newline before the line, thus
joining the line with the preceding line.
Emacs automatically splits lines when they become too long, if you
turn on a special mode called <DFN>Auto Fill</DFN> mode. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC179">Filling Text</A>, for
information on using Auto Fill mode.
<A NAME="IDX149"></A>
<A NAME="IDX150"></A>
<A NAME="IDX151"></A>
Customization information: <KBD>DEL</KBD>, in most modes, runs the command
<CODE>delete-backward-char</CODE>; <KBD>RET</KBD> runs the command <CODE>newline</CODE>,
and self-inserting printing characters run the command
<CODE>self-insert</CODE>, which inserts whatever character was typed to invoke
it. Some major modes rebind <KBD>DEL</KBD> to other commands.
<A NAME="IDX152"></A>
<A NAME="IDX153"></A>
<A NAME="IDX154"></A>
Direct insertion works for printing characters and <KBD>SPC</KBD>, but
other characters act as editing commands and do not insert themselves.
If you need to insert a control character or a character whose code is
above 200 octal, you must <DFN>quote</DFN> it by typing the character
<KBD>control-q</KBD> (<CODE>quoted-insert</CODE>) first. There are two ways to use
<KBD>C-q</KBD>:<P>
<KBD>Control-q</KBD> followed by any non-graphic character (even <KBD>C-g</KBD>)
inserts that character.
<KBD>Control-q</KBD> followed by three octal digits inserts the character
with the specified character code.
</UL>
A numeric argument to <KBD>C-q</KBD> specifies how many copies of the quoted
character should be inserted (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC45">Numeric Arguments</A>).
If you prefer to have text characters replace (overwrite) existing
text instead of moving it to the right, you can enable Overwrite mode, a
minor mode. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC274">Minor Modes</A>.
<H2><A NAME="SEC38" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC38">Changing the Location of Point</A></H2>
To do more than insert characters, you have to know how to move point
(see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC10">Point</A>). Here are a few of the available commands.
<A NAME="IDX155"></A>
<A NAME="IDX156"></A>
<A NAME="IDX157"></A>
<A NAME="IDX158"></A>
<A NAME="IDX159"></A>
<A NAME="IDX160"></A>
<A NAME="IDX161"></A>
<A NAME="IDX162"></A>
<A NAME="IDX163"></A>
<A NAME="IDX164"></A>
<A NAME="IDX165"></A>
<A NAME="IDX166"></A>
<A NAME="IDX167"></A>
<A NAME="IDX168"></A>
<A NAME="IDX169"></A>
<A NAME="IDX170"></A>
<A NAME="IDX171"></A>
<A NAME="IDX172"></A>
<A NAME="IDX173"></A>
<A NAME="IDX174"></A>
<A NAME="IDX175"></A>
<A NAME="IDX176"></A>
<A NAME="IDX177"></A>
<A NAME="IDX178"></A>
<DL COMPACT>
<DT><KBD>C-a</KBD>
<DD>Move to the beginning of the line (<CODE>beginning-of-line</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>C-e</KBD>
<DD>Move to the end of the line (<CODE>end-of-line</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>C-f</KBD>
<DD>Move forward one character (<CODE>forward-char</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>C-b</KBD>
<DD>Move backward one character (<CODE>backward-char</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>M-f</KBD>
<DD>Move forward one word (<CODE>forward-word</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>M-b</KBD>
<DD>Move backward one word (<CODE>backward-word</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>C-n</KBD>
<DD>Move down one line, vertically (<CODE>next-line</CODE>). This command attempts to keep the horizontal position unchanged, so if you start in the middle of one line, you end in the middle of the next. When on the last line of text, <KBD>C-n</KBD> creates a new line and moves onto it. @item C-p
Move up one line, vertically (<CODE>previous-line</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>C-l</KBD>
<DD>Clear the screen and reprint everything (<CODE>recenter</CODE>). Text moves
on the screen to bring point to the center of the window.
<DT><KBD>M-r</KBD>
<DD>Move point to left margin on the line halfway down the screen or
window (<CODE>move-to-window-line</CODE>). Text does not move on the
screen. A numeric argument says how many screen lines down from the
top of the window (zero for the top). A negative argument counts from
the bottom (-1 for the bottom).
<DT><KBD>C-t</KBD>
<DD>Transpose two characters, the ones before and after the cursor
<BR>(<CODE>transpose-chars</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>M-<</KBD>
<DD>Move to the top of the buffer (<CODE>beginning-of-buffer</CODE>). With
numeric argument <VAR>n</VAR>, move to <VAR>n</VAR>/10 of the way from the top.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC45">Numeric Arguments</A>, for more information on numeric arguments.<DT><KBD>M-></KBD>
<DD>Move to the end of the buffer (<CODE>end-of-buffer</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>M-x goto-char</KBD>
<DD>Read a number <VAR>n</VAR> and move the cursor to character number <VAR>n</VAR>.
Position 1 is the beginning of the buffer.
<DT><KBD>M-x goto-line</KBD>
<DD>Read a number <VAR>n</VAR> and move cursor to line number <VAR>n</VAR>. Line 1
is the beginning of the buffer.
<A NAME="IDX179"></A>
<DT><KBD>C-x C-n</KBD>
<DD>Use the current column of point as the <DFN>semi-permanent goal column</DFN> for
<KBD>C-n</KBD> and <KBD>C-p</KBD> (<CODE>set-goal-column</CODE>). Henceforth, those
commands always move to this column in each line moved into, or as
close as possible given the contents of the line. This goal column remains
in effect until canceled.
<DT><KBD>C-u C-x C-n</KBD>
<DD>Cancel the goal column. Henceforth, <KBD>C-n</KBD> and <KBD>C-p</KBD> once
again try to avoid changing the horizontal position, as usual.
</DL>
<A NAME="IDX180"></A>
If you set the variable <CODE>track-eol</CODE> to a non-<CODE>nil</CODE> value,
<KBD>C-n</KBD> and <KBD>C-p</KBD> move to the end of the line when at the end of
the starting line. By default, <CODE>track-eol</CODE> is <CODE>nil</CODE>.
To list all Lisp symbols that contain a match for a regexp, not just
the ones that are defined as commands, use the command <KBD>M-x apropos</KBD>
instead of <KBD>C-h a</KBD>.
<H2><A NAME="SEC59" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC59">Other Help Commands</A></H2>
<A NAME="IDX256"></A>
<A NAME="IDX257"></A>
<KBD>C-h i</KBD> (<CODE>info</CODE>) runs the Info program, which is used for
browsing through structured documentation files. The entire Emacs manual
is available within Info. Eventually all the documentation of the GNU
system will be available. Type <KBD>h</KBD> after entering Info to run
a tutorial on using Info.
<A NAME="IDX258"></A>
<A NAME="IDX259"></A>
If something surprising happens, and you are not sure what commands you
typed, use <KBD>C-h l</KBD> (<CODE>view-lossage</CODE>). <KBD>C-h l</KBD> prints the last
100 command characters you typed. If you see commands you don't
know, use <KBD>C-h c</KBD> to find out what they do.
<A NAME="IDX260"></A>
<A NAME="IDX261"></A>
Emacs has several major modes. Each mode redefines a few keys and
makes a few other changes in how editing works. <KBD>C-h m</KBD>
(<CODE>describe-mode</CODE>) prints documentation on the current major mode,
which normally describes all the commands that are changed in this mode.
<A NAME="IDX262"></A>
<A NAME="IDX263"></A>
<KBD>C-h b</KBD> (<CODE>describe-bindings</CODE>) and <KBD>C-h s</KBD>
(<CODE>describe-syntax</CODE>) present information about the current Emacs
mode that is not covered by <KBD>C-h m</KBD>. <KBD>C-h b</KBD> displays a list of
all key bindings currently in effect, with the local bindings of the current
major mode first, followed by the global bindings (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC284">Customizing Key Bindings</A>). <KBD>C-h s</KBD> displays the contents of the syntax table with
explanations of each character's syntax (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC289">The Syntax Table</A>).<A NAME="IDX264"></A>
<A NAME="IDX265"></A>
<A NAME="IDX266"></A>
<A NAME="IDX267"></A>
<A NAME="IDX268"></A>
<A NAME="IDX269"></A>
<A NAME="IDX270"></A>
<A NAME="IDX271"></A>
<A NAME="IDX272"></A>
<A NAME="IDX273"></A>
The other <KBD>C-h</KBD> options display various files of useful
<DD>Kill region (from point to the mark) (<CODE>kill-region</CODE>).
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC175">Words</A>.
<DT><KBD>M-d</KBD>
<DD>Kill word (<CODE>kill-word</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>M-<KBD>DEL</KBD></KBD>
<DD>Kill word backwards (<CODE>backward-kill-word</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>C-x <KBD>DEL</KBD></KBD>
<DD>Kill back to beginning of sentence (<CODE>backward-kill-sentence</CODE>).
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC176">Sentences</A>.
<DT><KBD>M-k</KBD>
<DD>Kill to end of sentence (<CODE>kill-sentence</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>C-M-k</KBD>
<DD>Kill sexp (<CODE>kill-sexp</CODE>). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC186">Lists and Sexps</A>.
<DT><KBD>M-z <VAR>char</VAR></KBD>
<DD>Kill up to next occurrence of <VAR>char</VAR> (<CODE>zap-to-char</CODE>).
</DL>
<KBD>C-w</KBD> (<CODE>kill-region</CODE>) is a very general kill command; it
kills everything between point and the mark. You can use this command to
kill any contiguous sequence of characters by first setting the mark at
one end of a sequence of characters, then going to the other end and
typing <KBD>C-w</KBD>.
<A NAME="IDX352"></A>
<A NAME="IDX353"></A>
A convenient way of killing is combined with searching: <KBD>M-z</KBD>
(<CODE>zap-to-char</CODE>) reads a character and kills from point up to (but not
including) the next occurrence of that character in the buffer. If there
is no next occurrence, killing goes to the end of the buffer. A numeric
argument acts as a repeat count. A negative argument means to search
backward and kill text before point.
Other syntactic units can be killed: words, with <KBD>M-<KBD>DEL</KBD></KBD> and
<KBD>M-d</KBD> (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC175">Words</A>); sexps, with <KBD>C-M-k</KBD> (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC186">Lists and Sexps</A>); and
sentences, with <KBD>C-x <KBD>DEL</KBD></KBD> and <KBD>M-k</KBD>
(see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC176">Sentences</A>).<P>
To invoke dired, type <KBD>C-x d</KBD> or <KBD>M-x dired</KBD>. The command reads a
directory name or wildcard file name pattern as a minibuffer argument just
like the <CODE>list-directory</CODE> command, <KBD>C-x C-d</KBD>. Where <CODE>dired</CODE>
differs from <CODE>list-directory</CODE> is in naming the buffer after the
directory name or the wildcard pattern used for the listing, and putting
the buffer into Dired mode so that the special commands of Dired are
available in it. The variable <CODE>dired-listing-switches</CODE> is a string
used as an argument to <CODE>ls</CODE> in making the directory; this string
<I>must</I> contain <SAMP>`-l'</SAMP>.
<A NAME="IDX673"></A>
<A NAME="IDX674"></A>
To display the Dired buffer in another window rather than in the selected
window, use <KBD>C-x 4 d</KBD> (<CODE>dired-other-window)</CODE> instead of <KBD>C-x d</KBD>.
<H3><A NAME="SEC143" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC143">Editing in Dired</A></H3>
Once the Dired buffer exists, you can switch freely between it and other
Emacs buffers. Whenever the Dired buffer is selected, certain special
commands are provided that operate on files that are listed. The Dired
buffer is "read-only", and inserting text in it is not useful, so
ordinary printing characters such as <KBD>d</KBD> and <KBD>x</KBD> are used for Dired
commands. Most Dired commands operate on the file described by the line
that point is on. Some commands perform operations immediately; others
"flag" a file to be operated on later.
Most Dired commands that operate on the current line's file also treat a
numeric argument as a repeat count, meaning to act on the files of the
next few lines. A negative argument means to operate on the files of the
preceding lines, and leave point on the first of those lines.
All the usual Emacs cursor motion commands are available in Dired
buffers. Some special purpose commands are also provided. The keys
<KBD>C-n</KBD> and <KBD>C-p</KBD> are redefined so that they try to position
the cursor at the beginning of the filename on the line, rather than
at the beginning of the line.
For extra convenience, <KBD>SPC</KBD> and <KBD>n</KBD> in Dired are equivalent to
<KBD>C-n</KBD>. <KBD>p</KBD> is equivalent to <KBD>C-p</KBD>. Moving by lines is done so
often in Dired that it deserves to be easy to type. <KBD>DEL</KBD> (move up and
unflag) is often useful simply for moving up.<P>
The <KBD>g</KBD> command in Dired runs <CODE>revert-buffer</CODE> to reinitialize
the buffer from the actual disk directory and show any changes made in the
directory by programs other than Dired. All deletion flags in the Dired
buffer are lost when this is done.
<H3><A NAME="SEC144" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC144">Deleting Files With Dired</A></H3>
The primary use of Dired is to flag files for deletion and then delete
them.
<DL COMPACT>
<DT><KBD>d</KBD>
<DD>Flag this file for deletion.
<DT><KBD>u</KBD>
<DD>Remove deletion-flag on this line.
<DT><KBD><KBD>DEL</KBD></KBD>
<DD>Remove deletion-flag on previous line, moving point to that line.
<DT><KBD>x</KBD>
<DD>Delete the files that are flagged for deletion.
<DT><KBD>#</KBD>
<DD>Flag all auto-save files (files whose names start and end with <SAMP>`#'</SAMP>)
for deletion (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC122">Auto-Saving: Protection Against Disasters</A>).
<DT><KBD>~</KBD>
<DD>Flag all backup files (files whose names end with <SAMP>`~'</SAMP>) for deletion
(see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC116">Backup Files</A>).
<DT><KBD>. (Period)</KBD>
<DD>Flag excess numeric backup files for deletion. The oldest and newest
few backup files of any one file are exempt; the middle ones are flagged.
</DL>
You can flag a file for deletion by moving to the line describing the
file and typing <KBD>d</KBD> or <KBD>C-d</KBD>. The deletion flag is visible as a
<SAMP>`D'</SAMP> at the beginning of the line. Point is moved to the beginning of
the next line, so that repeated <KBD>d</KBD> commands flag successive files.
The files are flagged for deletion rather than deleted immediately to
avoid the danger of deleting a file accidentally. Until you direct Dired
to delete the flagged files, you can remove deletion flags using the
commands <KBD>u</KBD> and <KBD>DEL</KBD>. <KBD>u</KBD> works just like <KBD>d</KBD>, but
removes flags rather than making flags. <KBD>DEL</KBD> moves upward, removing
flags; it is like <KBD>u</KBD> with numeric argument automatically negated.
To delete the flagged files, type <KBD>x</KBD>. This command first displays a
list of all the file names flagged for deletion, and requests confirmation
with <KBD>yes</KBD>. Once you confirm, all the flagged files are deleted, and their
lines are deleted from the text of the Dired buffer. The shortened Dired
buffer remains selected. If you answer <KBD>no</KBD> or quit with <KBD>C-g</KBD>, you
return immediately to Dired, with the deletion flags still present and no
files actually deleted.
The <KBD>#</KBD>, <KBD>~</KBD>, and <KBD>.</KBD> commands flag many files for
deletion, based on their names. These commands are useful precisely
because they do not actually delete any files; you can remove the
deletion flags from any flagged files that you really wish to keep.<P>
<KBD>#</KBD> flags for deletion all files that appear to have been made by
auto-saving (that is, files whose names begin and end with <SAMP>`#'</SAMP>).
<KBD>~</KBD> flags for deletion all files that appear to have been made as
backups for files that were edited (that is, files whose names end with
<SAMP>`~'</SAMP>).
<A NAME="IDX675"></A>
<KBD>.</KBD> (Period) flags just some of the backup files for deletion: only
numeric backups that are not among the oldest few nor the newest few
backups of any one file. Normally <CODE>dired-kept-versions</CODE> (not
<CODE>kept-new-versions</CODE>; that applies only when saving) specifies the
number of newest versions of each file to keep, and
<CODE>kept-old-versions</CODE> specifies the number of oldest versions to keep.
Period with a positive numeric argument, as in <KBD>C-u 3 .</KBD>, specifies the
number of newest versions to keep, overriding <CODE>dired-kept-versions</CODE>.
A negative numeric argument overrides <CODE>kept-old-versions</CODE>, using minus
the value of the argument to specify the number of oldest versions of each
file to keep.<P>
<H3><A NAME="SEC145" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC145">Immediate File Operations in Dired</A></H3>
Some file operations in Dired take place immediately when they are
requested.
<DL COMPACT>
<DT><KBD>c</KBD>
<DD>Copies the file described on the current line. You must supply a file name
to copy to, using the minibuffer.
<DT><KBD>f</KBD>
<DD>Visits the file described on the current line. It is just like typing
<KBD>C-x C-f</KBD> and supplying that file name. If the file on this line is a
subdirectory, <KBD>f</KBD> actually causes Dired to be invoked on that
subdirectory. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC114">Visiting Files</A>.
<DT><KBD>o</KBD>
<DD>Like <KBD>f</KBD>, but uses another window to display the file's buffer. The
Dired buffer remains visible in the first window. This is like using
<KBD>C-x 4 C-f</KBD> to visit the file. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC153">Multiple Windows</A>.
<DT><KBD>r</KBD>
<DD>Renames the file described on the current line. You must supply a file
name to rename to, using the minibuffer.
<DT><KBD>v</KBD>
<DD>Views the file described on this line using <KBD>M-x view-file</KBD>. Viewing a
file is like visiting it, but is slanted toward moving around in the file
conveniently and does not allow changing the file. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC146">Miscellaneous File Operations</A>. Viewing a file that is a directory runs Dired on that
<DD>Toggle read-only status of buffer (<CODE>toggle-read-only</CODE>).
<DT><KBD>M-x rename-buffer</KBD>
<DD>Change the name of the current buffer.
<DT><KBD>M-x view-buffer</KBD>
<DD>Scroll through a buffer.
</DL>
<A NAME="IDX701"></A>
<A NAME="IDX702"></A>
<A NAME="IDX703"></A>
<A NAME="IDX704"></A>
A buffer can be <DFN>read-only</DFN>, which means that commands to change
its text are not allowed. Normally, read-only buffers are created by
subsystems such as Dired and Rmail that have special commands to operate
on the text. Emacs also creates a read-only buffer if you
visit a file that is protected. To make changes in a read-only buffer,
use the command <KBD>C-x C-q</KBD> (<CODE>toggle-read-only</CODE>). It makes a
read-only buffer writable, and makes a writable buffer read-only. This
works by setting the variable <CODE>buffer-read-only</CODE>, which has a local
value in each buffer and makes a buffer read-only if its value is
non-<CODE>nil</CODE>.
<A NAME="IDX705"></A>
<KBD>M-x rename-buffer</KBD> changes the name of the current buffer,
prompting for the new name in the minibuffer. There is no default. If you
specify a name that is used by a different buffer, an error is signalled and
renaming is not done.
<A NAME="IDX706"></A>
<KBD>M-x view-buffer</KBD> is similar to <KBD>M-x view-file</KBD> (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC146">Miscellaneous File Operations</A>), but it examines an already existing Emacs buffer. View mode
provides convenient commands for scrolling through the buffer but not
for changing it. When you exit View mode, the resulting value of point
remains in effect.
To copy text from one buffer to another, use the commands <KBD>M-x
append-to-buffer</KBD> and <KBD>M-x insert-buffer</KBD>. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC82">Accumulating Text</A>.<P>
<DD>Global substitution means replacing each occurrence of one string by
another string through a large amount of text. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC101">Replacement Commands</A>.
<DT>Global Variable
<DD>The global value of a variable (q.v.) takes effect in all buffers
that do not have their own local (q.v.) values for the variable.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC275">Variables</A>.
<DT>Graphic Character
<DD>Graphic characters are those assigned pictorial images rather than
just names. All the non-Meta (q.v.) characters except for the
Control (q.v.) character are graphic characters. These include
letters, digits, punctuation, and spaces; they do not include
<KBD>RET</KBD> or <KBD>ESC</KBD>. In Emacs, typing a graphic character inserts
that character (in ordinary editing modes). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC36">Basic Editing Commands</A>.
<DT>Grinding
<DD>Grinding means adjusting the indentation in a program to fit the
nesting structure. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC161">Indentation</A>.
<DT>Hardcopy
<DD>Hardcopy means printed output. Emacs has commands for making printed
listings of text in Emacs buffers. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC266">Hardcopy Output</A>.
<DT><KBD>HELP</KBD>
<DD>You can type <KBD>HELP</KBD> at any time to ask what options you have, or
to ask what any command does. <KBD>HELP</KBD> is really <KBD>Control-h</KBD>.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC55">Help</A>.
<DT>Inbox
<DD>An inbox is a file in which mail is delivered by the operating system.
Rmail transfers mail from inboxes to mail files (q.v.) in which the
mail is then stored permanently or until explicitly deleted.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC249">Rmail Files and Inboxes</A>.
<DT>Indentation
<DD>Indentation means blank space at the beginning of a line. Most
programming languages have conventions for using indentation to
illuminate the structure of the program, and Emacs has special
features to help you set up the correct indentation.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC161">Indentation</A>.
<DT>Insertion
<DD>Insertion means copying text into the buffer, either from the keyboard
or from some other place in Emacs.
<DT>Justification
<DD>Justification means adding extra spaces to lines of text to make them
come exactly to a specified width. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC179">Filling Text</A>.
<DT>Keyboard Macros
<DD>Keyboard macros are a way of defining new Emacs commands from
sequences of existing ones, with no need to write a Lisp program.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC280">Keyboard Macros</A>.
<DT>Key
<DD>A key is a sequence of characters that, when input to Emacs, specify
or begin to specify a single action for Emacs to perform. That is,
the sequence is considered a single unit. If the key is enough to
specify one action, it is a complete key (q.v.); if it is less than
enough, it is a prefix key (q.v.). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC14">Keystrokes, Key Sequences, and Key Bindings</A>.
<DT>Keymap
<DD>The keymap is the data structure that records the bindings (q.v.) of
keys to the commands that they run. For example, the keymap binds the
character <KBD>C-n</KBD> to the command function <CODE>next-line</CODE>.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC285">Keymaps</A>.
<DT>Kill Ring
<DD>The kill ring is the place where all text you have killed recently is saved.
You can re-insert any of the killed text still in the ring; this is
called yanking (q.v.). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC73">Yanking</A>.
<DT>Killing
<DD>Killing means erasing text and saving it on the kill ring so it can be
yanked (q.v.) later. Some other systems call this "cutting."
Most Emacs commands to erase text do killing, as opposed to deletion
(q.v.). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC69">Deletion and Killing</A>.
<DT>Killing Jobs
<DD>Killing a job (such as, an invocation of Emacs) means making it cease
to exist. Any data within it, if not saved in a file, is lost.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC31">Exiting Emacs</A>.
<DT>List
<DD>A list is, approximately, a text string beginning with an open
parenthesis and ending with the matching close parenthesis. In C mode
and other non-Lisp modes, groupings surrounded by other kinds of matched
delimiters appropriate to the language, such as braces, are also
considered lists. Emacs has special commands for many operations on
lists. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC186">Lists and Sexps</A>.
<DT>Local
<DD>Local means `in effect only in a particular context'; the relevant
kind of context is a particular function execution, a particular
buffer, or a particular major mode. Local is the opposite of `global'
(q.v.). Specific uses of `local' in Emacs terminology appear below.
<DT>Local Abbrev
<DD>A local abbrev definition is effective only if a particular major mode
is selected. In that major mode, it overrides any global definition
for the same abbrev. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC230">Abbrevs</A>.
<DT>Local Keymap
<DD>A local keymap is used in a particular major mode; the key bindings
(q.v.) in the current local keymap override global bindings of the
same keys. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC285">Keymaps</A>.
<DT>Local Variable
<DD>A local value of a variable (q.v.) applies to only one buffer.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC278">Local Variables</A>.
<DT>M-
<DD><KBD>M-</KBD> in the name of a character is an abbreviation for <KBD>META</KBD>,
one of the modifier keys that can accompany any character.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC14">Keystrokes, Key Sequences, and Key Bindings</A>.
<DT>M-C-
<DD><SAMP>`M-C-'</SAMP> in the name of a character is an abbreviation for
Control-Meta; it means the same thing as <SAMP>`C-M-'</SAMP>. If your
terminal lacks a real <KBD>META</KBD> key, you type a Control-Meta character by
typing <KBD>ESC</KBD> and then typing the corresponding Control character.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC14">Keystrokes, Key Sequences, and Key Bindings</A>.
<DT>M-x
<DD><KBD>M-x</KBD> is the key which is used to call an Emacs command by name.
You use it to call commands that are not bound to keys.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC54">Running Commands by Name</A>.
<DT>Mail
<DD>Mail means messages sent from one user to another through the computer
system, to be read at the recipient's convenience. Emacs has commands for
composing and sending mail, and for reading and editing the mail you have
received. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC241">Sending Mail</A>. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC245">Reading Mail With Rmail</A>, for how to read mail.
<DT>Mail File
<DD>A mail file is a file which is edited using Rmail and in which Rmail
stores mail. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC245">Reading Mail With Rmail</A>.
<DT>Major Mode
<DD>The major modes are a mutually exclusive set of options each of which
configures Emacs for editing a certain sort of text. Ideally, each
programming language has its own major mode. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC159">Major Modes</A>.
<DT>Mark
<DD>The mark points to a position in the text. It specifies one end of the
region (q.v.), point being the other end. Many commands operate on
the whole region, that is, all the text from point to the mark.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC60">Selecting Text</A>.
<DT>Mark Ring
<DD>The mark ring is used to hold several recent previous locations of the
mark, just in case you want to move back to them. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC65">The Mark Ring</A>.
<DT>Message
<DD>See `mail'.
<DT>Meta
<DD>Meta is the name of a modifier bit which a command character may have.
It is present in a character if the character is typed with the
<KBD>META</KBD> key held down. Such characters are given names that start
with <KBD>Meta-</KBD>. For example, <KBD>Meta-<</KBD> is typed by holding down
<KBD>META</KBD> and at the same time typing <KBD><</KBD> (which itself is done,
on most terminals, by holding down <KBD>SHIFT</KBD> and typing <KBD>,</KBD>).
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC14">Keystrokes, Key Sequences, and Key Bindings</A>.
<DT>Meta Character
<DD>A Meta character is one whose character code includes the Meta bit.
<DT>Minibuffer
<DD>The minibuffer is the window that Emacs displays inside the
echo area (q.v.) when it prompts you for arguments to commands.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC47">The Minibuffer</A>.
<DT>Minor Mode
<DD>A minor mode is an optional feature of Emacs which can be switched on
or off independent of the major mode. Each minor mode has a
command to turn it on or off. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC274">Minor Modes</A>.
<DT>Mode Line
<DD>The mode line is the line at the bottom of each text window (q.v.),
which gives status information on the buffer displayed in that window.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC12">The Mode Line</A>.
<DT>Modified Buffer
<DD>A buffer (q.v.) is modified if its text has been changed since the
last time the buffer was saved (or since it was created, if it
has never been saved). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC115">Saving Files</A>.
<DT>Moving Text
<DD>Moving text means erasing it from one place and inserting it in
another. This is done by killing (q.v.) and then yanking (q.v.).
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC69">Deletion and Killing</A>.
<DT>Named Mark
<DD>A named mark is a register (q.v.) in its role of recording a
location in text so that you can move point to that location.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC84">Registers</A>.
<DT>Narrowing
<DD>Narrowing means creating a restriction (q.v.) that limits editing in
the current buffer to only a part of the text in the buffer. Text
outside that part is inaccessible to the user until the boundaries are
widened again, but it is still there, and saving the file saves the
invisible text. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC265">Narrowing</A>.
<DT>Newline
<DD><KBD>LFD</KBD> characters in the buffer terminate lines of text and are
called newlines. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC14">Keystrokes, Key Sequences, and Key Bindings</A>.
<DT>Numeric Argument
<DD>A numeric argument is a number, specified before a command, to change
the effect of the command. Often the numeric argument serves as a
repeat count. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC45">Numeric Arguments</A>.
<DT>Option
<DD>An option is a variable (q.v.) that allows you to customize
Emacs by giving it a new value. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC275">Variables</A>.
<DT>Overwrite Mode
<DD>Overwrite mode is a minor mode. When it is enabled, ordinary text
characters replace the existing text after point rather than pushing
it to the right. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC274">Minor Modes</A>.
<DT>Page
<DD>A page is a unit of text, delimited by formfeed characters (ASCII
Control-L, code 014) coming at the beginning of a line. Some Emacs
commands are provided for moving over and operating on pages.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC178">Pages</A>.
<DT>Paragraphs
<DD>Paragraphs are the medium-size unit of English text. There are
special Emacs commands for moving over and operating on paragraphs.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC177">Paragraphs</A>.
<DT>Parsing
<DD>We say that Emacs parses words or expressions in the text being
edited. Really, all it knows how to do is find the other end of a
word or expression. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC289">The Syntax Table</A>.
<DT>Point
<DD>Point is the place in the buffer at which insertion and deletion
occur. Point is considered to be between two characters, not at one
character. The terminal's cursor (q.v.) indicates the location of
point. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC36">Basic Editing Commands</A>.
<DT>Prefix Key
<DD>A prefix key is a key (q.v.) whose sole function is to introduce a
set of multi-character keys. <KBD>Control-x</KBD> is an example of a prefix
key; any two-character sequence starting with <KBD>C-x</KBD> is also
a legitimate key. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC14">Keystrokes, Key Sequences, and Key Bindings</A>.
<DT>Primary Mail File
<DD>Your primary mail file is the file named <SAMP>`RMAIL'</SAMP> in your home
directory, where Rmail stores all mail you receive unless you
make arrangements to do otherwise. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC245">Reading Mail With Rmail</A>.
<DT>Prompt
<DD>A prompt is text printed to ask the user for input. Printing a prompt
is called prompting. Emacs prompts always appear in the echo area
(q.v.). One kind of prompting happens when the minibuffer is used
to read an argument (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC47">The Minibuffer</A>); the echoing which happens
when you pause in the middle of typing a multi-character key is also a
kind of prompting (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC11">The Echo Area</A>).
<DT>Quitting
<DD>Quitting means cancelling a partially typed command or a running
command, using <KBD>C-g</KBD>. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC301">Quitting and Aborting</A>.
<DT>Quoting
<DD>Quoting means depriving a character of its usual special significance.
In Emacs this is usually done with <KBD>Control-q</KBD>. What constitutes special
significance depends on the context and on convention. For example,
an "ordinary" character as an Emacs command inserts itself; so in
this context, a special character is any character that does not
normally insert itself (such as <KBD>DEL</KBD>, for example), and quoting
it makes it insert itself as if it were not special. Not all contexts
allow quoting. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC36">Basic Editing Commands</A>.
<DT>Read-only Buffer
<DD>A read-only buffer is one whose text you are not allowed to change.
Normally Emacs makes buffers read-only when they contain text which
has a special significance to Emacs, such asDired buffers.
Visiting a file that is write-protected also makes a read-only buffer.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC147">Using Multiple Buffers</A>.
<DT>Recursive Editing Level
<DD>A recursive editing level is a state in which part of the execution of
a command involves asking the user to edit some text. This text may
or may not be the same as the text to which the command was applied.
The mode line indicates recursive editing levels with square brackets
(<SAMP>`['</SAMP> and <SAMP>`]'</SAMP>). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC267">Recursive Editing Levels</A>.
<DT>Redisplay
<DD>Redisplay is the process of correcting the image on the screen to
correspond to changes that have been made in the text being edited.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC9">The Emacs Screen</A>.
<DT>Regexp
<DD>See `regular expression'.
<DT>Region
<DD>The region is the text between point (q.v.) and the mark (q.v.).
Many commands operate on the text of the region. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC60">Selecting Text</A>.
<DT>Registers
<DD>Registers are named slots in which text or buffer positions or
rectangles can be saved for later use. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC84">Registers</A>.
<DT>Regular Expression
<DD>A regular expression is a pattern that can match various text strings;
for example, <SAMP>`l[0-9]+'</SAMP> matches <SAMP>`l'</SAMP> followed by one or more
digits. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC99">Syntax of Regular Expressions</A>.
<DT>Replacement
<DD>See `global substitution'.
<DT>Restriction
<DD>A buffer's restriction is the amount of text, at the beginning or the
end of the buffer, that is temporarily invisible and inaccessible.
Giving a buffer a nonzero amount of restriction is called narrowing
(q.v.). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC265">Narrowing</A>.
<DT><KBD>RET</KBD>
<DD><KBD>RET</KBD> is the character than runs the command to insert a
newline into the text. It is also used to terminate most arguments
read in the minibuffer (q.v.). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC14">Keystrokes, Key Sequences, and Key Bindings</A>.
<DT>Saving
<DD>Saving a buffer means copying its text into the file that was visited
(q.v.) in that buffer. To actually change a file you have edited in
Emacs, you have to save it. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC115">Saving Files</A>.
<DT>Scrolling
<DD>Scrolling means shifting the text in the Emacs window to make a
different part ot the buffer visible. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC88">Controlling the Display</A>.
<DT>Searching
<DD>Searching means moving point to the next occurrence of a specified
string. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC93">Searching and Replacement</A>.
<DT>Selecting
<DD>Selecting a buffer means making it the current (q.v.) buffer.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC147">Using Multiple Buffers</A>.
<DT>Self-documentation
<DD>Self-documentation is the feature of Emacs which can tell you what any
command does, or can give you a list of all commands related to a topic
you specify. You ask for self-documentation with the help character,
<KBD>C-h</KBD>. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC55">Help</A>.
<DT>Sentences
<DD>Emacs has commands for moving by or killing by sentences.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC176">Sentences</A>.
<DT>Sexp
<DD>An sexp (short for `s-expression,' itself short for `symbolic
expression') is the basic syntactic unit of Lisp
in its textual form: either a list, or Lisp atom. Many Emacs commands
operate on sexps. The term `sexp' is generalized to languages other
than Lisp to mean a syntactically recognizable expression.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC186">Lists and Sexps</A>.
<DT>Simultaneous Editing
<DD>Simultaneous editing means two users modifying the same file at once.
If simultaneous editing is not detected, you may lose your
work. Emacs detects all cases of simultaneous editing and warns the
user to investigate them. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC120">Protection Against Simultaneous Editing</A>.
<DT>String
<DD>A string is a kind of Lisp data object which contains a sequence of
characters. Many Emacs variables are intended to have strings as
values. The Lisp syntax for a string consists of the characters in
the string with a <SAMP>`"'</SAMP> before and another <SAMP>`"'</SAMP> after. Write a
<SAMP>`"'</SAMP> that is part of the string as <SAMP>`\"'</SAMP> and a
<SAMP>`\'</SAMP> that is part of the string as <SAMP>`\\'</SAMP>. You can include all
other characters, including newline, just by writing
them inside the string. You can also include escape sequences as in C, such as
<SAMP>`\n'</SAMP> for newline or <SAMP>`\241'</SAMP> using an octal character code.
<DT>String Substitution
<DD>See `global substitution'.
<DT>Syntax Table
<DD>The syntax table tells Emacs which characters are part of a word,
which characters balance each other like parentheses, etc.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC289">The Syntax Table</A>.
<DT>Tag Table
<DD>A tag table is a file that serves as an index to the function
definitions in one or more other files. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC201">Tag Tables</A>.
<DT>Termscript File
<DD>A termscript file contains a record of all characters Emacs sent to
the terminal. It is used for tracking down bugs in Emacs redisplay.
Emacs does not make a termscript file unless explicitly instructed to do
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC309">Reporting Bugs</A>.
<DT>Text
<DD>Text has two meanings (see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC165">Commands for Human Languages</A>):
<DD>Data consisting of a sequence of characters, as opposed to binary
numbers, images, graphics commands, executable programs, and the like.
The contents of an Emacs buffer are always text in this sense.
<DD>Data consisting of written human language, as opposed to programs,
or something that follows the stylistic conventions of human language.
</UL>
<DT>Top Level
<DD>Top level is the normal state of Emacs, in which you are editing the
text of the file you have visited. You are at top level whenever you
are not in a recursive editing level (q.v.) or the minibuffer
(q.v.), and not in the middle of a command. You can get back to top
level by aborting (q.v.) and quitting (q.v.). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC301">Quitting and Aborting</A>.
<DT>Transposition
<DD>Transposing two units of text means putting each one into the place
formerly occupied by the other. There are Emacs commands to transpose
two adjacent characters, words, sexps (q.v.), or lines
(see section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC109">Transposing Text</A>).
<DT>Truncation
<DD>Truncating text lines in the display means leaving out any text on a
line that does not fit within the right margin of the window
displaying it. See also `continuation line'.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC36">Basic Editing Commands</A>.
<DT>Undoing
<DD>Undoing means making your previous editing go in reverse, bringing
back the text that existed earlier in the editing session.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC46">Undoing Changes</A>.
<DT>Variable
<DD>A variable is Lisp object that can store an arbitrary value. Emacs uses
some variables for internal purposes, and has others (known as `options'
(q.v.)) you can set to control the behavior of Emacs. The variables
used in Emacs that you are likely to be interested in are listed in the
Variables Index of this manual. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC275">Variables</A>, for information on
variables.
<DT>Visiting
<DD>Visiting a file means loading its contents into a buffer (q.v.)
where they can be edited. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC114">Visiting Files</A>.
<DT>Whitespace
<DD>Whitespace is any run of consecutive formatting characters (spaces,
tabs, newlines, and backspaces).
<DT>Widening
<DD>Widening is removing any restriction (q.v.) on the current buffer;
it is the opposite of narrowing (q.v.). See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC265">Narrowing</A>.
<DT>Window
<DD>Emacs divides the screen into one or more windows, each of which can
display the contents of one buffer (q.v.) at any time.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC9">The Emacs Screen</A>, for basic information on how Emacs uses the screen.
See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC153">Multiple Windows</A>, for commands to control the use of windows. Note that if
you are running Emacs under X, terminology can be confusing: Each Emacs
screen occupies a separate X window and can, in turn, be divided into
different subwindows.
<DT>Word Abbrev
<DD>Synonymous with `abbrev'.
<DT>Word Search
<DD>Word search is searching for a sequence of words, considering the
punctuation between them as insignificant. See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC97">Word Search</A>.
<DT>Yanking
<DD>Yanking means reinserting text previously killed. It can be used to
undo a mistaken kill, or for copying or moving text. Some other
systems call this "pasting". See section <A HREF="xEMACS.HTM#SEC73">Yanking</A>.
</DL>
<H1><A NAME="SEC317" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC317">The GNU Manifesto</A></H1>
<H2><A NAME="SEC318" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC318">What's GNU? GNU's Not Unix!</A></H2>
GNU, which stands for GNU's Not Unix, is the name for the complete
Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so that I can give it
away free to everyone who can use it. Several other volunteers are helping
me. Contributions of time, money, programs, and equipment are greatly
needed.
So far we have an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor commands,
a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator, a linker, and
around 35 utilities. A shell (command interpreter) is nearly completed. A
new portable optimizing C compiler has compiled itself and may be released
this year. An initial kernel exists, but many more features are needed to
emulate Unix. When the kernel and compiler are finished, it will be
possible to distribute a GNU system suitable for program development. We
will use TeX as our text formatter, but an nroff is being worked on. We
will use the free, portable X window system as well. After this we will
add a portable Common Lisp, an Empire game, a spreadsheet, and hundreds of
other things, plus online documentation. We hope to supply, eventually,
everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system, and more.
GNU will be able to run Unix programs, but will not be identical to Unix.
We will make all improvements that are convenient, based on our experience
with other operating systems. In particular, we plan to have longer
filenames, file version numbers, a crashproof file system, filename
completion perhaps, terminal-independent display support, and perhaps
eventually a Lisp-based window system through which several Lisp programs
and ordinary Unix programs can share a screen. Both C and Lisp will be
available as system programming languages. We will try to support UUCP,
MIT Chaosnet, and Internet protocols for communication.
GNU is aimed initially at machines in the 68000/16000 class with virtual
memory, because they are the easiest machines to make it run on. The extra
effort to make it run on smaller machines will be left to someone who wants
to use it on them.
To avoid horrible confusion, please pronounce the `G' in the word `GNU'
when it is the name of this project.
<H2><A NAME="SEC319" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC319">Why I Must Write GNU</A></H2>
I consider that the golden rule requires that if I like a program I must
share it with other people who like it. Software sellers want to divide
the users and conquer them, making each user agree not to share with
others. I refuse to break solidarity with other users in this way. I
cannot in good conscience sign a nondisclosure agreement or a software
license agreement. For years I worked within the Artificial Intelligence
Lab to resist such tendencies and other inhospitalities, but eventually
they had gone too far: I could not remain in an institution where such
things are done for me against my will.
So that I can continue to use computers without dishonor, I have decided to
put together a sufficient body of free software so that I will be able to
get along without any software that is not free. I have resigned from the
AI lab to deny MIT any legal excuse to prevent me from giving GNU away.
<H2><A NAME="SEC320" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC320">Why GNU Will Be Compatible With Unix</A></H2>
Unix is not my ideal system, but it is not too bad. The essential features
of Unix seem to be good ones, and I think I can fill in what Unix lacks
without spoiling them. And a system compatible with Unix would be
convenient for many other people to adopt.
<H2><A NAME="SEC321" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC321">How GNU Will Be Available</A></H2>
GNU is not in the public domain. Everyone will be permitted to modify and
redistribute GNU, but no distributor will be allowed to restrict its
further redistribution. That is to say, proprietary modifications will not
be allowed. I want to make sure that all versions of GNU remain free.
<H2><A NAME="SEC322" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC322">Why Many Other Programmers Want to Help</A></H2>
I have found many other programmers who are excited about GNU and want to
help.
Many programmers are unhappy about the commercialization of system
software. It may enable them to make more money, but it requires them to
feel in conflict with other programmers in general rather than feel as
comrades. The fundamental act of friendship among programmers is the
sharing of programs; marketing arrangements now typically used essentially
forbid programmers to treat others as friends. The purchaser of software
must choose between friendship and obeying the law. Naturally, many decide
that friendship is more important. But those who believe in law often do
not feel at ease with either choice. They become cynical and think that
programming is just a way of making money.
By working on and using GNU rather than proprietary programs, we can be
hospitable to everyone and obey the law. In addition, GNU serves as an
example to inspire and a banner to rally others to join us in sharing.
This can give us a feeling of harmony which is impossible if we use
software that is not free. For about half the programmers I talk to, this
is an important happiness that money cannot replace.
<H2><A NAME="SEC323" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC323">How You Can Contribute</A></H2>
I am asking computer manufacturers for donations of machines and money.
I'm asking individuals for donations of programs and work.
One consequence you can expect if you donate machines is that GNU will run
on them at an early date. The machines should be complete, ready-to-use
systems, approved for use in a residential area, and not in need of
sophisticated cooling or power.
I have found very many programmers eager to contribute part-time work for
GNU. For most projects, such part-time distributed work would be very hard
to coordinate; the independently-written parts would not work together.
But for the particular task of replacing Unix, this problem is absent. A
complete Unix system contains hundreds of utility programs, each of which
is documented separately. Most interface specifications are fixed by Unix
compatibility. If each contributor can write a compatible replacement for
a single Unix utility, and make it work properly in place of the original
on a Unix system, then these utilities will work right when put together.
Even allowing for Murphy to create a few unexpected problems, assembling
these components will be a feasible task. (The kernel will require closer
communication and will be worked on by a small, tight group.)
If I get donations of money, I may be able to hire a few people full or
part time. The salary won't be high by programmers' standards, but I'm
looking for people for whom building community spirit is as important as
making money. I view this as a way of enabling dedicated people to devote
their full energies to working on GNU by sparing them the need to make a
living in another way.
<H2><A NAME="SEC324" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC324">Why All Computer Users Will Benefit</A></H2>
Once GNU is written, everyone will be able to obtain good system software
free, just like air.
This means much more than just saving everyone the price of a Unix license.
It means that much wasteful duplication of system programming effort will
be avoided. This effort can go instead into advancing the state of the
Complete system sources will be available to everyone. As a result, a user
who needs changes in the system will always be free to make them himself,
or hire any available programmer or company to make them for him. Users
will no longer be at the mercy of one programmer or company which owns the
sources and is in sole position to make changes.
Schools will be able to provide a much more educational environment by
encouraging all students to study and improve the system code. Harvard's
computer lab used to have the policy that no program could be installed on
the system if its sources were not on public display, and upheld it by
actually refusing to install certain programs. I was very much inspired by
this.
Finally, the overhead of considering who owns the system software and what
one is or is not entitled to do with it will be lifted.
Arrangements to make people pay for using a program, including licensing of
copies, always incur a tremendous cost to society through the cumbersome
mechanisms necessary to figure out how much (that is, which programs) a
person must pay for. And only a police state can force everyone to obey
them. Consider a space station where air must be manufactured at great
cost: charging each breather per liter of air may be fair, but wearing the
metered gas mask all day and all night is intolerable even if everyone can
afford to pay the air bill. And the TV cameras everywhere to see if you
ever take the mask off are outrageous. It's better to support the air
plant with a head tax and chuck the masks.
Copying all or parts of a program is as natural to a programmer as
breathing, and as productive. It ought to be as free.
<H2><A NAME="SEC325" HREF="xEMACS_TO.HTM#SEC325">Some Easily Rebutted Objections to GNU's Goals</A></H2>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"Nobody will use it if it is free, because that means they can't rely
on any support."
"You have to charge for the program to pay for providing the
support."
</BLOCKQUOTE>
If people would rather pay for GNU plus service than get GNU free without
service, a company to provide just service to people who have obtained GNU
free ought to be profitable.
We must distinguish between support in the form of real programming work
and mere handholding. The former is something one cannot rely on from a
software vendor. If your problem is not shared by enough people, the
vendor will tell you to get lost.
If your business needs to be able to rely on support, the only way is to
have all the necessary sources and tools. Then you can hire any available
person to fix your problem; you are not at the mercy of any individual.
With Unix, the price of sources puts this out of consideration for most
businesses. With GNU this will be easy. It is still possible for there to
be no available competent person, but this problem cannot be blamed on
distibution arrangements. GNU does not eliminate all the world's problems,
only some of them.
Meanwhile, the users who know nothing about computers need handholding:
doing things for them which they could easily do themselves but don't know
Such services could be provided by companies that sell just hand-holding
and repair service. If it is true that users would rather spend money and
get a product with service, they will also be willing to buy the service
having got the product free. The service companies will compete in quality
and price; users will not be tied to any particular one. Meanwhile, those
of us who don't need the service should be able to use the program without
paying for the service.
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"You cannot reach many people without advertising,
and you must charge for the program to support that."
"It's no use advertising a program people can get free."
</BLOCKQUOTE>
There are various forms of free or very cheap publicity that can be used to
inform numbers of computer users about something like GNU. But it may be
true that one can reach more microcomputer users with advertising. If this
is really so, a business which advertises the service of copying and
mailing GNU for a fee ought to be successful enough to pay for its
advertising and more. This way, only the users who benefit from the
advertising pay for it.
On the other hand, if many people get GNU from their friends, and such
companies don't succeed, this will show that advertising was not really
necessary to spread GNU. Why is it that free market advocates don't want
to let the free market decide this?
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"My company needs a proprietary operating system
to get a competitive edge."
</BLOCKQUOTE>
GNU will remove operating system software from the realm of competition.
You will not be able to get an edge in this area, but neither will your
competitors be able to get an edge over you. You and they will compete in
other areas, while benefitting mutually in this one. If your business is
selling an operating system, you will not like GNU, but that's tough on
you. If your business is something else, GNU can save you from being
pushed into the expensive business of selling operating systems.
I would like to see GNU development supported by gifts from many
manufacturers and users, reducing the cost to each.
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"Don't programmers deserve a reward for their creativity?"
</BLOCKQUOTE>
If anything deserves a reward, it is social contribution. Creativity can
be a social contribution, but only in so far as society is free to use the
results. If programmers deserve to be rewarded for creating innovative
programs, by the same token they deserve to be punished if they restrict
the use of these programs.
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"Shouldn't a programmer be able to ask for a reward for his creativity?"
</BLOCKQUOTE>
There is nothing wrong with wanting pay for work, or seeking to maximize
one's income, as long as one does not use means that are destructive. But
the means customary in the field of software today are based on
destruction.
Extracting money from users of a program by restricting their use of it is
destructive because the restrictions reduce the amount and the ways that
the program can be used. This reduces the amount of wealth that humanity
derives from the program. When there is a deliberate choice to restrict,
the harmful consequences are deliberate destruction.
The reason a good citizen does not use such destructive means to become
wealthier is that, if everyone did so, we would all become poorer from the
mutual destructiveness. This is Kantian ethics; or, the Golden Rule.
Since I do not like the consequences that result if everyone hoards
information, I am required to consider it wrong for one to do so.
Specifically, the desire to be rewarded for one's creativity does not
justify depriving the world in general of all or part of that creativity.
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"Won't programmers starve?"
</BLOCKQUOTE>
I could answer that nobody is forced to be a programmer. Most of us cannot
manage to get any money for standing on the street and making faces. But
we are not, as a result, condemned to spend our lives standing on the
street making faces, and starving. We do something else.
But that is the wrong answer because it accepts the questioner's implicit
assumption: that without ownership of software, programmers cannot possibly
be paid a cent. Supposedly it is all or nothing.
The real reason programmers will not starve is that it will still be
possible for them to get paid for programming; just not paid as much as
Restricting copying is not the only basis for business in software. It is
the most common basis because it brings in the most money. If it were
prohibited, or rejected by the customer, software business would move to
other bases of organization which are now used less often. There are
always numerous ways to organize any kind of business.
Probably programming will not be as lucrative on the new basis as it is
now. But that is not an argument against the change. It is not considered
an injustice that sales clerks make the salaries that they now do. If
programmers made the same, that would not be an injustice either. (In
practice they would still make considerably more than that.)
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"Don't people have a right to control how their creativity is used?"
</BLOCKQUOTE>
"Control over the use of one's ideas" really constitutes control over
other people's lives; and it is usually used to make their lives more
difficult.
People who have studied the issue of intellectual property rights carefully
(such as lawyers) say that there is no intrinsic right to intellectual
property. The kinds of supposed intellectual property rights that the
government recognizes were created by specific acts of legislation for
specific purposes.
For example, the patent system was established to encourage inventors to
disclose the details of their inventions. Its purpose was to help society
rather than to help inventors. At the time, the life span of 17 years for
a patent was short compared with the rate of advance of the state of the
art. Since patents are an issue only among manufacturers, for whom the
cost and effort of a license agreement are small compared with setting up
production, the patents often do not do much harm. They do not obstruct
most individuals who use patented products.
The idea of copyright did not exist in ancient times, when authors
frequently copied other authors at length in works of non-fiction. This
practice was useful, and is the only way many authors' works have survived
even in part. The copyright system was created expressly for the purpose
of encouraging authorship. In the domain for which it was
invented--books, which could be copied economically only on a printing
press--it did little harm, and did not obstruct most of the individuals
who read the books.
All intellectual property rights are just licenses granted by society
because it was thought, rightly or wrongly, that society as a whole would
benefit by granting them. But in any particular situation, we have to ask:
are we really better off granting such license? What kind of act are we
licensing a person to do?
The case of programs today is very different from that of books a hundred
years ago. The fact that the easiest way to copy a program is from one
neighbor to another, the fact that a program has both source code and
object code which are distinct, and the fact that a program is used rather
than read and enjoyed, combine to create a situation in which a person who
enforces a copyright is harming society as a whole both materially and
spiritually; in which a person should not do so regardless of whether the
law enables him to.
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"Competition makes things get done better."
</BLOCKQUOTE>
The paradigm of competition is a race: by rewarding the winner, we
encourage everyone to run faster. When capitalism really works this way,
it does a good job; but its defenders are wrong in assuming it always works
this way. If the runners forget why the reward is offered and become
intent on winning, no matter how, they may find other strategies--such as,
attacking other runners. If the runners get into a fist fight, they will
all finish late.
Proprietary and secret software is the moral equivalent of runners in a
fist fight. Sad to say, the only referee we've got does not seem to
object to fights; he just regulates them ("For every ten yards you run,
you can fire one shot"). He really ought to break them up, and penalize
runners for even trying to fight.
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"Won't everyone stop programming without a monetary incentive?"
</BLOCKQUOTE>
Actually, many people will program with absolutely no monetary incentive.
Programming has an irresistible fascination for some people, usually the
people who are best at it. There is no shortage of professional musicians
who keep at it even though they have no hope of making a living that way.
But really this question, though commonly asked, is not appropriate to the
situation. Pay for programmers will not disappear, only become less. So
the right question is, will anyone program with a reduced monetary
incentive? My experience shows that they will.
For more than ten years, many of the world's best programmers worked at the
Artificial Intelligence Lab for far less money than they could have had
anywhere else. They got many kinds of non-monetary rewards: fame and
appreciation, for example. And creativity is also fun, a reward in itself.
Then most of them left when offered a chance to do the same interesting
work for a lot of money.
What the facts show is that people will program for reasons other than
riches; but if given a chance to make a lot of money as well, they will
come to expect and demand it. Low-paying organizations do poorly in
competition with high-paying ones, but they do not have to do badly if the
high-paying ones are banned.
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"We need the programmers desperately. If they demand that we
stop helping our neighbors, we have to obey."
</BLOCKQUOTE>
You're never so desperate that you have to obey this sort of demand.
Remember: millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute!
<BLOCKQUOTE>
"Programmers need to make a living somehow."
</BLOCKQUOTE>
In the short run, this is true. However, there are plenty of ways that
programmers could make a living without selling the right to use a program.
This way is customary now because it brings programmers and businessmen the
most money, not because it is the only way to make a living. It is easy to
find other ways if you want to find them. Here are a number of examples.
A manufacturer introducing a new computer will pay for the porting of
operating systems onto the new hardware.
The sale of teaching, hand-holding, and maintenance services could also
employ programmers.
People with new ideas could distribute programs as freeware and ask for
donations from satisfied users or sell hand-holding services. I have
met people who are already working this way successfully.
Users with related needs can form users' groups and pay dues. A group
would contract with programming companies to write programs that the
group's members would like to use.
All sorts of development can be funded with a Software Tax:
<BLOCKQUOTE>
Suppose everyone who buys a computer has to pay a certain percent of
the price as a software tax. The government gives this to
an agency like the NSF to spend on software development.
But if the computer buyer makes a donation to software development
himself, he can take a credit against the tax. He can donate to
the project of his own choosing--often, chosen because he hopes to
use the results when
it is done. He can take a credit for any amount
of donation up to the total tax he had to pay.
The total tax rate could be decided by a vote of the payers of
the tax, weighted according to the amount they will be taxed on.
The consequences:
The computer-using community supports software development.
This community decides what level of support is needed.
Users who care which projects their share is spent on
can choose this for themselves.
</UL>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
In the long run, making programs free is a step toward the post-scarcity
world, where nobody will have to work very hard just to make a living.
People will be free to devote themselves to activities that are fun, such
as programming, after spending the necessary ten hours a week on required
tasks such as legislation, family counseling, robot repair, and asteroid
prospecting. There will be no need to be able to make a living from
programming.
We have already greatly reduced the amount of work that the whole society
must do for its actual productivity, but only a little of this has
translated itself into leisure for workers because much nonproductive
activity is required to accompany productive activity. The main causes of
this are bureaucracy and isometric struggles against competition. Free
software will greatly reduce these drains in the area of software
production. We must do this, in order for technical gains in productivity
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