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- All drawings appearing in this Recommendation have been done in Autocad.
- Recommendation E.506
- FORECASTING INTERNATIONAL TRAFFIC1)
- 1 Introduction
- This Recommendation is the first in a series of three Recommendations that
- cover international telecommunications forecasting.
- In the operation and administration of the international telephone
- network, proper and successful development depends to a large degree upon
- estimates for the future. Accordingly, for the planning of equipment and circuit
- provision and of telephone plant investments, it is necessary that
- Administrations forecast the traffic which the network will carry. In view of the
- heavy capital investments in the international network, the economic importance
- of the most reliable forecast is evident.
- The purpose of this Recommendation is to give guidance on some of the
- prerequisites for forecasting international telecommunications traffic. Base
- data, not only traffic and call data but also economic, social and demographic
- data, are of vital importance for forecasting. These data series may be
- incomplete; strategies are recommended for dealing with missing data. Different
- forecasting approaches are presented including direct and composite methods,
- matrix forecasting, and top down and bottom up procedures.
- Recommendation E.507 provides guidelines for building forecasting models
- and contains an overview of various forecasting techniques. Recommendation E.508
- covers the forecasting of new international telecommunications services.
- 2 Base data for forecasting
- An output of the international traffic forecasting process is the
- estimated number of circuits required for each period in the forecast horizon. To
- obtain these values, traffic engineering techniques are applied to forecast
- Erlangs, a measure of traffic. Figure 1/E.506 outlines two different approaches
- for determining forecasted Erlangs.
- The two different strategies for forecasting are the direct strategy and
- the composite strategy. The first step in either process is to collect raw data.
- These raw data, perhaps adjusted, will be the base data used to generate the
- traffic forecasts. Base data may be hourly, daily, monthly, quarterly, or annual.
- Most Administrations use monthly accounting data for forecasting purposes.
- With the direct strategy, the traffic carried in Erlangs, or measured
- usage, for each relation would be regarded as the base data in forecasting
- traffic growth. These data may be adjusted to account for such occurrences as
- regeneration (see Recommendation E.500).
- Figure 1/E.506 - T0200800-87
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- In both strategies (direct and composite) it is necessary to convert the
- carried traffic into offered traffic Erlangs. The conversion formula can be found
- in Recommendation E.501 for the direct strategy and in this Recommendation for
- the composite strategy.
- Composite forecasting uses historical international accounting data of
- monthly paid minute traffic as the base data. The data may be adjusted by a
- number of factors, either before or after the forecasting process, that are used
- for converting paid minutes on the basis of the accounting data into busy-hour
- Erlang forecasts.
- As seen in Figure 1/E.506, the forecasting process is common to both the
- direct and composite strategy. However, the actual methods or models used in the
- process vary. Forecasts can be generated, for example, using traffic matrix
- methods (see S 4), econometric models or autoregressive models (see S 3,
- Recommendation E.507). There are various other data that are input to the
- forecasting process. Examples of these are explanatory variables, market
- segmentation information and price elasticities.
- Wherever possible, both the direct and composite forecasting strategies
- should be used and compared. This comparison may reveal irregularities not
- evident from the use of only one method. Where these are significant, in
- particular in the case of the busy hour, the causes for the differences should be
- identified before the resulting forecast is adopted.
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- 1) The old Recommendation E.506 which appeared in the Red Book was split into two
- Recommendations, revised E.506 and new E.507 and considerable new material was added to
- both.
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- In econometric modelling especially, explanatory variables are used to
- forecast international traffic. Some of the most important of these variables are
- the following:
- - exports,
- - imports,
- - degree of automation,
- - quality of service,
- - time differences between countries,
- - tariffs,
- - consumer price index, and
- - gross national product.
- Other explanatory variables, such as foreign business travellers and
- nationals living in other countries, may also be important to consider. It is
- recommended that data bases for explanatory variables should be as comprehensive
- as possible to provide more information to the forecasting process.
- Forecasts may be based on market segmentation. Base data may be segmented,
- for example, along regional lines, by business, non-business, or by type of
- service. Price elasticities should also be examined, if possible, to quantify the
- impact of tariffs on the forecasting data.
- 3 Composite strategy - Conversion method
- The monthly paid-minutes traffic is converted to busy-hour Erlangs for
- dimensioning purposes by the application of a number of traffic related
- conversion factors for each service category. The conversion is carried out in
- accordance with the formula:
- A = Mdh/60e (3-1)
- where
- A is the estimated mean traffic in the busy hour,
- M is the monthly paid-minutes,
- d is day-to-month ratio,
- h is the busy hour-to-day ratio, and
- e is the efficiency factor.
- The formula is described in detail in Annex A.
- 4 Procedures for traffic matrix forecasting
- 4.1 Introduction
- To use traffic matrix or point-to-point forecasts the following procedures
- may be used:
- - Direct point-to-point forecasts,
- - Kruithof's method,
- - Extension of Kruithof's method,
- - Weighted least squares method.
- It is also possible to develop a Kalman Filter model for point-to-point
- traffic taking into account the aggregated forecasts. Tu and Pack describe such a
- model in [16].
- The forecasting procedures can be used to produce forecasts of internal
- traffic within groups of countries, for example, the Nordic countries. Another
- application is to produce forecasts for national traffic on various levels.
- 4.2 Direct point-to-point forecasts
- It is possible to produce better forecasts for accumulated traffic than
- forecast of traffic on a lower level.
- Hence, forecasts of outgoing traffic (row sum) or incoming traffic (column
- sum) between one country and a group of countries will give a relatively higher
- precision than the separate forecasts between countries.
- In this situation it is possible to adjust the individual forecasts by
- taking into account the aggregated forecasts.
- On the other hand, if the forecasts of the different elements in the
- traffic matrix turn out to be as good as the accumulated forecasts, then it is
- not necessary to adjust the forecasts.
- Evaluation of the relative precision of forecasts may be carried out by
- comparing the ratios só(X)/X where X is the forecast and eq \o(\s\up4(^),s)(X)
- the estimated forecast error.
- 4.3 Kruithof's method
- Kruithof's method [11] is well known. The method uses the last known
- traffic matrix and forecasts of the row and column sum to make forecasts of the
- traffic matrix. This is carried out by an efficient iteration procedure.
- Kruithof's method does not take into account the change over time in the
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- point-to-point traffic. Because Kruithof's method only uses the last known
- traffic matrix, information on the previous traffic matrices does not contribute
- to the forecasts. This would be disadvantageous. Especially when the growth of
- the distinct point-to-point traffic varies. Also when the traffic matrices
- reflect seasonal data, Kruithof's method may give poor forecasts.
- 4.4 Extension of Kruithof's method
- The traditional Kruithof's method is a projection of the traffic based on
- the last known traffic matrix and forecasts of the row and column sums.
- It is possible to extend Kruithof's method by taking into account not only
- forecasts of the row and column but also forecasts of point-to-point traffic.
- Kruithof's method is then used to adjust the point-to-point traffic forecasts to
- obtain consistency with the forecasts of row and column sums.
- The extended Kruithof's method is superior to the traditional Kruithof's
- method and is therefore recommended.
- 4.5 Weighted least squares method
- Weighted least squares method is again an extension of the last method.
- Let {Cij}, {Ci.} and {C.j} be forecasts of point-to-point traffic, row sums and
- column sums respectively.
- The extended Kruithof's method assumes that the row and column sums are
- "true" and adjust {Cij} to obtain consistency.
- The weighted least squares method [2] is based on the assumption that both
- the point-to-point forecasts and the row and column sum forecasts are uncertain.
- A reasonable way to solve the problem is to give the various forecasts different
- weights.
- Let the weighted least squares forecasts be {Dij}. The square sum Q is
- defined by:
- Q = eq \i\su(ij, ,aij)(Cij - Dij)2+eq \i\su(i, , ) bi(Ci. - Di.)2+eq
- \i\su(j, , ) cj(C.j - D.j)2 (4-1)
- where {aij}, {bi }, {cj} are chosen constants or weights.
- The weighted least squares forecast is found by:
- MinQ(Dij)
- Dij
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- subject to
- Di. = eq \i\su(j, , ) Dij i = 1, 2, . . .
- (4-2)
- and
- D.j = eq \i\su(i, , ) Dij j = 1, 2, . . .
- A natural choice of weights is the inverse of the variance of the
- forecasts. One way to find an estimate of the standard deviation of the forecasts
- is to perform ex-post forecasting and then calculate the root mean square error.
- The properties of this method are analyzed in [14].
- 5 Top down and bottom up methods
- 5.1 Choice of model
- The object is to produce forecasts for the traffic between countries. For
- this to be a sensible procedure, it is necessary that the traffic between the
- countries should not be too small, so that the forecasts may be accurate. A
- method of this type is usually denoted as "bottom up".
- Alternatively, when there is a small amount of traffic between the
- countries in question, it is better to start out with forecasting the traffic for
- a larger group of countries. These forecasts are often used as a basis for
- forecasts for the traffic to each country. This is done by a correction procedure
- to be described in more detail below. Methods of this type are called "top down".
- The following comments concern the preference of one method over another.
- Let sT2 be the variance of the aggregated forecast, and si2 be the variance
- of the local forecast No. i and gij be the covariance of the local forecast No. i
- and j. If the following inequality is true:
- eq \o(\s\up4(^),s)\s(2,T) < eq \i\su(i, , ) eq \o(\s\up
- 4(^),s)\s(2,i) + eq \i\su(i ╣, , )\I\su( j, , )gij (5-1)
- then, in general, it is not recommended to use the bottom up method, but to use
- the top down method.
- In many situations it is possible to use a more advanced forecasting model
- on the aggregated level. Also, the data on an aggregated level may be more
- consistent and less influenced by stochastic changes compared to data on a lower
- level. Hence, in most cases the inequality stated above will be satisfied for
- small countries.
- 5.2 Bottom up method
- As outlined in S 5.1 the bottom up method is defined as a procedure for
- making separate forecasts of the traffic between different countries directly. If
- the inequality given in S 5.1 is not satisfied, which may be the case for large
- countries, it is sufficient to use the bottom up method. Hence, one of the
- forecasting models mentioned in Recommendation E.507 can be used to produce
- traffic forecasts for different countries.
- 5.3 Top down procedure
- In most cases the top down procedure is recommended for producing
- forecasts of international traffic for a small country. In Annex D a detailed
- example of such a forecasting procedure is given.
- The first step in the procedure is to find a forecasting model on the
- aggregated level, which may be a rather sophisticated model. Let XT be the
- traffic forecasts on the aggregated level and sT the estimated standard deviation
- of the forecasts.
- The next step is to develop separate forecasting models of traffic to
- different countries. Let Xi be the traffic forecast to the ith country and sói
- the standard deviation. Now, the separate forecasts [Xi] have to be corrected by
- taking into account the aggregated forecasts XT. We know that in general
- XT ╣ eq \i\su(i, , ) Xi (5-2)
- Let the corrections of [Xi] be [X`i], and the corrected aggregated
- forecast then be X`T = S X`i.
- The procedure for finding [X`i] is described in Annex C.
- 6 Forecasting methods when observations are missing
- 6.1 Introduction
- Most forecasting models are based on equally spaced time series. If one
- observation or a set of observations are missing, it is necessary either to use
- an estimate of missing observations and then use the forecasting model or to
- modify the forecasting model.
- All smoothing models are applied on equally spaced observations. Also
- autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA)-models operate on equally spaced
- time series, while regression models work on irregularly spaced observations
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- without modifications.
- In the literature it is shown that most forecasting methods can be
- formulated as dynamic linear models (DLM). The Kalman Filter is a linear method
- to estimate states in a time series which is modelled as a dynamic linear model.
- The Kalman Filter introduces a recursive procedure to calculate the forecasts in
- a DLM which is optimal in the sense of minimizing the mean squared one step ahead
- forecast error. The Kalman Filter also gives an optimal solution in the case of
- missing data.
- 6.2 Adjustment procedure based on comparable observations
- In situations when some observations are missing, it may be possible to
- use related data for estimating the missing observations. For instance, if
- measurements are carried out on a set of trunk groups in the same area, then the
- traffic measurements on various trunk groups are correlated, which means that
- traffic measurements on a given trunk group to a certain degree explain traffic
- measurements on other trunk groups.
- When there is high correlation between two time series of traffic
- measurements, the relative change in level and trend will be of the same size.
- Suppose that a time series xt of equidistant observations from 1 to n has
- an inside gap . xt is, for instance, the yearly increase. The gap consists of k
- missing observations between r and r + k + 1.
- A procedure for estimating the missing observations is given by the
- following steps:
- i) Examine similar time series to the series with missing observations and
- calculate the cross correlation.
- ii) Identify time series with high cross correlation at lag zero.
- iii) Calculate the growth factor Dr+i between r and r + k of the similar
- time series yt:
- Dr+i = eq \f( yr+i - yr, yr+k+1 - yr) i = 1, 2, . . . k (6-1)
- iv) Estimates of the missing observations are then given by:
- eq \o(\s\up4(^,x))!Unexpected End of Expression.r+i = xr + Dr+i
- (xr+k+1 - xr) i = 1, 2, . . . k (6-2)
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- Example
- Suppose we want to forecast the time series xt. The series is observed
- from 1 to 10, but the observations at time 6, 7 and 8 are missing. However a
- related time series yt is measured. The measurements are given in Table 1/506.
- TABLE 1/E.506
- Measurements of two related time series; one with missing observations
- t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
- xt 100 112 125 140 152 - - - 206 221
- yt 300 338 380 422 460 496 532 574
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- 622 670
- The last known observation of xt before the gap at time 5 is 152, while
- the first known observation after the gap at time 9 is 206.
- Hence r = 5 and k = 3. The calculation gives:
- D6 = eq \f( 496 - 460, 622 - 460) = eq \f( 36, 162)
- D7 = eq \f( 532 - 460, 622 - 460) = eq \f( 72, 162)
- D8 = eq \f( 574 - 460, 622 - 460) = eq \f( 114, 162)
- eq \o(\s\up4(^),x)6 = 152 +eq \f( 36, 162) (206 - 152) = 164
- eq \o(\s\up4(^),x)7 = 152 +eq \f( 72, 162) (206 - 152) = 176
- eq \o(\s\up4(^),x)8 = 152 +eq \f( 114, 162) (206 - 152) = 190
- 6.3 Modification of forecasting models
- The other possibility for handling missing observations is to extend the
- forecasting models with specific procedures. When observations are missing, a
- modified procedure, instead of the ordinary forecasting model, is used to
- estimate the traffic.
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- To illustrate such a procedure we look at simple exponential smoothing.
- The simple exponential smoothing model is expressed by:
- eq \o(\s\up4(^),m)t = (1 - a) yt + aeq \o(\s\up4(^),m)t-1 (6-3)
- where
- yt is the measured traffic at time t
- eq \o(\s\up4(^),m)t is the estimated level at time t
- a is the discount factor [and (1 - a) is the smoothing parameter].
- Equation (6-3) is a recursive formula. The recursion starts at time 1 and
- ends at n if no observation is missing. Then a one step ahead forecast is given
- by:
- eq \o(\s\up4(^),y)t (1) = eq \o(\s\up4(^),m)t (6-4)
- If some observations lying in between 1 and n are missing, then it is
- necessary to modify the recursion procedure. Suppose now that y1, y2, . . ., yr,
- yr+k +1, yr+k +2, . . ., yn are known and yr+1, yr+2, . . ., yr+k are unknown. n
- the time series has a gap consisting of k missing observations.
- The following modified forecasting model for simple exponential smoothing
- is proposed in Aldrin [2].
- (1 - a) yt + a eq \o(\s\up4(^),m)t-1 t = 1, 2, . . . , r
- eq \o(\s\up4(^),m)t = (1 - ak) yt + akeq \o(\s\up4(^),m)t t =
- r+k+1 (6-5)
- (1 - a) yt + a eq \o(\s\up4(^),m)t-1 t = r+k+2, . . . , n
- where
- ak = eq \f( a,1 + k(1-a)2) (6-6)
- By using the (6-5) and (6-6) it is possible to skip the recursive
- procedure in the gap between r and
- r + k + 1.
- In Aldrin [2] similar procedures are proposed for the following
- forecasting models:
- - Holt's method,
- - Double exponential smoothing,
- - Discounted least squares method with level and trend,
- - Holt-Winters seasonal methods.
- Wright [17] and [18] also suggests specific procedures to modify the
- smoothing models when observations are missing.
- As mentioned in the first paragraph, regression models are invariant of
- missing observations. When using the least squares method, all observations are
- given the same weight. Hence, missing observations do not affect the estimation
- procedure and forecast are made in the usual way.
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- On the other hand it is necessary to modify ARIMA models when observations
- are missing. In the literature several procedures are suggested in the presence
- of missing data. The basic idea is to formulate the ARIMA model as a dynamic
- linear model. Then the likelihood function is easy to obtain and the parameters
- in the model can be estimated recursively. References to work on this field are
- Jones [9] and [10], Harvey and Pierse [8], Ansley and Kohn [3] and Aldrin [2].
- State space models or dynamic linear models and the Kalman Filter are a
- large class of models. Smoothing models, ARIMA models and regression models may
- be formulated as dynamic linear models. This is shown, for instance, in Abraham
- and Ledolter [1]. Using dynamic linear models and the Kalman Filter the
- parameters in the model are estimated in a recursive way. The description is
- given, for instance, in Harrison and Stevens [7], Pack and Whitaker [13],
- Moreland [12], Szelag [15] and Chemouil and Garnier [6].
- In Jones [9] and [10], Barham and Dunstan [4], Harvey and Pierse [8],
- Aldrin [2] and Bφlviken [5] it is shown how the dynamic linear models and the
- Kalman Filter handle missing observations.
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