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Text Truncated. Only the first 1MB is shown below. Download the file for the complete contents. @Afghanistan 0 So che da mezaka asman wee So che da jahan wadan wee So che jowand pa de jahan wee So che pati yaw afghan wee Tel ba da afghanistan wee Tel de wee afghanistan melat Tel de wee jumhouriat Tel de wee meli wahdat Tel de wee afghan meli jumhouriat Tel de wee afghan mellat jumhouriat meli wahdat-meli wahdat # In earlier times, Afghanistan was known as Aryana and Khorasan. Its present-day name dates from its renewed independence in 1747. In that year, the Afghans drove off the last of the Persian rulers and founded their own state. In 1919 the Afghans ended British authority over their country with the third British-Afghan war. Afghanistan became a republic in 1973, abolishing the monarchy. The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was declared on 24th April 1978. At the end of May 1988, a National parliament was constituted, consisting of two chambers with a total of 316 representatives, each elected for a period of five years. The national state of emergency was lifted on 19 February 1989. A transitional government, the Seventh Alliance of resistance groups operating from Pakistan was elected in February 1989. # AFG Southern Asia, north and west of Pakistan, east of Iran # 647500 647500 0 5529 China 76 km, Iran 936 km, Pakistan 2,430 km, Tajikistan 1,206 km, Turkmenistan 744 km, Uzbekistan 137 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? arid to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers # mostly rugged mountains; plains in north and southwest # Amu Darya 258 m Nowshak 7,485 m natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones # 12 0 46 3 39 30000 damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding # soil degradation; overgrazing; deforestation (much of the remaining forests are being cut down for fuel and building materials); desertification # Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation # landlocked # 24792375 43 5425510 5216954 54 6978549 6494253 3 357780 319329 4.21 42.37 17.40 17.14 1.05 1.03 1.07 1.12 ? 143.63 46.83 47.35 46.29 6.01 Afghan(s) Afghan Pashtun 38%, Tajik 25%, Uzbek 6%, Hazara 19%, minor ethnic groups (Aimaks, Turkmen, Baloch, and others) # Sunni Muslim 84%, Shi'a Muslim 15%, other 1% # Pashtu 35%, Afghan Persian (Dari) 50%, Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai) 4%, much bilingualism # age 15 and over can read and write # 31.50 47.20 15 Islamic State of Afghanistan; note - the self-proclaimed Taliban government Afghanistan Dowlat-e Eslami-ye Afghanestan # Afghanestan .af transitional government Kabul 30 provinces (velayat, singular - velayat); Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Balkh, Bamian, Farah, Faryab, Ghazni, Ghowr, Helmand, Herat, Jowzjan, Kabol, Kandahar, Kapisa, Konar, Kondoz, Laghman, Lowgar, Nangarhar, Nimruz, Oruzgan, Paktia, Paktika, Parvan, Samangan, Sar-e Pol, Takhar, Vardak, Zabol note: there may be two new provinces of Nurestan (Nuristan) and Khowst # ? # Victory of the Muslim Nation, 28 April; Remembrance Day for Martyrs none # a new legal system has not been adopted but all factions tacitly agree they will follow Shari'a (Islamic law) # undetermined; previously males 15-50 years of age # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # non-functioning as of June 1993 # ? # ? # non-functioning as of March 1995, although there are local Shari'a (Islamic law) courts throughout the country # Taliban (Religious Students Movement), Mohammad OMAR; United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan [comprised of Jumbesh-i-Melli Islami (National Islamic Movement), Abdul Rashid DOSTAM; Jamiat-i-Islami (Islamic Society), Burhanuddin RABBANI and Ahmad Shah MASOOD; and Hizbi Wahdat-Khalili faction (Islamic Unity Party), Abdul Karim KHALILI]; other smaller parties are Hizbi Islami-Gulbuddin (Islamic Party), Gulbuddin HIKMATYAR faction; Hizbi Islami-Khalis (Islamic Party), Yunis KHALIS faction; Ittihad-i-Islami Barai Azadi Afghanistan (Islamic Union for the Liberation of Afghanistan), Abdul Rasul SAYYAF; Harakat-Inqilab-i-Islami (Islamic Revolutionary Movement), Mohammad Nabi MOHAMMADI; Jabha-i-Najat-i-Milli Afghanistan (Afghanistan National Liberation Front), Sibghatullah MOJADDEDI; Mahaz-i-Milli-Islami (National Islamic Front), Sayed Ahamad GAILANI; Hizbi Wahdat-Akbari faction (Islamic Unity Party), Mohammad Akbar AKBARI; Harakat-i-Islami (Islamic Movement), Mohammed Asif MOHSENI # ? # AsDB, CP, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO # three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a gold emblem centered on the three bands; the emblem features a temple-like structure with Islamic inscriptions above and below, encircled by a wreath on the left and right and by a bolder Islamic inscription above, all of which are encircled by two crossed scimitars # Afghanistan is an extremely poor, landlocked country, highly dependent on farming and livestock raising (sheep and goats). Economic considerations have played second fiddle to political and military upheavals during more than 18 years of war, including the nearly 10-year Soviet military occupation (which ended 15 February 1989). During the war one-third of the population fled the country, with Pakistan and Iran sheltering a combined peak of more than 6 million refugees. Now, only 750,000 registered Afghan refugees remain in Pakistan and about 1.2 million in Iran. Another 1 million have probably moved into and around urban areas within Afghanistan. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially over the past 18 years because of the loss of labor and capital and the disruption of trade and transport. Much of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, and medical care. Inflation remains a serious problem throughout the country, with one estimate putting the rate at 240% in Kabul in 1996. Numerical data are likely to be either unavailable or unreliable. # ? 320 7934 53 28.50 18.50 240 7100000 agriculture and animal husbandry 67.8%, industry 10.2%, construction 6.3%, commerce 5.0%, services and other 10.7% (1980 est.) # 8 ? ? small-scale production of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, and cement; handwoven carpets; natural gas, oil, coal, copper # ? 0.49 655 37 wheat, fruits, nuts, karakul pelts; wool, mutton # 80 fruits and nuts, handwoven carpets, wool, cotton, hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems # FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Germany, India, UK, Belgium, Luxembourg, Czechoslovakia # 150 food and petroleum products; most consumer goods # FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Singapore, India, South Korea, Germany # 2300 ODA; about $45 million in UN aid plus additional bilateral aid and aid in kind (1997) # ? # 1 afghani (AF) = 100 puls # 17000 21 March - 20 March 31200 very limited telephone and telegraph service # satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) linked only to Iran and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean Region) # 6 0 2 1800000 ? 100000 24.60 9.6 km 1.524-m gauge from Gushgy (Turkmenistan) to Towraghondi; 15 km 1,524-m gauge from Termiz (Uzbekistan) to Kheyrabad transshipment point on south bank of Amu Darya # # # # 21000 2,793 km # 18,207 km (1996 est.) # 1200 ? 0 180 Kheyrabad, Shir Khan # ? ? ? ? # 44 11 3 4 2 4 2 33 ? 5 14 ? 10 3 NA; note - the military does not exist on a national basis; some elements of the former Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Guard, Border Guard Forces, National Police Force (Sarandoi), and tribal militias still exist but are factionalized among the various groups # NA years of age # ? ? ? ? ? support to Islamic militants worldwide by some factions; question over which group should hold Afghanistan's seat at the UN # world's second-largest illicit opium producer after Burma (cultivation in 1997 - 39,150 hectares, a 3% increase over 1996; potential production in 1997 - 1,265 metric tons, a 3% increase over 1996) and a major source of hashish # @Albania 0 Rreth flamurit tδ pδrbashkuar, Me njδ dδshirδ dhe njδ qδllim, Tδ gjithδ Atij duke iu betuar, Tδ lidhim besδn pδr shpδtim. Prej lufte veτ ay largohet, Qδ δshtδ lindur tradhδtor, Kush δshtδ burrδ nuk friksohet, Po vdes, po vdes si njδ dδshmor. Nδ dorδ armδt do t'i mbajmδ, Tδ mbrojmδ Atdheun nδ τdo vend, Tδ drejtat tona ne s'i ndajmδ, Kδtu armiqtδ s'kanδ vend. Se Zoti vet e tha me gojδ, Qδ kombe shuhen pδrmbi dhΘ, Po Shqipδria do tδ rrojδ, Pδr te, pδr te luftojmδ ne. English Version United around the flag, With one desire and one goal, Let us pledge our word of honor To fight for our salvation Only he who is a born traitor Averts from the struggle. He who is brave is not daunted, But falls - a martyr to the cause. With arms in hand we shall remain, To guard our fatherland round about. Our rights we will not bequeath, Enemies have no place here. For the Lord Himself has said, That nations vanish from the earth, But Albania shall live on, Because for her, it is for her that we fight. # The name Albania is derived from an ancient Illyrian tribe, the Albanoi, from which many Albanians are thought to be descended. The Albanian name for their country is Shqiperia. Historically, Albania has been a nation subject to foreign domination except for a brief period of independence from the Turks 1443-1478. After the upheaval of World War I, Albania was re-established as an independent state largely through the efforts of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson at the Paris peace conference, and remained independent until Italy invaded the country in 1939. After Italy's surrender in 1943, German troops occupied the country and were challenged by the communist-dominated National Liberation Front (NLF), which gained control in November 1944. Yugoslav communists were instrumental in establishing the Albanian communist party in November 1941, and the NLF regime became a virtual satellite of Yugoslavia until the Tito-Stalin split in 1948. Albania's hard-line brand of communism led to growing difficulties with the Soviet Union under Krushchev and came to a head in 1961 when the Soviet leaders openly denounced Albania at a party congress. The two broke diplomatic relations later that year. However, Albania continued nominal membership in the Warsaw Pact until the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. During the 1960s, China emerged as Albania's staunch ally and primary source of economic and military assistance. But the close relationship faltered during the 1970s when China decided to seek a rapprochement with the U.S. After years of rocky relations, the open split came in 1978 when the Chinese government ended its aid program and terminated all trade. Enver Hoxha, leader of the Albanian Communist Party, decided to pursue an independent, isolationist course. The result was financial ruin for Albania. By 1990, changes elsewhere in the Communist Bloc began to influence thinking in Albania. The government began to seek closer ties with the West in order to improve the economic conditions in the country. An interim basic law was approved by the People's Assembly in April 1991, and the country is now working to draft a new constitution outlining the structure of its new democratic government. # AL Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, between Greece and Serbia and Montenegro # 28750 27400 1350 720 Greece 282 km, Macedonia 151 km, Serbia and Montenegro 287 km (114 km with Serbia, 173 km with Montenegro) # 362 ? 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # ? ? 12 mild temperate; cool, cloudy, wet winters; hot, clear, dry summers; interior is cooler and wetter # mostly mountains and hills; small plains along coast # Adriatic Sea 0 m Maja e Korabit 2,753 m petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, timber, nickel # 21 5 15 38 21 3410 destructive earthquakes; tsunamis occur along southwestern coast # deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # strategic location along Strait of Otranto (links Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea and Mediterranean Sea) # 3330754 33 572430 532917 61 941076 1086541 6 82184 115606 0.97 21.35 7.45 -4.16 1.08 1.08 0.87 0.71 ? 45.01 68.64 65.58 71.94 2.57 Albanian(s) Albanian Albanian 95%, Greeks 3%, other 2% (Vlachs, Gypsies, Serbs, and Bulgarians) (1989 est.) note: in 1989, other estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek organization) # Muslim 70%, Albanian Orthodox 20%, Roman Catholic 10% # Albanian (Tosk is the official dialect), Greek # age 9 and over can read and write # 72 80 63 Republic of Albania Albania Republika e Shqiperise # Shqiperia .al emerging democracy Tirana 36 districts (rrethe, singular - rreth); Berat, Bulquize, Delvine, Devoll (Bilisht), Dibre (Peshkopi), Durres, Elbasan, Fier, Gjirokaster, Gramsh, Has (Krume), Kavaje, Kolonje (Erseke), Korce, Kruje, Kucove, Kukes, Lac, Lezhe, Librazhd, Lushnje, Malesia e Madhe (Koplik), Mallakaster (Ballsh), Mat (Burrel), Mirdite (Rreshen), Peqin, Permet, Pogradec, Puke, Sarande, Shkoder, Skrapar (Corovode), Tepelene, Tirane, Tropoje (Bajram Curri), Vlore note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses) # ? # Independence Day, 28 November (1912) an interim basic law was approved by the People's Assembly on 29 April 1991; a draft constitution was rejected by popular referendum in the fall of 1994 and a new draft is pending # has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal and compulsory # President of the Republic Rexhep MEIDANI (since 24 July 1997) # Prime Minister Pandeli MAJKO # Council of Ministers nominated by the prime minister and approved by the president # president elected by the People's Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); prime minister appointed by the president # Rexhep MEIDANI elected president; People's Assembly vote by number - total votes 122, for 110, against 3, abstained 2, invalid 7 # unicameral People's Assembly or Kuvendi Popullor (155 seats; most members are elected by direct popular vote and some by proportional vote for four-year terms) # last held 29 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2000) # percent of vote by party - PS 53.36%, PD 25.33%, PSD 2.5%, PBDNJ 2.78%, PBK 2.36%, PAD 2.85%, PR 2.25%, PLL 3.09%, PDK 1.00%, PBSD 0.84%; seats by party - PS 101, PD 27, PSD 8, PBDNJ 4, PBK 3, PAD 2, PR 2, PLL 2, PDK 1, PBSD 1, PUK 1, independents 3 # Supreme Court, chairman of the Supreme Court is elected by the People's Assembly for a four-year term # Albanian Socialist Party or PS (formerly the Albania Workers Party) [Fatos NANO, chairman]; Democratic Party or PD [Sali BERISHA]; Albanian Republican Party or PR [Fatmir MEHDIU]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Skender GJINUSHI]; Unity for Human Rights Party or PBDNJ [Vasil MELO, chairman]; National Front (Balli Kombetar) or PBK [Hysen SELFO]; Movement of Legality Party or PLL [Guri DUROLLARI]; Party of National Unity or PUK [Idajet BEQIRI]; Christian Democratic Party or PDK [Zef BUSHATI]; PBSD; Democratic Party of the Right or PDD [Petrit KALAKULA]; Democratic Alliance or PAD [Neritan CEKA]; Social Democratic Union Party or USdS [Teodor LACO]; Albanian United Right or DBSH # ? # BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OIC, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOMIG, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) # red with a black two-headed eagle in the center # An extremely poor country by European standards, Albania is making the difficult transition to a more open-market economy. The economy rebounded in 1993-95 after a severe depression accompanying the collapse of the previous centrally planned system in 1990 and 1991. However, a weakening of government resolve to maintain stabilization policies in the election year of 1996 contributed to renewal of inflationary pressures, spurred by the budget deficit which exceeded 12%. The collapse of financial pyramid schemes in early 1997 - which had attracted deposits from a substantial portion of Albania's adult population - triggered severe social unrest which led to more than 1,500 deaths, widespread destruction of property, and an 8% drop in GDP. The new government installed in July 1997 has taken strong measures to restore public order and to revive economic activity and trade. The economy continues to be bolstered by remittances of some 20% of the labor force which works abroad, mostly in Greece and Italy. These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade deficit. Most agricultural land was privatized in 1992, substantially improving peasant incomes. # -8 750 2498 56 21 23 40 1692000 agriculture (nearly all private) 49.5%, private sector 22.2%, state (nonfarm) sector 28.3% (including state-owned industry 7.8%); note - includes only those domestically employed # 14 624 996.00 food processing, textiles and clothing; lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydropower # 6 1.89 4435 1314 wide range of temperate-zone crops and livestock # 228 asphalt, metals and metallic ores, electricity, crude oil, vegetables, fruits, tobacco # Italy, Greece, Germany, Belgium, US # 879 machinery, consumer goods, grains # Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Macedonia # 645 $630 million pledged 1997 # ? # 1 lek (L) = 100 qintars # 152.28 calendar year 55000 obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences # inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece # 17 1 0 577000 9 300000 670 # 670 km 1.435-m gauge (1995) # # # 18000 5,400 km # 12,600 km (1996 est.) # 43 145 55 64 Durres, Sarande, Shengjin, Vlore # 8 36582 54832 ? # 9 5 1 3 1 2 ? 4 ? ? ? 2 ? 1 Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards # 19 years of age # 749633 609986 32367 42000000 1.50 the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks independence from Serbian Republic; Albanians in The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education, access to public-sector jobs and representation in government # increasingly active transshipment point for Southwest Asian opiates, hashish, and cannabis transiting the Balkan route and cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe; limited opium and cannabis production; ethnic Albanian narcotrafficking organizations active in Central and Eastern Europe # @Algeria 0 Qassaman (The Plege) Latin Transliteration from the Arabic Qassaman Binnazilat Ilmahiqat Waddimaa Izzakiyat Ittahirat. Qassa Walbonood Illamiaat Ilkhafiqat Filgi bal Ishshamikhat Ish shahiqat Nahno Thurna Fa hayaton Aw ma maat. Wa Aqadna Alazma An Tahya Algazair Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! ahno Gondon Fi Sabil Il hakki Thorna Wa Ila Isstiqlalina Bilharbi Kumna. Lam Yakon Yossgha Lana Lamma Natakna Fatta khathna Rannat Albaroodi Wazna Wa Azafna Naghamat Alrashshashi Lahna Wa Aqadna Alazma An Tahya Algazair Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! ahno min Abtalina Nadfaoo Gondon Wa Ala Ashlaina Nassnaoo Magdan. Wa Ala Arwahena Nassado Khuldan Wa Ala Hamatina Narfao Bandan. Gabhato Ltahreeri Aataynaki Ahdan Wa Aqadna Alazma An Tahya Algazair Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! arkhato lawtani min Sah Ilfida Issmaooha Wasstageebo Linnida Waktobooha Bidimaa Ilshohadaa Waktobooha Libany Ilgeeli ghadan. Kad Madadna Laka Ya Magdo Yada Wa Aqadna Alazma An Tahya Algazair Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Original French Words Par les foudres qui anΘantissent, Par les flots de sang pur et sans tache, Par les drapeaux flottants qui flottent Sur les hauts djebel orgueilleux et fiers, Nous juron nous Ωtre rΘvoltΘs pour vivre ou pour mourir, Et nous avons jurΘ de mourir pour que vive l'AlgΘrie! TΘmoignez! TΘmoignez! TΘmoignez! ous sommes des soldats pour la justice, rΘvoltΘs, Et pour notre indΘpendance nous avons engagΘ le combat, Nous n'avon obΘi α nulle injonction en nous soulevant. Le bruit de la poudre a ΘtΘ notre mesure Et le crΘpitement des mitrailleuse notre chant favori. Et nous avons jurΘ de mourir pour que vive l'AlgΘrie! TΘmoignez! TΘmoignez! TΘmoignez! ur nos hΘros nous bΓtrions une gloire Et sur nos corps nous monterons α l'immortalitΘ, Sur nos Γmes, nous construirons une armΘe Et de notre espoir nous lΦverons l'Θtendard. Front de la LibΘration, nous t'avons prΩtΘ serment Et nous avons jurΘ de mourir pour que vive l'AlgΘrie! TΘmoignez! TΘmoignez! TΘmoignez! e cri de la patrie monte des champs de bataille. Ecoutez-le et rΘpondez α l'appel. Ecrivez-le dans le sang des martyrs Et dictez-le aux gΘnΘrations futures. Nous t'avons donnΘ la main, ⌠ gloire, Et nous avons jurΘ de mourir pour que vive l'AlgΘrie! TΘmoignez! TΘmoignez! TΘmoignez! Lyrics: Mufdi Zakariah, 1955 Music: Mohamed Fawzi, 1956 Adopted: 1963 # Algeria was under French occupation from 1830 until 1954. Algeria became independent in July 1962 after 8 years of armed struggle against the French. The Republic was declared on 25 September 1962. The constitution, which prescribed a presidential single-party system, dates from 1963. On 19 June 1965, a military coup transferred power to defense-minister Colonel Houari BomΘdienne and his Revolutionary Council. A new constitution, containing the principles of the Charta, was accepted in November. This maintains the single-party system. All citizens are entitled to vote from 19 years old. # DZ Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Morocco and Tunisia # 2381740 2381740 0 6343 Libya 982 km, Mali 1,376 km, Mauritania 463 km, Morocco 1,559 km, Niger 956 km, Tunisia 965 km, Western Sahara 42 km # 998 ? ? # ? 32 12 arid to semiarid; mild, wet winters with hot, dry summers along coast; drier with cold winters and hot summers on high plateau; sirocco is a hot, dust/sand-laden wind especially common in summer # mostly high plateau and desert; some mountains; narrow, discontinuous coastal plain # Chott Melrhir -40 m Tahat 3,003 m petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, uranium, lead, zinc # 3 0 13 2 82 5550 mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes; mud slides # soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters; Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable water # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands # Nuclear Test Ban # second-largest country in Africa (after Sudan) # 30480793 38 5923087 5709614 58 8931896 8752014 4 542012 622170 2.14 27.51 5.63 -0.49 1.04 1.04 1.02 0.87 ? 45.44 68.93 67.78 70.12 3.38 Algerian(s) Algerian Arab-Berber 99%, European less than 1% # Sunni Muslim (state religion) 99%, Christian and Jewish 1% # Arabic (official), French, Berber dialects # age 15 and over can read and write # 61.60 73.90 49 Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria Algeria Al Jumhuriyah al Jaza'iriyah ad Dimuqratiyah ash Shabiyah # Al Jaza'ir .? republic Algiers 48 provinces (wilayas, singular - wilaya); Adrar, Ain Defla, Ain Temouchent, Alger, Annaba, Batna, Bechar, Bejaia, Biskra, Blida, Bordj Bou Arreridj, Bouira, Boumerdes, Chlef, Constantine, Djelfa, El Bayadh, El Oued, El Tarf, Ghardaia, Guelma, Illizi, Jijel, Khenchela, Laghouat, Mascara, Medea, Mila, Mostaganem, M'Sila, Naama, Oran, Ouargla, Oum el Bouaghi, Relizane, Saida, Setif, Sidi Bel Abbes, Skikda, Souk Ahras, Tamanghasset, Tebessa, Tiaret, Tindouf, Tipaza, Tissemsilt, Tizi Ouzou, Tlemcen # ? # Anniversary of the Revolution, 1 November (1954) 19 November 1976, effective 22 November 1976; revised 3 November 1988, 23 February 1989, and 28 November 1996; note - referendum approving the revisions of 28 November 1996 was signed into law 7 December 1996 # socialist, based on French and Islamic law; judicial review of legislative acts in ad hoc Constitutional Council composed of various public officials, including several Supreme Court justices; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Liamine ZEROUAL (appointed president 31 January 1994, elected president 16 November 1995) # Prime Minister Smail HAMDANI # Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 16 November 1995 (next to be held NA 2000); prime minister appointed by the president # Liamine ZEROUAL elected president; percent of vote - Liamine ZEROUAL 61.3% # bicameral Parliament consists of the National People's Assembly or Al-Majlis Ech-Chaabi Al-Watani (380 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and the Council of Nations (144 seats; one-third of the members appointed by the president, two-thirds elected by indirect vote; members serve six-year terms; created as a result of the constitutional revision of November 1996) # National People's Assembly - last held 5 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2001); elections for two-thirds of the Council of Nations - last held 25 December 1997 (next to be held NA 2003) # National People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - RND 156, MSP 69, FLN 62, Nahda Movement 34, FFS 20, RCD 19, PT 4, Republican Progressive Party 3, Union for Democracy and Freedoms 1, Liberal Social Party 1, independents 11; Council of Nations - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - RND 80, FLN 10, FFS 4, MSP 2 (remaining 48 seats appointed by the president, party breakdown NA) # Supreme Court (Cour Supreme) # Islamic Salvation Front (FIS, outlawed April 1992), Ali BENHADJ, Dr. Abassi MADANI, Rabeh KEBIR (self-exile in Germany); National Liberation Front (FLN), Boualem BENHAMOUDA, secretary general; Socialist Forces Front (FFS), Hocine Ait AHMED, secretary general (self-exile in Switzerland); Movement of a Peaceful Society (MSP or Hamas), Mahfoud NAHNAH, chairman; Rally for Culture and Democracy (RCD), Said SAADI, secretary general; Algerian Renewal Party (PRA), Noureddine BOUKROUH, chairman; Nahda Movement (Al Nahda), Abdallah DJABALLAH, president; Democratic National Rally (RND), Abdelkader BENSALAH, chairman; Movement for Democracy in Algeria (MDA), Ahmed Ben BELLA; Workers Party (PT), Louisa HANOUN; Republican Progressive Party, Khadir DRISS; Union for Democracy and Freedoms, Mouley BOUKHALAFA; Liberal Social Party, Ahmed KHELIL note: the government established a multiparty system in September 1989 and, as of 31 December 1990, over 50 legal parties existed; a new party law was enacted in March 1997 # ? # ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OAU, OIC, OPEC, OSCE (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) # two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white with a red, five-pointed star within a red crescent; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam (the state religion) # The hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 57% of government revenues, 25% of GDP, and almost all export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the Arab world began after the 1986 collapse of world oil prices plunged the country into a severe recession. In 1989, the government launched a comprehensive, IMF-supported program to achieve economic stabilization and to introduce market mechanisms into the economy. Despite substantial progress toward economic adjustment, in 1992 the reform drive stalled as Algiers became embroiled in political turmoil. In September 1993, a new government was formed, and one priority was the resumption and acceleration of the structural adjustment process. Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the IMF in April 1994 and the following year signed onto a three-year extended fund facility. Progress on economic reform, a Paris Club debt rescheduling in 1995, and oil and gas sector expansion have contributed to a recovery since 1995. Investments in developing hydrocarbon resources are likely to maintain growth and export earnings. Continuing but gradual government efforts to attract foreign and domestic investment outside that sector seek to diversify the economy and tackle problems of high unemployment and falling living standards, problems as yet untouched by the macroeconomic turnaround. # 2.50 1490 45416 12 50 38 7 7800000 government 29.5%, agriculture 22%, construction and public works 16.2%, industry 13.6%, commerce and services 13.5%, transportation and communication 5.2% (1989) # 28 13700 13100 petroleum, natural gas, light industries, mining, electrical, petrochemical, food processing # ? 6.01 19100 630 wheat, barley, oats, grapes, olives, citrus, fruits; sheep, cattle # 13100 petroleum and natural gas 97% # Italy 18.8%, US 14.8%, France 11.8%, Spain 8%, Germany 7.9% (1995 est.) # 10000 capital goods, food and beverages, consumer goods # France 29%, Spain 10.5%, Italy 8.2%, US 8%, Germany 5.6% (1995 est.) # 33000 ODA, $420 million (1996) # ? # 1 Algerian dinar (DA) = 100 centimes # 58.97 calendar year 862000 good service in north but sparse in south; domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations (20 additional domestic earth stations are planned) # 5 submarine cables; microwave radio relay to Italy, France, Spain, Morocco, and Tunisia; coaxial cable to Morocco and Tunisia; participant in Medarabtel; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik, and 1 Arabsat # 26 0 0 6000000 18 2000000 4772 # 3,616 km 1.435-m gauge (301 km electrified; 215 km double track) # 1,156 km 1.055-m gauge # # 102424 70,570 km (including 608 km of expressways) # 31,854 km (1995 est.) # ? 6612 298 2948 Algiers, Annaba, Arzew, Bejaia, Beni Saf, Dellys, Djendjene, Ghazaouet, Jijel, Mostaganem, Oran, Skikda, Tenes # 78 928965 1094104 bulk 9, cargo 27, chemical tanker 7, liquefied gas tanker 11, oil tanker 5, roll-on/roll-off cargo 13, short-sea passenger 5, specialized tanker 1 (1997 est.) # 136 50 8 24 13 4 1 86 ? 3 24 40 19 1 National Popular Army, Navy, Air Force, Territorial Air Defense, National Gendarmerie # 19 years of age # 7949708 4871931 347952 1300000000 2.70 part of southeastern region claimed by Libya # ? # @American Samoa United States ? # # Oceania, group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand # 199 199 0 ? ? # 116 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical marine, moderated by southeast trade winds; annual rainfall averages 124 inches; rainy season from November to April, dry season from May to October; little seasonal temperature variation # five volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains, two coral atolls (Rose Island, Swains Island) # Pacific Ocean 0 m Lata 966 m pumice, pumicite # 5 10 0 70 15 ? typhoons common from December to March # limited natural fresh water resources; the water division of the government has spent substantial funds in the past few years to improve water catchments and pipelines # NA # NA # Pago Pago has one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the South Pacific Ocean, sheltered by shape from rough seas and protected by peripheral mountains from high winds; strategic location in the South Pacific Ocean # 62093 39 12575 11824 56 17513 17477 5 1364 1340 2.74 27.31 4.03 4.11 1.06 1.06 1 1.01 ? 10.47 75.23 70.95 79.77 3.72 American Samoan(s) American Samoan Samoan (Polynesian) 89%, Caucasian 2%, Tongan 4%, other 5% # Christian Congregationalist 50%, Roman Catholic 20%, Protestant denominations and other 30% # Samoan (closely related to Hawaiian and other Polynesian languages), English # age 15 and over can read and write # 97 98 97 Territory of American Samoa American Samoa ? # ? .as NA Pago Pago none (territory of the US); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are three political districts # ? # Territorial Flag Day, 17 April (1900) ratified 1966, in effect 1967 # NA # 18 years of age; universal # President of the US William Jefferson CLINTON (since 20 January 1993) and Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since 20 January 1993) # Governor Tauese P. SUNIA (since 3 January 1997) and Lieutenant Governor Togiola TULAFONO (since 3 January 1997) # NA # governor and lieutenant governor elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 3 November 1996 (next to be held 7 November 2000) # Tauese P. SUNIA elected governor of American Samoa; percent of vote - Tauese P. SUNIA (Democrat) 51%, Peter REID (independent) 49% # bicameral Fono or Legislative Assembly consists of the House of Representatives (21 seats - 20 of which are elected by popular vote and 1 is an appointed, nonvoting delegate from Swains Island; members serve two-year terms) and the Senate (18 seats; members are elected from local chiefs who serve four-year terms) # House of Representatives - last held 5 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 1998); Senate - last held 3 November 1996 (next to be held 7 November 2000) # House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA note: American Samoa elects one delegate to the US House of Representatives; elections last held 5 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 1998); results - Eni R. F. H. FALEOMAVAEGA (Democrat) reelected as delegate # High Court, chief justice and associate justices are appointed by the US Secretary of the Interior # Democratic Party; Republican Party # ? # ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC # blue with a white triangle edged in red that is based on the outer side and extends to the hoist side; a brown and white American bald eagle flying toward the hoist side is carrying two traditional Samoan symbols of authority, a staff and a war club # This is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economic activity is strongly linked to the US, with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. Tuna fishing and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna the primary export. Transfers from the US Government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. According to one observer, attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a developing sector, may be held back in 1998 by the financial difficulties in East Asia. # ? 6540 406 ? ? ? ? 14400 government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990) # 12 97 ? tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts # ? 0.03 105 1830 bananas, coconuts, vegetables, taro, breadfruit, yams, copra, pineapples, papayas; dairy farming # 318 canned tuna 93% # US 99.6% # 418 materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% # US 62%, Japan 9%, NZ 7%, Australia 11%, Fiji 4%, other 7% # ? ODA, $NA # ? # 1 US dollar (US$) = 100 cents # ? 1 October - 30 September 9000 good telex, telegraph, facsimile and cellular phone services; domestic satellite system with 1 Comsat earth station # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean) # 1 1 0 ? 1 12000 ? # # # # 350 150 km # 200 km # ? ? ? ? Aunu'u (new construction), Auasi, Faleosao, Ofu, Pago Pago, Ta'u # ? ? ? ? # 4 2 ? 1 ? ? 1 2 ? ? ? ? 2 ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Andorra 0 Himne Andorra El gran Carlemany, mon Pare dels alarbs em deslliurα, I del cel vida em donα de Meritxell, la gran Mare, Princesa nasquφ i Pubilla entre dues nacions neutral Sols resto l·nica filla de l'imperi Carlemany. Creient i lluire onze segles, creient i lliure vull ser. íSiguin els furs mos tutors i mos Prφnceps defensors! Lyrics: D. Joan Benlloch i Viv≥ Music: Father Enric Marfany Bons Adopted: 1914 # Throughout the ages, Andorra has formed part of numerous imperia: Rome, the Visigoths, the Mores? In about 800AD, the part of Spain to the north of the Ebro was lost to France. This area, known as the Spanish Mark, was to form a Christian buffer-zone against the Islam to the south. Andorra came under control of the Bishop of Urgel. For the defense of Andorra, he enlisted the help of the Spanish nobleman Caboet. This task passed by inheritance to the French Count of Foix. Foix assumed that he had certain rights to Andorra and came into conflict with the bishop, eventually leading to the ParΘage of 1278, whereby double-sovereignty was arranged. The rights of the house of Foix passed through inheritance to the French throne. Up to the present day, this dual leadership is maintained. Internal legislation is carried out by the 'General Council of the Valleys', consisting of 28 members, 4 for each of the 7 districts, elected every 4 years. Women's suffrage dates from 1970. The Council nominates the Syndic Procureur GΘnΘral and his assistant; until 1982 they had full executive powers. In that year, however, the General Council nominated an Executive Council for the first time. # AND Southwestern Europe, between France and Spain # 450 450 0 125 France 60 km, Spain 65 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? temperate; snowy, cold winters and warm, dry summers # rugged mountains dissected by narrow valleys # Riu Valira 840 m Coma Pedrosa 2,946 m hydropower, mineral water, timber, iron ore, lead # 2 0 56 22 20 ? snowslides, avalanches # deforestation; overgrazing of mountain meadows contributes to soil erosion # none of the selected agreements # none of the selected agreements # landlocked # 64716 14 4819 4474 73 25448 22028 13 4041 3906 1.50 10.48 5.35 9.84 1.06 1.07 1.15 1.03 ? 4.09 83.45 80.54 86.54 1.23 Andorran(s) Andorran Spanish 61%, Andorran 30%, French 6%, other 3% # Roman Catholic (predominant) # Catalan (official), French, Castilian # ? # ? ? ? Principality of Andorra Andorra Principat d'Andorra # Andorra .ad parliamentary democracy (since March 1993) that retains as its heads Andorra la Vella 7 parishes (parroquies, singular - parroquia); Andorra, Canillo, Encamp, La Massana, Les Escaldes, Ordino, Sant Julia de Loria # ? # Mare de Deu de Meritxell, 8 September Andorra's first written constitution was drafted in 1991; adopted 14 March 1993 # based on French and Spanish civil codes; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # French Coprince Jacques CHIRAC (since 17 May 1995) and Spanish Episcopal Coprince Monseigneur Juan MARTI Alanis (since 31 January 1971); note - each coprince is represented by a veguer (French: Jean-Pierre COURTOIS; Spanish: Francesc BADIA Battalla) # Executive Council President Marc FORNE Molne (since 21 December 1994) # Executive Council designated by the executive council president # executive council president elected by the General Council and formally appointed by the coprinces; election last held 16 February 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) # Marc FORNE Molne elected executive council president; percent of General Council vote - NA # unicameral General Council of the Valleys or Consell General de las Valls (28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, 14 from a single national constituency and 14 to represent each of the 7 parishes; members serve four-year terms) # last held 16 February 1997 (next to be held February 2001) # percent of vote by party - UL 57%, AND 21%, IDN 7%, ND 7%, other 8%; seats by party - UL 16, AND 6, ND 2, IDN 2, UPO 2 # Supreme Court of Andorra at Perpignan (France) two civil judges appointed by the veguers, one appeals judge appointed by the coprinces alternately; Ecclesiastical Court of the Bishop of Seo de Urgel (Spain); Tribunal of the Courts or Tribunal des Cortes presided over by the two civil judges, one appeals judge, the veguers, and two members of the General Council # National Democratic Group or AND [Oscar RIBAS Reig]; Liberal Union or UL [Francesc CERQUEDA]; New Democracy or ND [Jaume BARTOMEU Cassany]; Andorran National Coalition or CNA [Antoni CERQUEDA Gispert]; National Democratic Initiative or IDN [Vincenc MATEU Zamora]; Liberal Party of Andorra (Partit Liberal d'Andorra) or PLA [Marc FORNE]; Unio Parroquial d'Ordino or UDO note: there are two other small parties # ? # CE, ECE, ICRM, IFRCS, Interpol, IOC, ITU, OSCE, UN, UNESCO, WHO, WIPO, WToO # three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red with the national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; the coat of arms features a quartered shield; similar to the flags of Chad and Romania that do not have a national coat of arms in the center # Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 10 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts. Andorra's comparative advantage has recently eroded as the economies of neighboring France and Spain have been opened up, providing broader availability of goods and lower tariffs. The banking sector, with its "tax haven" status, also contributes substantially to the economy. Agricultural production is limited by a scarcity of arable land, and most food has to be imported. The principal livestock activity is sheep raising. Manufacturing consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra is a member of the EU Customs Union and is treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. # ? 13099 848 ? ? ? ? ? ? # 0 138 177 tourism (particularly skiing), sheep, timber, tobacco, banking # ? 0.04 140 ? small quantities of tobacco, rye, wheat, barley, oats, vegetables; sheep raising # 47 electricity, tobacco products, furniture # France 49%, Spain 47% # 1000 consumer goods, food # France, Spain, US 4.2% # ? ? # ? # 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes; 1 peseta (Pta) = 100 centimos; the French and Spanish currencies are used # 6.08 calendar year 21258 modern system with microwave radio relay connections between exchanges # landline circuits to France and Spain # 1 0 0 10000 0 7000 ? # # # # 269 198 km # 71 km (1991 est.) # ? ? ? ? none # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Angola 0 O Pßtria, nunca mais esqueceremos Os her≤is do quatro de Fevereio. O Pßtria, n≤s saudamos os teus filhos Tombados pela nossa IndependΩncia. Honramos o passado e a nossa Hist≤ria, Construindo no Trabalho o Homem novo, (repeat previous two lines) CHORUS Angola, avante! Revoluτπo, pelo Poder Popular! Pßtria Unida, Liberdade, Um s≤ povo, uma s≤ Naτπo! (repeat chorus) Levantemos nossas vozes libertadas Para gl≤riados povos africanos. Marchemos, combatentes angolanos, Solidßrios com os poroso primidos. Orgulhosos lutaremos Pela Paz Com as forτas progressistas do mundo. (repeat previous two lines) Lyrics: Manuel Rui Alves Monteiro Music: Rui Alberto Vieira Dias Mingas Adopted: 1975 # The Portuguese navigator Diego Cπo landed in the mouth of the Za∩re in 1483. The local tribes, including the Ngola, after whom the country was later named, were quickly converted to christianity. The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 divided Africa, and Portugal received Cabinda in addition to Angola. Angola was officially declared independent in 1975. The civil war which ensued was dominated in 1976 by the MPLA. The first MPLA congress, in December 1977, reorganized the movement into a Marxist-Lenninist party, the MPLA-Partido Trabalho (MPLA-PT), or MPLA-Workers Party. Civil war has been the norm since then. A cease-fire lasted from 31 May 1991 until October 1992 when the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) refused to accept its defeat in internationally monitored elections and fighting resumed throughout much of the countryside. The two sides signed another peace accord on 20 November 1994 and the cease-fire is generally holding, but military tensions persist and banditry is increasing. In order to bring armed insurgents under government control the peace accord of 20 November 1994 provided for the integration of former UNITA insurgents into the Angolan armed forces. Military integration began in June 1996 and a Government of National Unity and Reconciliation was installed in April 1997. Efforts which began in May 1997 to extend government into UNITA-occupied areas are proceeding slowly. The original 7,200-man UN peacekeeping force began a phased drawdown in late 1996. All UN peacekeepers are scheduled to depart by September 1997 but a small UN military observer force will probably remain in Angola through 1998. # ? Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Namibia and Democratic Republic of the Congo # 1246700 1246700 0 5198 Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,511 km of which 220 km is the boundary of discontiguous Cabinda Province, Republic of the Congo 201 km, Namibia 1,376 km, Zambia 1,110 km # 1600 ? ? # ? 200 20 semiarid in south and along coast to Luanda; north has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April) # narrow coastal plain rises abruptly to vast interior plateau # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Morro de Moco 2,620 m petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, copper, feldspar, gold, bauxite, uranium # 2 0 23 43 32 750 locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau # the overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water # Biodiversity, Desertification, Law of the Sea # Climate Change # Cabinda is separated from rest of country by the Democratic Republic of the Congo # 10864512 45 2471108 2401631 52 2864152 2831209 3 137432 158980 2.84 43.58 16.79 1.65 1.05 1.02 1.01 0.86 ? 132.44 47.86 45.60 50.23 6.20 Angolan(s) Angolan Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and Native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22% # indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.) # Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages # age 15 and over can read and write # 42 56 28 Republic of Angola Angola Republica de Angola # Angola .ao transitional government, nominally a multiparty democracy with a strong Luanda 18 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire # ? # Independence Day, 11 November (1975) 11 November 1975; revised 7 January 1978, 11 August 1980, 6 March 1991, and 26 August 1992 # based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; recently modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets # 18 years of age; universal # President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979) # Prime Minister Fernando Franca VAN DUNEM (since 8 June 1996) # Council of Ministers appointed by the president # President DOS SANTOS originally elected without opposition under a one-party system and stood for reelection in Angola's first multiparty elections in 28-29 September 1992, the last elections to be held, (next to be held NA); prime minister appointed by the president and answerable to the Assembly # DOS SANTOS received 49.6% of the total vote, making a run-off election necessary between him and second-place finisher Jonas SAVIMBI; the run-off was not held and SAVIMBI's National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) repudiated the results of the first election; the civil war was resumed # unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (220 seats; members elected by proportional vote to serve four-year terms) # last held 29-30 September 1992 (next to be held NA) # percent of vote by party - MPLA 54%, UNITA 34%, others 12%; seats by party - NA # Supreme Court or Tribunal da Relacao, judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president # Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola or MPLA [Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS], is the ruling party and has been in power since 1975; National Union for the Total Independence of Angola or UNITA [Jonas SAVIMBI], is the largest opposition party and engaged in years of armed resistance before joining the current unity government in April 1997 note: about a dozen minor parties participated in the 1992 elections but won few seats and have little influence in the National Assembly # ? # ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC (observer), ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle) # Angola is an economy in disarray because of more than 20 years of nearly continuous warfare. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 50% to GDP. Notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in November 1994, sporadic violence continues, millions of land mines remain, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food must still be imported. To take advantage of its rich resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, arable land, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement the peace agreement and reform government policies. Despite the high inflation and political difficulties, total output grew an estimated 9% in 1996, largely due to increased oil production and higher oil prices. # 9 340 3694 12 56 32 92 2783000 agriculture 85%, industry and services 15% (1997 est.) # ? 928 2500 petroleum; diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, feldspar, bauxite, uranium, and gold; cement; basic metal products; fish processing; food processing; brewing; tobacco products; sugar; textiles # ? 0.62 18620 185 bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fish # 4000 crude oil 90%, diamonds, refined petroleum products, gas, coffee, sisal, fish and fish products, timber, cotton # US 70%, EU # 1700 capital equipment (machinery and electrical equipment), vehicles and spare parts; medicines, food, textiles and clothing; substantial military supplies # Portugal, Brazil, US, France, Spain # 12500 ODA, $451 million (1994) # ? # 1 kwanza (NKz) = 100 lwei # 265000 calendar year 78000 limited system of wire, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 17 13 0 ? 6 50000 2952 # # 2,798 km 1.067-m gauge; 154 km 0.600-m gauge # # 72626 18,157 km # 54,469 km (1996 est.) # 1295 179 ? ? Ambriz, Cabinda, Lobito, Luanda, Malongo, Namibe, Porto Amboim, Soyo # 10 48384 78357 cargo 9, oil tanker 1 (1997 est.) # 252 32 4 9 12 6 1 220 1 4 32 101 82 ? Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Police Force # 18 years of age # 2476766 1246349 105283 1200000000 31 none # increasingly used as a transshipment point for cocaine and heroin destined for Western Europe and other African states # @Anguilla United Kingdom ? # # GB Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, east of Puerto Rico # 91 91 0 ? ? # 61 ? ? # ? 200 3 tropical; moderated by northeast trade winds # flat and low-lying island of coral and limestone # Caribbean Sea 0 m Crocus Hill 65 m salt, fish, lobster # ? ? ? ? 100 ? frequent hurricanes and other tropical storms (July to October) # supplies of potable water sometimes cannot meet increasing demand largely because of poor distribution system # NA # NA # ? # 11147 28 1558 1511 65 3713 3545 7 359 461 3.25 17.04 5.47 20.90 1.02 1.03 1.05 0.78 ? 20.16 77.37 74.39 80.43 1.98 Anguillan(s) Anguillan black # Anglican 40%, Methodist 33%, Seventh-Day Adventist 7%, Baptist 5%, Roman Catholic 3%, other 12% # English (official) # age 12 and over can read and write # 95 95 95 none Anguilla ? # ? .ai NA The Valley none (dependent territory of the UK) # ? # Anguilla Day, 30 May Anguilla Constitutional Order 1 April 1982; amended 1990 # based on English common law # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952); represented by Governor Alan HOOLE (since 1 November 1995) # Chief Minister Hubert HUGHES (since 16 March 1994) # Executive Council appointed by the governor from among the elected members of the House of Assembly # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor appointed by the queen; chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the House of Assembly # ? # unicameral House of Assembly (11 seats total, 7 elected by direct popular vote; members serve five-year terms) # last held 16 March 1994 (next to be held March 1999) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ANA 2, AUP 2, ADP 2, independent 1 # High Court, judge provided by Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court # Anguilla National Alliance or ANA [Osbourne FLEMING]; Anguilla United Party or AUP [Hubert HUGHES]; Anguilla Democratic Party or ADP [Victor BANKS] # ? # Caricom (observer), CDB, Interpol (subbureau), OECS (associate), ECLAC (associate) # blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Anguillan coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts three orange dolphins in an interlocking circular design on a white background with blue wavy water below # Anguilla has few natural resources, and the economy depends heavily on high-class tourism, offshore banking, lobster fishing, and remittances from emigrants. The economy, and especially the tourism sector, suffered a setback in late 1995 due to the effects of Hurricane Luis in September but recovered in 1996. Anguillan officials have put substantial effort into developing the offshore financing sector. A comprehensive package of financial services legislation was enacted in late 1994. In the medium term, prospects for the economy will depend on the tourism sector and, therefore, on continuing income growth in the industrialized nations. # 3.40 4220 47 ? ? ? 3.60 4400 commerce 36%, services 29%, construction 18%, transportation and utilities 10%, manufacturing 3%, agriculture/fishing/forestry/mining 4% # 7 13.50 17.60 tourism, boat building, offshore financial services # ? ? ? ? pigeon peas, corn, sweet potatoes; sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, poultry; fishing (including lobster) # 1.80 lobster, fish, livestock, salt # NA # 52.70 NA # NA # 8.50 ? # ? # 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents # 2.70 1 April - 31 March 890 modern internal telephone system # microwave radio relay to island of Saint Martin (Guadeloupe and Netherlands Antilles) # 3 1 0 2000 1 ? ? # # # # 105 65 km # 40 km (1992 est.) # ? ? ? ? Blowing Point, Road Bay # ? ? ? ? # 3 1 ? ? ? 1 2 2 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Antarctica 0 ? # Antarctic Treaty Summary: The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings - the 18th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Japan in April 1993. Currently, there are 42 treaty member nations: 26 consultative and 16 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 19 nonclaimant nations. The US and some other nations that have made no claims have reserved the right to do so. The US does not recognize the claims of others. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the US, and Russia. Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), and Ukraine (1992). Article 1: area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose Article 2: freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue Article 3: free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN and other international agencies Article 4: does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force Article 5: prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes Article 6: includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south Article 7: treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given Article 8: allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states Article 9: frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations Article 10: treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty Article 11: disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ Articles 12, 13, 14: deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations # continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle # 14000000 14000000 ? ? ? # 17968 ? ? # ? ? ? severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing # about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to about 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent # Indian Ocean 0 m Vinson Massif 5,140 m none presently exploited; iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities # 0 0 0 0 100 0 katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak # in 1995 it was reported that the ozone shield, which protects the Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation, had dwindled to the lowest level recorded over Antarctica since 1975 when measurements were first taken # none of the selected agreements # none of the selected agreements # the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable # 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? none Antarctica ? # ? .aq Antarctic Treaty Summary - The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December ? ? # ? # ? ? # US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism, both based abroad. # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 18 ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? NA # NA # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage # ? ? ? ? # 18 ? 4 3 2 4 5 ? ? ? ? ? ? 1 ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary above); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land), and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the US reserves the right to do so); no formal claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west # ? # @Antigua and Barbuda 0 Fair Antigua, we salute thee! Proudly we this anthem raise To thy glory and thy beauty, Joyfully we sing the praise Of the virtues, all bestowed On thy sons and daughters free; Ever striving, ever seeking, Dwell in love and unity. Raise the standard! Raise it boldly! Answer now to duty's call To the service of thy country, Sparing nothing, giving all; Gird your loins and join the battle 'Gainst fear, hate and poverty, Each endeavouring, all achieving, Live in peace where man is free. God of nations, let Thy blessings Fall upon this land of ours; Rain and sunshine ever sending, Fill her fields with crops and flowers; We her children do implore Thee, Give us strength, faith, loyalty, Never failing, all enduring To defend her liberty. # Antigua was first inhabited by the Siboney ("stone people"), whose settlements date at least to 2400 BC. The Siboney were succeeded by the Arawaks, who originated in Venezuela and gradually migrated up the chain of islands now called the Lesser Antilles. The warlike Carib people drove the Arawaks from neighboring islands but apparently did not settle on either Antigua or Barbuda. Christopher Columbus landed on the islands in 1493, naming the larger one "Santa Maria de la Antigua." The English colonized the islands in 1632. Sir Christopher Codrington established the first large sugar estate in Antigua in 1674, and leased Barbuda to raise provisions for his plantations. Barbuda's only town is named after him. Codrington and others brought slaves from Africa's west coast to work the plantations. Antiguan slaves were emancipated in 1834 but remained economically dependent on the plantation owners. Economic opportunities for the new freedmen were limited by a lack of surplus farming land, no access to credit, and an economy built on agriculture rather than manufacturing. Poor labor conditions persisted until 1939, when a member of a royal commission urged the formation of a trade union movement. The Antigua Trades and Labor Union, formed shortly afterward, became the political vehicle for Vere Cornwall Bird, who became the union's president in 1943. The Antigua Labor Party (ALP), formed by Bird and other trade unionists, first ran candidates in the 1946 elections and became the majority party in 1951, beginning a long history of electoral victories. Voted out of office in the 1971 general elections that swept the progressive labor movement into power, Bird and the ALP returned to office in 1976; the party won renewed mandates in the general elections in 1984 and 1989. In the 1989 elections, the ruling ALP won all but two of the 17 seats. During elections in March 1994, power passed from Vere Bird to his son, Lester Bird, but remained within the Antigua Labor Party. The ALP won 11 of the 17 parliamentary seats. The official opposition in parliament is led by Baldwin Spencer of the United Progressive Party. # AG Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of Puerto Rico # 440 440 0 ? ? # 153 24 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin # 200 ? 12 tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation # mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands with some higher volcanic areas # Caribbean Sea 0 m Boggy Peak 402 m negligible; pleasant climate fosters tourism # 18 0 9 11 62 ? hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October); periodic droughts # water management - a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources - is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling # Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol # ? # 64006 26 8482 8200 68 21695 22042 6 1548 2039 0.39 16.72 5.87 -6.92 1.05 1.03 0.98 0.76 ? 21.35 71.19 68.82 73.69 1.74 Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s) Antiguan, Barbudan black, British, Portuguese, Lebanese, Syrian # Anglican (predominant), other Protestant sects, some Roman Catholic # English (official), local dialects # age 15 and over has completed five or more years of schooling # 89 90 88 none Antigua and Barbuda ? # ? .ag parliamentary democracy Saint John's 6 parishes and 2 dependencies*; Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter, Saint Philip # ? # Independence Day, 1 November (1981) 1 November 1981 # based on English common law # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General James B. CARLISLE (since NA 1993) # Prime Minister Lester Bryant BIRD (since 8 March 1994) # Council of Ministers appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor general chosen by the queen on the advice of the prime minister; prime minister appointed by the governor general # ? # bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (17-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Representatives (17 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms) # House of Representatives - last held 8 March 1994 (next to be held NA 1999) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ALP 11, UPP 5, independent 1 # Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint Lucia), one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction # Antigua Labor Party or ALP [Lester Bryant BIRD]; United Progressive Party or UPP [Baldwin SPENCER], a coalition of three opposition political parties - the United National Democratic Party or UNDP; the Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement or ACLM; and the Progressive Labor Movement or PLM # ? # ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WTrO # red with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white with a yellow rising sun in the black band # Tourism continues to be by far the dominant activity in the economy accounting directly or indirectly to more than half of GDP. Increased tourist arrivals have helped spur growth in the construction and transport sectors. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about half of all tourist arrivals. # 3.30 7150 458 3.80 18.90 77.30 2.50 30000 commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983) # 5 107 132 tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing, alcohol, household appliances) # ? 0.03 95 1458 cotton, fruits, vegetables, bananas, coconuts, cucumbers, mangoes, sugarcane; livestock # 45 petroleum products 48%, manufactures 23%, food and live animals 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17% # OECS 26%, Barbados 15%, Guyana 4%, Trinidad and Tobago 2%, US 0.3% # 350.80 food and live animals, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, oil # US 27%, UK 16%, Canada 4%, OECS 3%, other 50% # 225 ? # ? # 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents # 2.70 1 April - 31 March 6700 good automatic telephone system # 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Saba (Netherlands Antilles) and Guadeloupe # 4 2 2 ? 2 28000 77 # # 64 km 0.760-m gauge; 13 km 0.610-m gauge (used almost exclusively for handling sugarcane) # # 250 NA km # NA km # ? ? ? ? Saint John's # 440 2025920 2690028 bulk 12, cargo 295, chemical tanker 6, combination bulk 1, container 89, liquefied gas tanker 2, oil tanker 4, refrigerated cargo 10, roll-on/roll-off cargo 20, vehicle carrier 1 # 3 2 ? 1 ? ? 1 1 ? ? ? ? 1 ? Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force, Royal Antigua and Barbuda Police Force (includes the Coast Guard) # ? # ? ? ? 1400000 1 none # considered a long-time but relatively minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe and recent transshipment point for heroin from Europe to the US; potentially more significant as a drug money-laundering center # @Arctic Ocean 0 ? # # body of water mostly north of the Arctic Circle # 14056000 ? ? ? ? # 45389 ? ? # ? ? ? polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow # central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that averages about 3 meters in thickness, although pressure ridges may be three times that size; clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyral Stream, but nearly straight line movement from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to Denmark Strait (between Greenland and Iceland); the icepack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling land masses; the ocean floor is about 50% continental shelf (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera, and Lomonsov Ridge) # Fram Basin -4,665 m sea level 0 m sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales) # ? ? ? ? ? ? ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually icelocked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May # endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage # none of the selected agreements # none of the selected agreements # major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia, floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # Economic activity is limited to the exploitation of natural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals. # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # no submarine cables # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? Churchill (Canada), Murmansk (Russia), Prudhoe Bay (US) # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? some maritime disputes (see littoral states); Svalbard is the focus of a maritime boundary dispute between Norway and Russia # ? # @Argentina 0 HIMNO NACIONAL ARGENTINO (Estrofas que se cantan en la actualidad) Oid ímortales! el grito sagrado: íLibertad, Libertad, Libertad! Oid el ruido de rotas cadenas: Ved en trono a la noble Igualdad. íYa su trono dignφsimo abrieron Las provincias unidas del Sud! Y los libres del mundo responden: íAl Gran Pueblo Argentino Salud! íAl Gran Pueblo Argentino Salud! Y los libres del mundo responden: íAl Gran Pueblo Argentino Salud! Sean eternos los laureles Que supimos conseguir. Que supimos conseguir. Coronados de gloria vivamos O juremos con gloria morir. O juremos con gloria morir. O juremos con gloria morir. "Himno Nacional Argentino" V.L≤pez y Planes / B.Parera. Oid ímortales! el grito sagrado: íLibertad, Libertad, Libertad! Oid el ruido de rotas cadenas: Ved en trono a la noble Igualdad. Se levanta la faz de la tierra Una nueva y gloriosa Naci≤n: Coronada su sien de laureles Y a sus plantas rendido un Le≤n Sean eternos los laureles Que supimos conseguir. Coronados de gloria vivamos O juremos con gloria morir. De los nuevos campeones los rostros Marte mismo parece animar; la grandeza se anida en sus pechos, A su marcha todo hace temblar. Se conmueven del Inca las tumbas Y en sus huesos revive el ardor, Lo que ve renovando a sus hijos De la Patria el antiguo esplendor. Sean eternos los laureles Que supimos conseguir. Coronados de gloria vivamos O juremos con gloria morir. Pero sierras y muros se sienten Retumbar con horrible fragor: Todo el Paφs se conturba por gritos De venganza, de guerra y furor. En los fieros tiranos la envidia Escupi≤ su pestφfera hiel, Su estandarte sangriento levantan Provocando a la lid mßs cruel. Sean eternos los laureles Que supimos conseguir. Coronados de gloria vivamos O juremos con gloria morir. íNo lo vΘis sobre MΘjico y Quito Arrojarse con sa±a tenaz, Y cußl lloran ba±ados en sangre Potosφ, Cochabamba y la Paz! íNo lo vΘis sobre el triste Caracas Luto y llantos y muerte esparcir! íNo lo vΘis devorando cual fieras Todo pueblo que logran rendir! Sean eternos los laureles Que supimos conseguir. Coronados de gloria vivamos O juremos con gloria morir. A vosotros se atreve íArgentinos! El orgullo del vil invasor, Vuestros campos ya pisa contando Tantas glorias hollar vencedor. Mßs los bravos que unidos juraron Su feliz libertad sostener, A esos tigres sedientos de sangre Fuertes pechos sabrßn oponer. Sean eternos los laureles Que supimos conseguir. Coronados de gloria vivamos O juremos con gloria morir. El valiente argentino a las armas Corre ardiendo con brφo y valor, El clarφn de la guerra cual trueno En los campos del Sud reson≤, Buenos Aires se pone a la frente De los pueblos de la φnclita Uni≤n, Y con brazos robustos desgarran Al ibΘrico altivo Le≤n. Sean eternos los laureles Que supimos conseguir. Coronados de gloria vivamos O juremos con gloria morir. San JosΘ, San Lorenzo, Suipacha, Ambas Piedras, Salta y Tucumßn, La Colonia y las mismas murallas Del tirano en la Banda Oriental; Son letreros eternos que dicen: Aquφ el brazo argentino triunf≤ Aquφ el fiero opresor de la Patria Su cerviz orgullosa dobl≤. Sean eternos los laureles Que supimos conseguir. Coronados de gloria vivamos O juremos con gloria morir. La victoria al guerrero argentino Con sus alas brillantes cubri≤ Y azorado a su vista el tirano, Con infamia a la fuga se di≤; Sus banderas, sus armas se rinden Por trofeos a la Libertad, Y sobre alas de gloria alza el pueblo Trono digno a su gran majestad. Sean eternos los laureles Que supimos conseguir. Coronados de gloria vivamos O juremos con gloria morir. Desde un polo hasta el otro resuena De la fama el sonoro clarφn, Y de AmΘrica el nombre ense±ando, Les repite: íMortales! Oid: íYa su trono dignφsimo abrieron Las provincias unidas del Sud! Y los libres del mundo responden: íAl Gran Pueblo Argentino Salud! # Europeans arrived in the region with the 1502 voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Spanish navigator Juan Diaz de Solias visited what is now Argentina in 1516. Spain established a permanent colony on the site of Buenos Aires in 1580. They further integrated Argentina into their empire following the establishment of the Vice-Royalty of Rio de la Plata in 1776, and Buenos Aires became a flourishing port. Buenos Aires formally declared independence from Spain on July 9, 1816. Argentines revere General Jose de San Martin, who campaigned in Argentina, Chile, and Peru, as the hero of their national independence. Following the defeat of the Spanish, centralist and federalist groups waged a lengthy conflict between themselves to determine the future of the nation. National unity was established and the constitution promulgated in 1853. Two forces combined to create the modern Argentine nation in the late 19th century: the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and the integration of Argentina into the world economy. Foreign investment and immigration from Europe aided this economic revolution. The investment, primarily British, came in such fields as railroads and ports. The migrants who worked to develop Argentina's resources came from throughout Europe, but mostly from Italy and Spain. Conservative forces dominated Argentine politics until 1916, when their traditional rivals, the Radicals, won control of the government through a democratic election. The Radicals, with their emphasis on fair elections and democratic institutions, opened their doors to Argentina's expanding middle class as well as to elites previously excluded from power for various reasons. The Argentine military forced aged Radical President Hipolito Yrigoyen from power in 1930 and ushered in another decade of Conservative rule. Using fraud and force when necessary, the governments of the 1930s attempted to contain forces for economic and political change that eventually helped produce the governments of Juan Domingo Peron (b. 1897). New social and political forces were seeking political power. These included the modern military and the labor movement that emerged from the growing urban working class. The military ousted Argentina's constitutional government in 1943. Peron, then an army colonel, was one of the coup's leaders, and he soon became the government's dominant figure as minister of labor. Elections carried him to the presidency in 1946. He aggressively pursued policies aimed at giving an economic and political voice to the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionized workers. In 1947, Peron announced the first five-year plan based on nationalization and industrialization. He presented himself as a friend of labor and assisted in establishing the powerful General Confederation of Labor (CGT). Peron's dynamic wife, Eva Duarte de Peron, known as Evita (1919-1952), helped her husband develop his appeals to labor and women's groups. Women obtained the right to vote in 1947. Peron won reelection in 1952, but the military deposed him in 1955. He went into exile, eventually settling in Spain. In the 1950s and 1960s, military and civilian administrations traded power. They tried, with limited success, to deal with diminished economic growth and continued social and labor demands. When military governments failed to revive the economy and suppress escalating terrorism in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the way was open for Peron's return. On March 11, 1973, Argentina held general elections for the first time in 10 years. Peron was prevented from running, but voters elected his stand-in, Dr. Hector J. Campora, to the presidency. Peron's followers also commanded strong majorities in both houses of the National Congress, which assumed office on May 25, 1973. Campora resigned in July 1973, paving the way for new elections. Peron won a decisive victory and returned as President in October 1973 with his third wife, Maria Estela Isabel Martinez de Peron, as Vice President. During this period, extremists on the left and right carried out terrorist acts with a frequency that threatened public order. The government resorted to a number of emergency decrees, including the implementation of special executive authority to deal with violence. This allowed the government to imprison persons indefinitely without charge. Peron died on July 1, 1974. His wife succeeded him in office, but her administration was undermined by economic problems, Peronist intraparty struggles, and growing terrorism from both left and right. A military coup removed her from office on March 24, 1976. Until December 10, 1983, the armed forces formally exercised power through a junta composed of the three service commanders. The armed forces applied harsh measures against terrorists and their sympathizers. They silenced armed opposition and restored basic order. The costs of what became known as the "Dirty War" were high in terms of lives lost and basic human rights violated. Serious economic problems, defeat by the U.K. in 1982 after an unsuccessful Argentine attempt to forcibly take control of the Falklands/Malvinas Islands, public revulsion in the face of severe human rights abuses, and mounting charges of corruption combined to discredit and discourage the military regime. This prompted a period of gradual transition and led the country toward democratic rule. Acting under public pressure, the junta lifted bans on political parties and restored other basic political liberties. Argentina experienced a generally successful and peaceful return to democracy. On October 30, 1983, Argentines went to the polls to choose a president, vice president, and national, provincial, and local officials in elections international observers found to be fair, open, and honest. The country returned to constitutional rule after Raul Alfonsin, candidate of the Radial Civic Union (UCR), received 52% of the popular vote for president. He began a six-year term of office on December 10, 1983. In 1985 and 1987, large turnouts for mid-term elections demonstrated continued public support for a strong and vigorous democratic system. The UCR-led government took steps to resolve some of the nation's most pressing problems, including accounting for those who disappeared during military rule, establishing civilian control of the armed forces, and consolidating democratic institutions. However, constant friction with the military, failure to resolve endemic economic problems, and an inability to maintain public confidence undermined the Alfonsin Government's effectiveness, which left office six months early after Peronist candidate Carlos Saul Menem won the 1989 presidential elections. As President, Menem launched a major overhaul of Argentine domestic policy. Large-scale structural reforms have dramatically reversed the role of the state in Argentine economic life. A decisive leader pressing a controversial agenda, Menem has not been reluctant to use the presidency's extensive powers to issue decrees advancing modernization when the congress was unable to reach consensus on his proposed reforms. Those powers were curtailed somewhat when the constitution was reformed in 1994 as a result of the so-called Olivos Pact with the opposition Radical Party. That arrangement opened the way for Menem to seek and win reelection with 50% of the vote in the three-way 1995 presidential race. The 1995 election saw the emergence of the moderate left FREPASO political alliance. This alternative to the traditional two main political parties in Argentina is particularly strong in Buenos Aires, but as yet lacks the national infrastructure of the Peronist and Radical parties. In an important development in Argentina's political life, all three major contestants in the 1995 race espouse free market economic policies. Argentina held mid-term congressional elections in October 1997. The opposition UCR-FREPASO alliance made major gains in the number of seats it held and deprived the Peronists of an absolute majority. The elections are widely seen as setting the stage for the 1999 presidential race. The government's pro-market policies remain unchallenged, but continued high unemployment and growing public concern over perceived corruption have hurt the government's standing in public opinion polls. # RA Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Chile and Uruguay # 2766890 2736690 30200 9665 Bolivia 832 km, Brazil 1,224 km, Chile 5,150 km, Paraguay 1,880 km, Uruguay 579 km # 4989 24 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin # 200 ? 12 mostly temperate; arid in southeast; subantarctic in southwest # rich plains of the Pampas in northern half, flat to rolling plateau of Patagonia in south, rugged Andes along western border # Salinas Chicas -40 m Cerro Aconcagua 6,962 m fertile plains of the pampas, lead, zinc, tin, copper, iron ore, manganese, petroleum, uranium # 9 1 52 19 19 17000 San Miguel de Tucuman and Mendoza areas in the Andes subject to earthquakes; pamperos are violent windstorms that can strike the Pampas and northeast; heavy flooding # erosion results from inadequate flood controls and improper land use practices; irrigated soil degradation; desertification; air pollution in Buenos Aires and other major cities; water pollution in urban areas; rivers becoming polluted due to increased pesticide and fertilizer use # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands # Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation # second-largest country in South America (after Brazil); strategic location relative to sea lanes between South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage) # 36265463 27 5078061 4888883 62 11299155 11315522 11 1526682 2157160 1.30 19.96 7.67 0.66 1.05 1.04 1 0.71 ? 19.03 74.54 70.90 78.34 2.68 Argentine(s) Argentine white 85%, mestizo, Amerindian, or other nonwhite groups 15% # nominally Roman Catholic 90% (less than 20% practicing), Protestant 2%, Jewish 2%, other 6% # Spanish (official), English, Italian, German, French # age 15 and over can read and write # 96.20 96.20 96.20 Argentine Republic Argentina Republica Argentina # Argentina .ar republic Buenos Aires 23 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia), and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Buenos Aires; Catamarca; Chaco; Chubut; Cordoba; Corrientes; Distrito Federal*; Entre Rios; Formosa; Jujuy; La Pampa; La Rioja; Mendoza; Misiones; Neuquen; Rio Negro; Salta; San Juan; San Luis; Santa Cruz; Santa Fe; Santiago del Estero; Tierra del Fuego, Antartida e Islas del Atlantico Sur; Tucuman note: the US does not recognize any claims to Antarctica # ? # Revolution Day, 25 May (1810) 1 May 1853; revised August 1994 # mixture of US and West European legal systems; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Carlos Saul MENEM (since 8 July 1989); Vice President Carlos RUCKAUF (since 8 July 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Carlos Saul MENEM (since 8 July 1989); Vice President Carlos RUCKAUF (since 8 July 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet appointed by the president # president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 14 May 1995 (next to be held 1999) # Carlos Saul MENEM reelected president; percent of vote - NA # bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of the Senate (72 seats; formerly, three members appointed by each of the provincial legislatures; presently transitioning to one-third of the members being elected every three years to a nine-year term) and the Chamber of Deputies (257 seats; one-half of the members elected every two years to four-year terms) # Senate - last held NA May 1995 (next to be held NA 1998); Chamber of Deputies - last held 26 October 1997 (next to be held NA 1999) # Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PJ 39, UCR 1, others 32; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PJ 119, UCR 69, Frepaso 36, other 33 # Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), the nine Supreme Court judges are appointed by the president with approval of the Senate # Justicialist Party or PJ [Carlos Saul MENEM] (Peronist umbrella political organization); Radical Civic Union or UCR [Fernando DE LA RUA]; Union of the Democratic Center or UCD (conservative party); Dignity and Independence Political Party or MODIN (right-wing party); Front for a Country in Solidarity or Frepaso (a four party coalition) [leader Carlos ALVAREZ]; Action for the Republic [Domingo CAVALLO]; New Leadership [Gustavo BELIZ]; several provincial parties # ? # AfDB, AG (observer), Australia Group, BCIE, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G- 6, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur, MINUGUA, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MTCR, NSG (observer), OAS, OPANAL, PCA, RG, UN, UNAVEM III, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMOP, UNPREDEP, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal horizontal bands of light blue (top), white, and light blue; centered in the white band is a radiant yellow sun with a human face known as the Sun of May # Argentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. Nevertheless, following decades of mismanagement and statist policies, the economy in the late 1980s was plagued with huge external debts and recurring bouts of hyperinflation. Elected in 1989, in the depths of recession, President MENEM has implemented a comprehensive economic restructuring program that has put Argentina on a path of stable, sustainable growth. Argentina's currency has traded at par with the US dollar since April 1991, and inflation has fallen to its lowest level in 50 years. Argentines have responded to price stability by repatriating capital and investing in domestic industry. Growth averaged more than 8% between 1991 and 1994, then fell 4.6% in 1995, largely in reaction to the Mexican peso crisis. The economy has since recovered strongly. However, unemployment remains nearly 14%, and Buenos Aires still depends on foreign capital to meet the bulk of its financing needs. The IMF has urged additional economic reforms to ensure equitable long-term growth. # 8.40 8570 310795 7 36 57 0.30 14500000 agriculture 12%, industry 31%, services 57% (1985 est.) # 13.70 55000 59000 food processing, motor vehicles, consumer durables, textiles, chemicals and petrochemicals, printing, metallurgy, steel # 8.70 19.61 65720 1960 wheat, corn, sorghum, soybeans, sugar beets; livestock # 25400.00 meat, wheat, corn, oilseed, manufactures, fuels # Brazil 26.1%, US 8.5%, Chile 7.0%, Netherlands 5.7%, Italy 3.5% (1995) # 30300 machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals, transport equipment, agricultural products # Brazil 20.8%, US 20.7%, Italy 6.3%, Germany 6.2%, France 5.2% (1995) # 115000 ? # ? # 1 nuevo peso argentino = 100 centavos # 1.00 calendar year 4600000 microwave radio relay and a domestic satellite system with 40 earth stations serve the trunk network # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 260 100 6 22300000 231 7165000 37910 24,124 km 1.676-m gauge (142 km electrified) # 2,765 km 1.435-m gauge # 11,021 km 1.000-m gauge (26 km electrified) # # 218276 63,518 km (including 567 km of expressways) # 154,758 km (1996 est.) # 11000 4090 2900 9918 Bahia Blanca, Buenos Aires, Comodoro Rivadavia, Concepcion del Uruguay, La Plata, Mar del Plata, Necochea, Rio Gallegos, Rosario, Santa Fe, Ushuaia # 34 268492 388524 cargo 11, container 2, oil tanker 13, railcar carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 6, roll-on/roll-off cargo 1 (1997 est.) # 1411 137 5 25 55 44 8 1274 2 2 65 635 570 ? Argentine Army, Navy of the Argentine Republic (includes Naval Aviation, Marines, and Coast Guard), Argentine Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Aeronautical Police Force # 20 years of age # 9056532 7344910 332008 4600000000 1.50 short section of the southwestern boundary with Chile is indefinite; claims UK-administered Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); claims UK-administered South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; territorial claim in Antarctica # increasing use as a transshipment country for cocaine headed for Europe and the US # @Armenia 0 ? # # ARM Southwestern Asia, east of Turkey # 29800 28400 1400 1254 Azerbaijan-proper 566 km, Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave 221 km, Georgia 164 km, Iran 35 km, Turkey 268 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? highland continental, hot summers, cold winters # high Armenian Plateau with mountains; little forest land; fast flowing rivers; good soil in Aras River valley # Debed River 400 m Aragats Lerr 4,095 m small deposits of gold, copper, molybdenum, zinc, alumina # 17 3 24 15 41 2870 occasionally severe earthquakes; droughts # soil pollution from toxic chemicals such as DDT; energy blockade, the result of conflict with Azerbaijan, has led to deforestation when citizens scavenged for firewood; pollution of Hrazdan (Razdan) and Aras Rivers; the draining of Sevana Lich (Lake Sevan), a result of its use as a source for hydropower, threatens drinking water supplies; restart of Metsamor nuclear power plant without adequate (IAEA-recommended) safety and backup systems # Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Nuclear Test Ban, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # landlocked # 3421775 26 460191 441906 65 1092652 1139916 9 119464 167646 -0.36 13.52 8.82 -8.29 1.05 1.04 0.95 0.71 ? 40.77 66.73 62.45 71.23 1.69 Armenian(s) Armenian Armenian 93%, Azeri 3%, Russian 2%, other (mostly Yezidi Kurds) 2% (1989) # Armenian Orthodox 94% # Armenian 96%, Russian 2%, other 2% # age 15 and over can read and write # 99 99 98 Republic of Armenia Armenia Hayastani Hanrapetut'yun # Hayastan .am republic Yerevan 10 provinces (marzer, singular - marz) and 1 city* (k'aghak'ner, singular - k'aghak'); Aragatsotn, Ararat, Armavir, Geghark'unik', Kotayk', Lorri, Shirak, Syunik', Tavush, Vayots' Dzor, Yerevan* # ? # Referendum Day, 21 September adopted by nationwide referendum 5 July 1995 # based on civil law system # 18 years of age; universal # President Robert KOCHARIAN (since 30 March 1998) # Prime Minister Armen DARBINYAN (since 10 April 1998) # Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; special election last held 30 March 1998 (next election to be held March 2003); prime minister appointed by the president # Robert KOCHARIAN elected president; percent of vote - Robert KOCHARIAN 59%, Karen DEMIRCHYAN 41% # unicameral National Assembly (Parliament) or Azgayin Zhoghov (190 seats; members serve four-year terms) # last held 5 July 1995 (next to be held NA July 1999) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Republican Bloc 159 (ANM 63, DLP-Hanrapetutyun Bloc 6, Republic Party 4, CDU 3, Intellectual Armenia 3, Social Democratic Party 2, independents 78), SWM 8, ACP 7, NDU 5, NSDU 3, DLP 1, ARF 1, other 4, vacant 2 # Supreme Court; Constitutional Court # Armenian National Movement or ANM [Vano SIRADEGIAN, chairman]; National Democratic Union or NDU [Vazgen MANUKIAN]; Intellectual Armenia [H. TOKMAJIAN]; Social Democratic (Hnchakian) Party [Yeghia NACHARIAN]; Shamiram Women's Movement or SWM [Maria NERSISSIAN]; Armenian Communist Party or ACP [Sergey BADALYAN]; Union of National Self-Determination or NSDU [Paruir HAIRIKIAN, chairman]; Armenian Revolutionary Federation ("Dashnak" Party) or ARF; Christian Democratic Union or CDU [Azat ARSHAKYN, chairman]; Democratic Liberal Party [Orthosis GYONJIAN, chairman]; Republican Party [Andranik MARKARYAN] # ? # BSEC, CCC, CE (guest), CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ESCAP, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM (observer), OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant) # three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, and gold # Under the old Soviet central planning system, Armenia had developed a modern industrial sector, supplying machine tools, textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics in exchange for raw materials and energy. Since the implosion of the USSR in December 1991, Armenia has switched to small-scale agriculture away from the large agroindustrial complexes of the Soviet area. The agricultural sector has long-term needs for more investment and updated technology. The privatization of industry has been at a slower pace, but ahead of most of the rest of the CIS. Armenia is a food importer and its mineral deposits (gold, bauxite) are small. The ongoing conflict with Azerbaijan over the ethnic Armenian-dominated region of Nagorno-Karabakh and the embargoes imposed by Azerbaijan and Turkey contributed to a severe economic decline in the early 1990s. By 1994, however, the Armenian Government had launched an ambitious IMF-sponsored economic program that has resulted in positive growth rates in 1995-97. Armenia also managed to slash inflation and to privatize most small and medium-sized enterprises. The chronic energy shortages Armenia suffered in recent years has been partially offset by the energy supplied by one of its nuclear power plants at Metsamor, which in 1996 supplied about 40% of the country's energy needs, according to the Armenian Government. Moreover, Armenia is expanding its energy imports from Iran. # 2.70 530 1814 38 32 30 13.20 1600000 manufacturing, mining, and construction 25%, agriculture 38%, services 37% # 10.60 322 424 much of industry is shut down; metal-cutting machine tools, forging-pressing machines, electric motors, tires, knitted wear, hosiery, shoes, silk fabric, washing machines, chemicals, trucks, watches, instruments, microelectronics # 0.70 2.77 6300 1570 fruit (especially grapes), vegetables; vineyards near Yerevan are famous for brandy and other liqueurs; minor livestock sector # 290 gold and jewelry, aluminum, transport equipment, electrical equipment, scrap metal # Iran, Russia, Turkmenistan, Georgia # 727 grain, other foods, fuel, other energy # Iran, Russia, Turkmenistan, Georgia, US, EU # 820 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 dram = 100 luma (introduced new currency in November 1993) # 499.89 calendar year 650000 NA # international connections to other former Soviet republics are by landline or microwave radio relay and to other countries by satellite and by leased connection through the Moscow international gateway switch; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat # 10 3 ? ? 1 ? 825 825 km 1.520-m gauge (1992) # # # # 8580 8,580 km # 0 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? 900 none # ? ? ? ? # 11 5 2 ? 1 2 1 6 ? ? 2 3 ? ? Army, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Security Forces (internal and border troops) # 18 years of age # 914134 726938 31814 33300000000.00 ? Armenia supports ethnic Armenians in the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan in the longstanding, separatist conflict against the Azerbaijani Government; traditional demands on former Armenian lands in Turkey have subsided # illicit cultivator of cannabis mostly for domestic consumption; used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs to Western Europe and the US # @Aruba Netherlands ? # # NL Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, north of Venezuela # 193 193 0 ? ? # 68.50 ? ? # ? ? 12 tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation # flat with a few hills; scant vegetation # Caribbean Sea 0 m Mount Jamanota 188 m negligible; white sandy beaches # 11 ? ? ? 89 ? lies outside the Caribbean hurricane belt # NA # NA # NA # ? # 68325 22 7775 7114 69 22616 24700 9 2523 3597 0.47 13.74 6.40 -2.63 1.05 1.09 0.92 0.70 ? 7.96 76.92 73.22 80.81 1.81 Aruban(s) Aruban mixed white/Caribbean Amerindian 80% # Roman Catholic 82%, Protestant 8%, Hindu, Muslim, Confucian, Jewish # Dutch (official), Papiamento (a Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, English dialect), English (widely spoken), Spanish # ? # ? ? ? none Aruba ? # ? .aw parliamentary Oranjestad none (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands) # ? # Flag Day, 18 March 1 January 1986 # based on Dutch civil law system, with some English common law influence # 18 years of age; universal # Queen BEATRIX Wilhelmina Armgard of the Netherlands (since 30 April 1980), represented by Governor General Olindo KOOLMAN (since 1 January 1992) # Prime Minister Jan (Henny) H. EMAN (since 29 July 1994) and Deputy Prime Minister Glenbert F. CROES # Council of Ministers (elected by the Staten) # the queen is a constitutional monarch; governor general appointed for a six-year term by the queen; prime minister and deputy prime minister elected by the Staten for a four-year term; election last held 12 July 1997 (next to be held by December 2001) # inconclusive; no party won majority in December 1997 parliamentary elections; no new government formed as of May 1998 # unicameral Legislature or Staten (21 seats; members elected by direct popular vote and serve four-year terms) # last held 12 December 1997 (next to be held by NA December 2001) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - AVP 10, MEP 9, OLA 2; although elections were held 12 December 1997, a new government had not been formed as of May 1998 # Joint High Court of Justice; judges are appointed by the Netherlands monarch # Electoral Movement Party or MEP [Nelson ODUBER]; Aruban People's Party or AVP [Jan (Henny) H. EMAN]; National Democratic Action or ADN [Pedro Charro KELLY]; New Patriotic Party or PPN [Eddy WERLEMEN]; Aruban Patriotic Party or PPA [Benny NISBET]; Aruban Democratic Party or PDA [Leo BERLINSKI]; Democratic Action '86 or AD '86 [Arturo ODUBER]; Aruban Liberal Party or OLA [Glenbert CROES] # ? # ECLAC (associate), Interpol, IOC, UNESCO (associate), WCL, WToO (associate) # blue with two narrow horizontal yellow stripes across the lower portion and a red, four-pointed star outlined in white in the upper hoist-side corner # Tourism is the mainstay of the Aruban economy, although offshore banking and oil refining and storage are also important. The rapid growth of the tourism sector over the last decade has resulted in a substantial expansion of other activities. Construction has boomed, with hotel capacity five times the 1985 level. In addition, the reopening of the country's oil refinery in 1993, a major source of employment and foreign exchange earnings, has further spurred growth. Aruba's small labor force and less than 1% unemployment rate have led to a large number of unfilled job vacancies despite sharp rises in wage rates in recent years. # 4 15360 1049 ? ? ? 3.20 ? most employment is in the tourist industry (1996) # 0.60 376 409 tourism, transshipment facilities, oil refining # ? 0.09 340 5154 aloes; livestock; fishing # 1700 mostly refined petroleum products # US 64%, EU # 2000 food, consumer goods, manufactures, petroleum products, crude oil for refining and reexport # US 8%, EU # 669 ? # ? # 1 Aruban florin (Af.) = 100 cents # 1.79 calendar year 22922 more than adequate # 1 submarine cable to Sint Maarten (Netherlands Antilles); extensive interisland microwave radio relay links # 4 4 0 ? 1 19000 ? # # # # ? NA km # NA km # ? ? ? ? Barcadera, Oranjestad, Sint Nicolaas # 2 18365 29170 ? # 2 2 ? 1 ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # drug money-laundering center and transit point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; added to the US list of major drug producing or drug transit countries in December 1996 # @Ashmore and Cartier Islands Australia ? # # Southeastern Asia, islands in the Indian Ocean, northwest of Australia # 5 5 0 ? ? # 74.10 12 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # ? 200 3 tropical # low with sand and coral # Indian Ocean 0 m unnamed location 3 m fish # 0 0 0 0 100 0 surrounded by shoals and reefs that can pose maritime hazards # NA # NA # NA # Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve established in August 1983 # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands Ashmore and Cartier Islands ? # ? .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # relevant laws of the Northern Territory of Australia # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of Australia is used # no economic activity # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Atlantic Ocean 0 ? # # body of water between Africa, Europe, Antarctica, and the Western Hemisphere # 82217000 ? ? ? ? # 111866 ? ? # ? ? ? tropical cyclones (hurricanes) develop off the coast of Africa near Cape Verde and move westward into the Caribbean Sea; hurricanes can occur from May to December, but are most frequent from August to November # surface usually covered with sea ice in Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea from October to June; clockwise warm water gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the northern Atlantic, counterclockwise warm water gyre in the southern Atlantic; the ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin # Puerto Rico Trench -8,605 m sea level 0 m oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, precious stones # ? ? ? ? ? ? icebergs common in Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands; icebergs from Antarctica occur in the extreme southern Atlantic Ocean; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May and extreme southern Atlantic from May to October; persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September # endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales; drift net fishing is hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes; municipal sludge pollution off eastern US, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea # none of the selected agreements # none of the selected agreements # major chokepoints include the Dardanelles, Strait of Gibraltar, access to the Panama and Suez Canals; strategic straits include the Strait of Dover, Straits of Florida, Mona Passage, The Sound (Oresund), and Windward Passage; the Equator divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # The Atlantic Ocean provides some of the world's most heavily trafficked sea routes, between and within the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Other economic activity includes the exploitation of natural resources, e.g., fishing, the dredging of aragonite sands (The Bahamas), and production of crude oil and natural gas (Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea). # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # numerous submarine cables with most between continental Europe and the UK, between North America and the UK, and in the Mediterranean; numerous direct links across Atlantic via satellite networks # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? Alexandria (Egypt), Algiers (Algeria), Antwerp (Belgium), Barcelona (Spain), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Casablanca (Morocco), Colon (Panama), Copenhagen (Denmark), Dakar (Senegal), Gdansk (Poland), Hamburg (Germany), Helsinki (Finland), Las Palmas (Canary Islands, Spain), Le Havre (France), Lisbon (Portugal), London (UK), Marseille (France), Montevideo (Uruguay), Montreal (Canada), Naples (Italy), New Orleans (US), New York (US), Oran (Algeria), Oslo (Norway), Piraeus (Greece), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Rotterdam (Netherlands), Saint Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden) # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? some maritime disputes (see littoral states) # ? # @Australia 0 Australians all let us rejoice, For we are young and free, We've golden soil and wealth for toil; Our home is girt by sea; Our land abounds in nature's gifts Of beauty rich and rare; In history's page, let every stage Advance Australia Fair. In joyful strains then let us sing, Advance Australia Fair. Beneath our radiant Southern Cross We'll toil with hearts and hands To make this Commonwealth of ours Renowned of all the lands; For those who've come across the seas We've boundless plains to share, With courage let us all combine To Advance Australia Fair. In joyful strains then let us sing, Advance Australia Fair. # Recent archaeological discoveries show that two separate migrations of biologically and culturally different peoples took place into Australia via New Guinea more than 30,000 years ago. One group reached Tasmania via a land-bridge, while the second group settled in western Australia. This latter group formed the ancestors of the Aborigines who remain today as the remnants of the original inhabitants of Australia. The first European to set foot on Australia was the Amsterdammer Willem Jansz in 1605, when he landed on the west coast of the Cape York Peninsula. Tasman circumnavigated Australia in 1642-43 and, in doing so, discovered Tasmania and New Zealand. After a final voyage by Tasman in 1644, Australia was considered too inhospitable to merit the distance involved. In 1769, James Cook explored the east coast of Australia, thereby discovering the more attractive area around what is now Sidney. Before leaving Australia, Cook claimed the east-coast area for Britain and named it New South Wales. The loss by the British of their American colonies led to their exploitation of Australia. The first penal settlement dates from 1788. Free colonists started arriving in 1793 and increased during the following century. Australia remained in use as a penal colony until 1868. In total, more than 160,000 convicts were sent there. On 1 January 1901 the Commonwealth of Australia became official as a state within the British realm. Australia was uninhabited before stone-culture peoples arrived. Australia's aboriginal inhabitants, a hunting-gathering people generally referred to as Australoids or Aborigines, arrived about 40,000 years ago. Although their technical culture remained static--depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons--their spiritual and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and confederacies sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Aboriginal population density ranged from 1 person per 2 square kilomoters along the coasts to 1 person per 90 square kilometers in the arid interior. Food procurement was usually a matter for the nuclear family and was very demanding, since there was little large game and they had no agriculture. Australia may have been sighted by Portuguese sailors in 1601, and Capt. James Cook claimed it for the United Kingdom in 1770. On January 26, 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day), the First Fleet under Capt. Arthur Phillip landed at Sydney, and formal proclamation of the establishment of the Colony of New South Wales followed on February 7. Many but by no means all of the first settlers were convicts, condemned for offenses that today would often be thought trivial. The mid-19th century saw the beginning of government policies to emancipate convicts and assist the immigration of free persons. The discovery of gold in 1851 led to increased population, wealth, and trade. The six colonies that now constitute the states of the Australian Commonwealth were established in the following order: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1830; South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. Settlement had preceded these dates in most cases. Discussions between Australian and British representatives led to adoption by the British Government of an act to constitute the Commonwealth of Australia in 1900. The first federal Parliament was opened at Melbourne in May 1901 by the Duke of York (later King George V). In May 1927, the seat of government was transferred to Canberra, a planned city designed by an American, Walter Burley Griffin. The first session of Parliament in that city was opened by another Duke of York (later King George VI). Australia passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act on October 9, 1942, which officially established Australia's complete autonomy in both internal and external affairs. Its passage formalized a situation that had existed for years. The Australia Act (1986) eliminated the last vestiges of British legal authority. # AUS Oceania, continent between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean # 7686850 7617930 68920 ? ? # 25760 24 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin # 200 ? 12 generally arid to semiarid; temperate in south and east; tropical in north # mostly low plateau with deserts; fertile plain in southeast # Lake Eyre -15 m Mount Kosciusko 2,229 m bauxite, coal, iron ore, copper, tin, silver, uranium, nickel, tungsten, mineral sands, lead, zinc, diamonds, natural gas, petroleum # 6 0 54 19 21 21070 cyclones along the coast; severe droughts # soil erosion from overgrazing, industrial development, urbanization, and poor farming practices; soil salinity rising due to the use of poor quality water; desertification; clearing for agricultural purposes threatens the natural habitat of many unique animal and plant species; the Great Barrier Reef off the northeast coast, the largest coral reef in the world, is threatened by increased shipping and its popularity as a tourist site; limited natural fresh water resources # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # Desertification # world's smallest continent but sixth-largest country; population concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coasts; regular, tropical, invigorating, sea breeze known as "the Doctor" occurs along the west coast in the summer # 18613087 21 2023147 1926206 66 6251159 6105381 13 1005196 1301998 0.93 13.47 6.89 2.69 1.06 1.05 1.02 0.77 ? 5.26 79.89 76.95 82.98 1.82 Australian(s) Australian Caucasian 92%, Asian 7%, aboriginal and other 1% # Anglican 26.1%, Roman Catholic 26%, other Christian 24.3%, non-Christian 11% # English, native languages # age 15 and over can read and write # 100 100 100 Commonwealth of Australia Australia ? # ? .au democratic, federal-state system recognizing the British monarch as Canberra 6 states and 2 territories*; Australian Capital Territory*, New South Wales, Northern Territory*, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia # Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, Norfolk Island # Australia Day, 26 January (1788) 9 July 1900, effective 1 January 1901 # based on English common law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal and compulsory # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir William DEANE (since 16 February 1996) # Prime Minister John Winston HOWARD (since 11 March 1996); Deputy Prime Minister Timothy Andrew FISCHER (since 11 March 1996) # Cabinet selected from among the members of Federal Parliament by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor general appointed by the queen; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or leader of a majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the governor general for a three-year term # ? # bicameral Federal Parliament consists of the Senate (76 seats - 12 from each of the six states and two from each of the two territories; one-half of the members elected every three years by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the House of Representatives (148 seats; members elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve three-year terms; no state can have fewer than five representatives) # Senate - last held 2 March 1996 (next to be held by March 1999); House of Representatives - last held 2 March 1996 (next to be held by March 1999) # Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Liberal-National 37, Labor 29, Australian Democrats 8, Greens 1, independent 1; note - subsequent to the election, there has been a change in the distribution of seats; the new distribution is as follows - Liberal-National 37, Labor 28, Australian Democrats 7, Greens 2, independents 2; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Liberal-National 94, Labor 49, independent 5 note: it is widely anticipated that the prime minister will call elections in late 1998 # High Court, the Chief Justice and six other justices are appointed by the governor general # government: coalition of Liberal Party, John Winston HOWARD, and National Party, Timothy Andrew FISCHER opposition: Australian Labor Party, Kim BEAZLEY; Australian Democratic Party, Meg LEES; Green Party, Bob BROWN # ? # AG (observer), ANZUS, APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, C, CCC, CP, EBRD, ESCAP, FAO, G- 8, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINUGUA, MTCR, NAM (guest), NEA, NSG, OECD, PCA, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC # blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large seven-pointed star in the lower hoist-side quadrant; the remaining half is a representation of the Southern Cross constellation in white with one small five-pointed star and four, larger, seven-pointed stars # Australia has a prosperous Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP at the level of the highly industrialized West European countries. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, minerals, metals, and fossil fuels. Commodities account for 57% of the value of total exports, so that a downturn in world commodity prices can have a big impact on the economy. The government is pushing for increased exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe. Australia has suffered from the low growth and high unemployment characterizing the OECD countries in the early 1990s, but the economy has expanded at reasonably steady rates in recent years. In addition to high unemployment, short-term economic problems include a balancing of output growth and inflationary pressures and the stimulation of exports to offset rising imports, especially given the economic crisis in Asia. # 3.30 20540 382313 4 31 65 1 9200000 services 73%, industry 22%, agriculture 5% (1997 est.) # 8.40 89350.00 91920 mining, industrial and transportation equipment, food processing, chemicals, steel # 1.20 38.83 163082 8901 wheat, barley, sugarcane, fruits; cattle, sheep, poultry # 68000 coal, gold, meat, wool, alumina, iron ore, wheat, machinery and transport equipment # Japan 20%, ASEAN 16%, South Korea 9%, US 9%, NZ 8%, UK, Taiwan, Hong Kong, China (1997) # 67000 machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum products # US 22%, Japan 17%, UK 6%, China 5%, NZ 5% (1994/95) # 150000 ? # ODA, $1.43 billion (FY97/98) # 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents # 1.49 1 July - 30 June 8700000 domestic satellite system # submarine cables to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia; satellite earth stations - 10 Intelsat (4 Indian Ocean and 6 Pacific Ocean), 2 Inmarsat (Indian and Pacific Ocean Regions) # 258 67 0 ? 134 9200000 38563 6,083 km 1.600-m gauge # 16,752 km 1.435-m gauge # 15,728 km 1.067-m gauge # # 913000 353,331 km (including 1,3630 km of expressways) # 559,669 km (1996 est.) # 8368 2500 500 5600 Adelaide, Brisbane, Cairns, Darwin, Devonport (Tasmania), Fremantle, Geelong, Hobart (Tasmania), Launceston (Tasmania), Mackay, Melbourne, Sydney, Townsville # 64 2122604 3045417 bulk 31, cargo 3, chemical tanker 4, combination bulk 1, container 5, liquefied gas tanker 4, oil tanker 10, passenger 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 5 (1997 est.) # 419 259 8 13 111 119 8 160 ? ? 22 123 15 ? Australian Army, Royal Australian Navy, Royal Australian Air Force # 17 years of age # 4873392 4206104 128524 8200000000.00 1.90 territorial claim in Antarctica (Australian Antarctic Territory) # Tasmania is one of the world's major suppliers of licit opiate products; government maintains strict controls over areas of opium poppy cultivation and output of poppy straw concentrate # @Austria 0 ? # Traces of human habitation date back about 24,000 years. The Austrian alps were a centre of Celtic culture c.800 BC. The area was conquered by the Romans in the first century BC. It became part of Charlemagne's empire in 788 AD. From 1282 Austria became a major European power under the House of Hapsburg. The Austro-Hungarian Empire played a decisive role in Central European history. It occupied strategic territory containing the southeastern routes to Western Europe and the north-south routes between Germany and Italy. Although present-day Austria is only a tiny remnant of the old empire, it retains this unique position. Soon after the Republic of Austria was created at the end of World War I, it faced the strains of catastrophic inflation and of redesigning a government meant to rule a great empire into one that would govern only 6 million citizens. In the early 1930s, worldwide depression and unemployment added to these strains and shattered traditional Austrian society. Resultant economic and political conditions led in 1933 to a dictatorship under Engelbert Dollfuss. In February 1934, civil war broke out, and the Socialist Party was outlawed. In July, a coup d'etat by the National Socialists failed, but Dollfuss was assassinated by Nazis. In March 1938, Austria was incorporated into the German Reich, a development commonly known as the "Anschluss" (annexation). At the Moscow conference in 1943, the Allies declared their intention to liberate Austria and reconstitute it as a free and independent state. In April 1945, both Eastern- and Western-front Allied forces liberated the country. Subsequently, Austria was divided into zones of occupation similar to those in Germany. Under the 1945 Potsdam agreements, the Soviets took control of German assets in their zone of occupation. These included 7% of Austria's manufacturing plants, 95% of its oil resources, and about 80% of its refinery capacity. The properties were returned to Austria under the Austrian State Treaty. This treaty, signed in Vienna on May 15, 1955, came into effect on July 27, and, under its provisions, all occupation forces were withdrawn by October 25, 1955. Austria became free and independent for the first time since 1938. # A Central Europe, north of Italy and Slovenia # 83858 82738 1120 2562 Czech Republic 362 km, Germany 784 km, Hungary 366 km, Italy 430 km, Liechtenstein 35 km, Slovakia 91 km, Slovenia 330 km, Switzerland 164 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? temperate; continental, cloudy; cold winters with frequent rain in lowlands and snow in mountains; cool summers with occasional showers # in the west and south mostly mountains (Alps); along the eastern and northern margins mostly flat or gently sloping # Neusiedler See 115 m Grossglockner 3,797 m iron ore, oil, timber, magnesite, lead, coal, lignite, copper, hydropower # 17 1 23 39 20 40 NA # some forest degradation caused by air and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of agricultural chemicals; air pollution results from emissions by coal- and oil-fired power stations and industrial plants and from trucks transiting Austria between northern and southern Europe # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling # Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol # landlocked; strategic location at the crossroads of central Europe with many easily traversable Alpine passes and valleys; major river is the Danube; population is concentrated on eastern lowlands because of steep slopes, poor soils, and low temperatures elsewhere # 8133611 17 709890 673696 68 2783569 2707113 15 471924 787419 0.05 9.89 10.05 0.65 1.05 1.05 1.02 0.59 ? 5.16 77.31 74.13 80.67 1.37 Austrian(s) Austrian German 99.4%, Croatian 0.3%, Slovene 0.2%, other 0.1% # Roman Catholic 78%, Protestant 5%, other 17% # German # age 15 and over can read and write # 99 ? ? Republic of Austria Austria Republik Oesterreich # Oesterreich .at federal republic Vienna 9 states (bundeslaender, singular - bundesland); Burgenland, Kaernten, Niederoesterreich, Oberoesterreich, Salzburg, Steiermark, Tirol, Vorarlberg, Wien # ? # National Day, 26 October (1955) 1920; revised 1929 (reinstated 1 May 1945) # civil law system with Roman law origin; judicial review of legislative acts by the Constitutional Court; separate administrative and civil/penal supreme courts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal; compulsory for presidential elections # President Thomas KLESTIL (since 8 July 1992) # Chancellor Viktor KLIMA (since 28 January 1997); Vice Chancellor Wolfgang SCHUESSEL (since 22 April 1995) # Council of Ministers chosen by the president on the advice of the chancellor # president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; presidential election last held 24 May 1992 (next to be held 19 April 1998); chancellor chosen by the president from the majority party in the National Council; vice chancellor chosen by the president on the advice of the chancellor # Thomas KLESTIL elected president; percent of vote, second ballot - Thomas KLESTIL 57%, Rudolf STREICHER 43% # bicameral Federal Assembly or Bundesversammlung consists of Federal Council or Bundesrat (64 members; members represent each of the provinces on the basis of population, but with each province having at least three representatives; members serve a four- or six-year term) and the National Council or Nationalrat (183 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms) # National Council - last held 17 December 1995 (next to be held Fall 1999) # National Council - percent of vote by party - SPOe 38.3%, OeVP 28.3%, FPOe 22.1%, LF 5.3%, Greens 4.6%, other 1.4%; seats by party - SPOe 71, OeVP 53, FPOe 40, LF 10, Greens 9 # Supreme Judicial Court or Oberster Gerichtshof; Administrative Court or Verwaltungsgerichtshof; Constitutional Court or Verfassungsgerichtshof # Social Democratic Party of Austria or SPOe [Viktor KLIMA, chairman]; Austrian People's Party or OeVP [Wolfgang SCHUESSEL, chairman]; Freedom Party of Austria or FPOe [Joerg HAIDER, chairman]; Communist Party or KPOe [Walter BEIER, chairman]; The Greens or GA [Madeleine PETROVIC, parliamentary caucus floor leader and Alexander VAN DER BELLEN, party spokesman]; Liberal Forum or LF [Heide SCHMIDT] # ? # AfDB, AG (observer), AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, BSEC (observer), CCC, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINUGUA, MINURSO, MTCR, NAM (guest), NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WEU (observer), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC # three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and red # Austria, a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995, has a well-developed market economy with a high standard of living. With exports of goods and services reaching over 40% of GDP, Austria's economy is closely integrated with other EU member countries, especially with Germany. Austria's entry into the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market. Austria is well on its way to meeting all Maastricht convergence criteria for monetary union, through privatization efforts, the 1996-98 budget consolidation programs, and austerity measures, which were expected to bring total public sector deficit down to 3% of GDP in 1997 and public debt in line with the 60% of GDP required by the EU. Cuts mainly affect the civil service and Austria's generous social system, the two major causes of the government deficit. To meet increased competition from both the EU and Central European countries, Austria will need to emphasize knowledge-based sectors of the economy and deregulate the service sector, particularly telecommunications and the energy sector. Economic prospects are expected to brighten in 1998 with GDP growth projected to be 2.5%. # 2.10 27980 227578 1.50 31.60 66.90 1.30 3646000 services 66.1%, industry and crafts 29.6%, agriculture and forestry 1.3% (salaried employees, 1996) # 7.10 53600 61600.00 food, iron and steel, machines, textiles, chemicals, electrical, paper and pulp, tourism, mining, motor vehicles # 1 15.65 54800 6900 grains, potatoes, sugar beets, wine, fruit, dairy products; cattle, pigs, poultry; sawn wood # 57800.00 machinery and equipment, iron and steel, lumber, textiles, paper products, chemicals # EU 64.7% (Germany 37.7%, Italy 8.5%), Eastern Europe 14.9%, Japan 1.5%, US 3.1% (1996) # 67300 petroleum, foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, vehicles, chemicals, textiles and clothing, pharmaceuticals # EU 70.7% (Germany 42.8%, Italy 8.7%), Eastern Europe 10%, Japan 2.4%, US 4.5% (1996) # 29400 ? # ODA, $480 million; assistance to central and eastern Europe $400 million (1996) # 1 Austrian schilling (AS) = 100 groschen # 12.78 calendar year 3470000 highly developed and efficient # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 2 Eutelsat # 5 105 0 70 57 2418584 5636 # 5,294 km 1.435-m gauge (3,263 km electrified) # 342 km 1.000-m and 0.760-m gauge (84 km electrified) (1996) # # ? 129,055 km (including 1,607 km of expressways) # 0 km (1996 est.) # 356 777 ? 909.10 Linz, Vienna, Enns, Krems # 25 84103 114616 bulk 1, cargo 19, combination bulk 2, container 1, refrigerated cargo 2 (1997 est.) # 55 20 1 5 1 3 10 35 ? ? ? 4 31 1 Army (includes Flying Division) # 19 years of age # 2098409 1744035 46854 1800000000 0.83 none # transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and South American cocaine destined for Western Europe # @Azerbaijan 0 ? # Azerbaijan continues to be plagued by an unresolved nine-year-old conflict with Armenian separatists over its Nagorno-Karabakh region. The Karabakh Armenians have declared independence and seized almost 20% of the country's territory, creating almost 1 million Azerbaijani refugees in the process. Both sides have generally observed a Russian-mediated cease-fire in place since May 1994, and support the OSCE-mediated peace process, now entering its fifth year. Nevertheless, Baku and Xankandi (Stepanakert, Nagorno-Karabakh region) remain far apart on most substantive issues from the placement and composition of a peacekeeping force to the enclave's ultimate political status, and prospects for a negotiated settlement remain dim. # ASE Southwestern Asia, bordering the Caspian Sea, between Iran and Russia # 86600 86100 500 2013 Armenia (with Azerbaijan-proper) 566 km, Armenia (with Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave) 221 km, Georgia 322 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-proper) 432 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave) 179 km, Russia 284 km, Turkey 9 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? dry, semiarid steppe # large, flat Kur-Araz Lowland (much of it below sea level) with Great Caucasus Mountains to the north, Qarabag (Karabakh) Upland in west; Baku lies on Abseron (Apsheron) Peninsula that juts into Caspian Sea # Caspian Sea -28 m Bazarduzu Dagi 4,485 m petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nonferrous metals, alumina # 18 5 25 11 41 10000 droughts; some lowland areas threatened by rising levels of the Caspian Sea # local scientists consider the Abseron (Apsheron) Peninsula (including Baku and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, water, and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of DDT as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton # Climate Change, Ozone Layer Protection # Biodiversity # landlocked # 7855576 32 1300236 1247027 61 2336568 2468679 7 195322 307744 0.70 22.20 9.41 -5.75 1.05 1.04 0.94 0.63 ? 81.64 63.30 59.01 67.81 2.72 Azerbaijani(s) Azerbaijani Azeri 90%, Dagestani Peoples 3.2%, Russian 2.5%, Armenian 2.3%, other 2% (1995 est.) note: almost all Armenians live in the separatist Nagorno-Karabakh region # Muslim 93.4%, Russian Orthodox 2.5%, Armenian Orthodox 2.3%, other 1.8% (1995 est.) # Azeri 89%, Russian 3%, Armenian 2%, other 6% (1995 est.) # age 15 and over can read and write # 97 99 96 Azerbaijani Republic Azerbaijan Azarbaycan Respublikasi # none .az republic Baku (Baki) 59 rayons (rayonlar; rayon - singular), 11 cities* (saharlar; sahar - singular), 1 autonomous republic** (muxtar respublika); Abseron Rayonu, Agcabadi Rayonu, Agdam Rayonu, Agdas Rayonu, Agstafa Rayonu, Agsu Rayonu, Ali Bayramli Sahari*, Astara Rayonu, Baki Sahari*, Balakan Rayonu, Barda Rayonu, Beylaqan Rayonu, Bilasuvar Rayonu, Cabrayil Rayonu, Calilabad Rayonu, Daskasan Rayonu, Davaci Rayonu, Fuzuli Rayonu, Gadabay Rayonu, Ganca Sahari*, Goranboy Rayonu, Goycay Rayonu, Haciqabul Rayonu, Imisli Rayonu, Ismayilli Rayonu, Kalbacar Rayonu, Kurdamir Rayonu, Lacin Rayonu, Lankaran Rayonu, Lankaran Sahari*, Lerik Rayonu, Masalli Rayonu, Mingacevir Sahari*, Naftalan Sahari*, Naxcivan Muxtar Respublikasi**, Neftcala Rayonu, Oguz Rayonu, Qabala Rayonu, Qax Rayonu, Qazax Rayonu, Qobustan Rayonu, Quba Rayonu, Qubadli Rayonu, Qusar Rayonu, Saatli Rayonu, Sabirabad Rayonu, Saki Rayonu, Saki Sahari*, Salyan Rayonu, Samaxi Rayonu, Samkir Rayonu, Samux Rayonu, Siyazan Rayonu, Sumqayit Sahari*, Susa Rayonu, Susa Sahari*, Tartar Rayonu, Tovuz Rayonu, Ucar Rayonu, Xacmaz Rayonu, Xankandi Sahari*, Xanlar Rayonu, Xizi Rayonu, Xocali Rayonu, Xocavand Rayonu, Yardimli Rayonu, Yevlax Rayonu, Yevlax Sahari*, Zangilan Rayonu, Zaqatala Rayonu, Zardab Rayonu # ? # Independence Day, 28 May adopted 12 November 1995 # based on civil law system # 18 years of age; universal # President Heydar ALIYEV (since 18 June 1993) # Prime Minister Artur RASIZADE (since 26 November 1996) # Council of Ministers appointed by the president and confirmed by the National Assembly # president elected by popular vote to a five-year term; election last held 3 October 1993 (next to be held October 1998); prime minister and first deputy prime ministers appointed by the president and confirmed by the National Assembly # Heydar ALIYEV elected president; percent of vote - Heydar ALIYEV 97% # unicameral National Assembly or Milli Mejlis (125 seats; members serve five-year terms) # last held 12 and 26 November 1995 (next to be held NA 2000) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - YAP and allies 115, AXC 4, AMIP 3, YMP 1, vacant 2 # Supreme Court # New Azerbaijan Party or YAP [Heydar ALIYEV, chairman]; Azerbaijan Popular Front or AXC [Abulfaz ELCHIBEY, chairman]; Party for National Independence of Azerbaijan or AMIP [Etibar MAMMADOV, chairman]; Musavat Party or YMP [Isa GAMBAR, chairman]; People's Democratic Party of Azerbaijan [Rafig TURABXANLY]; People's Freedom Party [Yunus OGUZ, chairman]; Democratic Party of Independence of Azerbaijan [Vagit KERIMOV]; Communist Party of Azerbaijan (CPA-2) [Firudin HASANOV]; Social Democratic Party of Azerbaijan or SDP [Zardusht ALIZADE, chairman]; Liberal Party of Azerbaijan [Lala HAJIYEVA]; Vahdat Party [Leyla YUNUSOV, Gadzhi ALIZADE]; Azerbaijan Muslim Democratic Party (former Islamic Party) [Haji Mekhti SHAMILLI]; Azerbaijan Democratic Party or ADP [Ilyas ISMAYLOV]; Civic Solidarity [Sabir RUSTAMXANLI]; Ana Vatan Party [Fazail AGAMALI] # ? # BSEC, CCC, CE (guest), CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM (observer), OIC, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (observer) # three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), red, and green; a crescent and eight-pointed star in white are centered in red band # Azerbaijan is less developed industrially than either Armenia or Georgia, the other Transcaucasian states. It resembles the Central Asian states in its majority nominally Muslim population, high structural unemployment, and low standard of living. The economy's most prominent products are oil, cotton, and gas. Production from the Caspian oil and gas field has been in decline for several years, but the negotiation of more than a dozen production-sharing arrangements (PSAs) with foreign firms, which have thus far committed $30 billion to oil field development, should generate the funds needed to spur future industrial development. Oil production under the first of these PSAs, with the Azerbaijan International Operating Company, began in November 1997. Azerbaijan shares all the formidable problems of the ex-Soviet republics in making the transition from a command to a market economy, but its considerable energy resources brighten its long-term prospects. Baku has only recently begun making progress on economic reform, and old economic ties and structures are slowly being replaced. A major short-term obstacle to economic progress, including stepped up foreign investment, is the continuing conflict with Armenia over the ethnic Armenian-dominated region of Nagorno-Karabakh. Trade with Russia and the other former Soviet republics is declining in importance while trade is building up with the nations of Europe, Turkey, Iran, and the UAE. A serious long-term challenge is the maintenance of the competitiveness of non-oil exports in world markets. # 5.80 510 4006 30 23 47 3.70 2789000 agriculture and forestry 32%, industry and construction 26%, other 42% (1990) # 20 565 682 petroleum and natural gas, petroleum products, oilfield equipment; steel, iron ore, cement; chemicals and petrochemicals; textiles # 0.30 5.24 16051 2200 cotton, grain, rice, grapes, fruit, vegetables, tea, tobacco; cattle, pigs, sheep, goats # 789 oil and gas, chemicals, oilfield equipment, textiles, cotton # CIS, European countries, Turkey # 1300 machinery and parts, consumer durables, foodstuffs, textiles # CIS, European countries, Turkey # 100 ODA, $14 million (1993) # ? # 1 manat = 100 gopik # 3936 calendar year 710000 telephone service is of poor quality and inadequate; a joint venture to establish a cellular telephone system in the Baku area is operational # cable and microwave radio relay connections to former Soviet republics; connection through Moscow international gateway switch to other countries; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat and 1 Intersputnik (Intelsat provides service to Turkey and through Turkey to 200 more countries; Intersputnik provides direct service to New York) # ? ? ? ? 2 ? 2125 2,125 km 1.520-m gauge (1,278 km electrified) (1993) # # # # 57770 54,188 km # 3,582 km (1995 est.) # ? 1130 630 1240 Baku (Baki) # ? ? ? ? # 69 29 2 6 17 3 1 40 ? ? ? 7 33 ? Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Guards # 18 years of age # 2011076 1616412 71922 105700000000 ? Armenia supports ethnic Armenians in the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan in the longstanding, separatist conflict against the Azerbaijani Government; Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan # limited cultivation of cannabis and opium poppy, mostly for CIS consumption; limited government eradication program; transshipment point for opiates to Western Europe # @Bahamas 0 Lift up your head to the rising sun, Bahamaland, March on to glory, your bright banners waving high, See how the world marks the manner of your bearing; Pledge to excel thro' love and unity. Pressing onward, march together, to a common loftier goal; Steady sunward tho' the weather hide the wide and treacherous shoal. Lift up your head to the rising sun, Bahamaland, 'til the road you've trod lead unto your God, March on Bahamaland. # In 1492, Christopher Columbus made his first landfall in the Western Hemisphere in The Bahamas. Spanish slave traders later captured native Lucayan Indians to work in gold mines in Hispaniola, and within 25 years, all Lucayans perished. In 1647, a group of English and Bermudan religious refugees, the Eleutheran Adventurers, founded the first permanent European settlement in The Bahamas and gave Eleuthera Island its name. Similar groups of settlers formed governments in The Bahamas until the islands became a British Crown Colony in 1717. The first Royal Governor, a former pirate named Woodes Rogers, brought law and order to The Bahamas in 1718, when he expelled the buccaneers who had used the islands as hideouts. During the American Civil War, The Bahamas prospered as a center of Confederate blockade-running. After World War I, the islands served as a base for American rumrunners. During World War II, the Allies centered their flight training and anti-submarine operations for the Caribbean in The Bahamas. Since then, The Bahamas has developed into a major tourist and financial services center. Bahamians achieved self-government through a series of constitutional and political steps, attaining internal self-government in 1964 and full independence within the Commonwealth on July 10, 1973. # BS Caribbean, chain of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of Florida # 13940 10070 3870 ? ? # 3542 ? 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation (measured from the archipelagic straight baselines) # 200 ? 12 tropical marine; moderated by warm waters of Gulf Stream # long, flat coral formations with some low rounded hills # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mount Alvernia, on Cat Island 63 m salt, aragonite, timber # 1 0 0 32 67 ? hurricanes and other tropical storms that cause extensive flood and wind damage # coral reef decay; solid waste disposal # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # strategic location adjacent to US and Cuba; extensive island chain # 279833 28 39239 38708 67 91208 95198 5 6444 9036 1.39 21.03 5.44 -1.72 1.02 1.01 0.96 0.71 ? 18.97 74 70.65 77.42 2.33 Bahamian(s) Bahamian black 85%, white 15% # Baptist 32%, Anglican 20%, Roman Catholic 19%, Methodist 6%, Church of God 6%, other Protestant 12%, none or unknown 3%, other 2% # English, Creole (among Haitian immigrants) # age 15 and over can read and write but definition of literacy not available # 98.20 98.50 98 Commonwealth of The Bahamas The Bahamas ? # ? .bs commonwealth Nassau 21 districts; Acklins and Crooked Islands, Bimini, Cat Island, Exuma, Freeport, Fresh Creek, Governor's Harbour, Green Turtle Cay, Harbour Island, High Rock, Inagua, Kemps Bay, Long Island, Marsh Harbour, Mayaguana, New Providence, Nicholls Town and Berry Islands, Ragged Island, Rock Sound, Sandy Point, San Salvador and Rum Cay # ? # National Day, 10 July (1973) 10 July 1973 # based on English common law # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Orville TURNQUEST (since 2 January 1995) # Prime Minister Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM (since 19 August 1992) and Deputy Prime Minister Frank WATSON (since December 1994) # Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the prime minister's recommendation # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor general appointed by the queen; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general # ? # bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (16-member body appointed by the governor general upon the advice of the prime minister and the opposition leader for a five-year term) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held 14 March 1997 (next to be held by March 2002) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FNM 35, PLP 5 # Supreme Court # Progressive Liberal Party or PLP [Perry CHRISTIE]; Free National Movement or FNM [Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM] # ? # ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO # three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side # The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on tourism and offshore banking. Tourism alone accounts for more than 50% of GDP and directly or indirectly employs 40% of the archipelago's labor force. Moderate growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences led to an increase of the country's GDP by an estimated 3.5% in 1997. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute less than 10% of GDP and show little growth despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run will depend heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector and continued income growth in the US, which accounts for the majority of tourist visitors. # 3.50 11830 3310 3 5 92 0.40 146600 government 30%, tourism 40%, business services 10%, agriculture 5% (1995 est.) # 10 687.50 827 tourism, banking, cement, oil refining and transshipment, salt production, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral-welded steel pipe # ? 0.40 1290 4100 citrus, vegetables; poultry # 201.70 pharmaceuticals, cement, rum, crawfish, refined petroleum products # US 24%, Spain 14%, UK 7%, Norway 7%, France 6%, Italy 5% (1995 est.) # 1260 foodstuffs, manufactured goods, crude oil, vehicles, electronics # US 29%, Finland 10%, Iran 10%, Denmark 8% # 381.70 ? # ? # 1 Bahamian dollar (B$) = 100 cents # 1 1 July - 30 June 200000 91,183 telephone lines; totally automatic system; highly developed # tropospheric scatter and submarine cable to Florida; 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 3 5 0 200000 1 60000 ? # # # # 2693 1,546 km # 1,147 km (1997 est.) # ? ? ? ? Freeport, Matthew Town, Nassau # 1024 24674594 38334892 bulk 205, cargo 223, chemical tanker 34, combination bulk 8, combination ore/oil 21, container 55, liquefied gas tanker 25, oil tanker 176, passenger 53, railcar carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 145, roll-on/roll-off cargo 49, short-sea passenger 11, specialized tanker 1, vehicle carrier 17 # 62 32 2 1 15 12 2 30 ? ? 1 8 21 ? Royal Bahamas Defense Force (Coast Guard only), Royal Bahamas Police Force # ? # ? ? ? 22900000 3.80 none # transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for US and Europe; banking industry vulnerable to money-laundering # @Bahrain 0 ? # Bahrain was once part of the ancient civilization of Dilmun and served as an important link in trade routes between Sumeria and the Indus Valley as long as 5,000 years ago. The archipelago was also mentioned by Persian, Greek and Roman geographers and historians. The area was conquered in the 7th century by the Muslims and has remained Arab and Muslim since then, though it was ruled by the Portuguese from 1521 to 1602 and by the Persians from 1602 to 1783. Since the late 18th century, Bahrain has been governed by the Al Khalifa family, which created close ties to Britain by signing the General Treaty of Peace in 1820. A binding treaty of protection, known as the Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship, was concluded in 1861 and further revised in 1892 and 1951. This treaty was similar to those entered into by the British Government with the other Persian Gulf principalities. It specified that the ruler could not dispose of any of his territory except to the United Kingdom and could not enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the United Kingdom without British consent. The British promised to protect Bahrain from all aggression by sea and to lend support in case of land attack. After World War II, Bahrain became the center for British administration of treaty obligations in the lower Persian Gulf. In 1968, when the British Government announced its decision (reaffirmed in March 1971) to end the treaty relationships with the Persian Gulf sheikdoms, Bahrain joined the other eight states (Qatar and the seven Trucial Sheikhdoms, which are now called the United Arab Emirates) under British protection in an effort to form a union of Arab emirates. By mid-1971, however, the nine sheikhdoms still had not agreed on terms of union. Accordingly, Bahrain sought independence as a separate entity and became fully independent on August 15, 1971, as the State of Bahrain. # BRN Middle East, archipelago in the Persian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia # 620 620 0 ? ? # 161 24 extending to boundaries to be determined # ? ? 12 arid; mild, pleasant winters; very hot, humid summers # mostly low desert plain rising gently to low central escarpment # Persian Gulf 0 m Jabal ad Dukhan 122 m oil, associated and nonassociated natural gas, fish # 1 1 6 0 92 10 periodic droughts; dust storms # desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, periods of drought, and dust storms; coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations; no natural fresh water resources so that groundwater and sea water are the only sources for all water needs # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection # none of the selected agreements # close to primary Middle Eastern petroleum sources; strategic location in Persian Gulf which much of Western world's petroleum must transit to reach open ocean # 616342 31 95871 93232 67 245099 164946 2 8799 8395 2.09 22.43 3.25 1.73 1.03 1.03 1.49 1.05 ? 15.54 74.96 72.42 77.57 3.01 Bahraini(s) Bahraini Bahraini 63%, Asian 13%, other Arab 10%, Iranian 8%, other 6% # Shi'a Muslim 75%, Sunni Muslim 25% # Arabic, English, Farsi, Urdu # age 15 and over can read and write # 85.20 89.10 79.40 State of Bahrain Bahrain Dawlat al Bahrayn # Al Bahrayn .bh traditional monarchy Manama 12 municipalities (manatiq, singular - mintaqah); Al Hadd, Al Manamah, Al Mintaqah al Gharbiyah, Al Mintaqah al Wusta, Al Mintaqah ash Shamaliyah, Al Muharraq, Ar Rifa wa al Mintaqah al Janubiyah, Jidd Hafs, Madinat Hamad, Madinat Isa, Juzur Hawar, Sitrah note: all municipalities administered from Manama # ? # Independence Day, 16 December (1971) 26 May 1973, effective 6 December 1973 # based on Islamic law and English common law # none # Amir ISA bin Salman Al Khalifa (since 2 November 1961); Heir Apparent HAMAD bin Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa (son of the Amir, born 28 January 1949) # Prime Minister KHALIFA bin Salman Al Khalifa (since 19 January 1970) # Cabinet appointed by the amir # none; the amir is a traditional Arab monarch; prime minister appointed by the amir # ? # unicameral National Assembly was dissolved 26 August 1975 and legislative powers were assumed by the Cabinet; appointed Advisory Council established 16 December 1992 # ? # ? # High Civil Appeals Court # political parties prohibited # ? # ABEDA, AFESD, AL, AMF, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, GCC, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO # red with a white serrated band (eight white points) on the hoist side # In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems. # 2.70 7820 4820 1 38 61 -0.20 140000 industry, commerce, and service 78%, government 21%, agriculture 1% (1994) # 15 1700 1900.00 petroleum processing and refining, aluminum smelting, offshore banking, ship repairing; tourism # 3.40 1.05 4400 7640 fruit, vegetables; poultry, dairy products; shrimp, fish # 4600 petroleum and petroleum products 61%, aluminum 7% # India 22%, Japan 12%, Saudi Arabia 6%, US 6%, UAE 5% (1995) # 3700 nonoil 63%, crude oil 37% # Saudi Arabia 40%, US 13%, UK 7%, Japan 5%, Switzerland 5% (1995) # 3200.00 ? # ? # 1 Bahraini dinar (BD) = 1,000 fils # 0.38 calendar year 73552 NA # tropospheric scatter to Qatar and UAE; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; submarine cable to Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat # 2 3 0 320000 2 270000 ? # # # # 3013 2,284 km # 729 km (1996 est.) # ? 56 16 32 Manama, Mina' Salman, Sitrah # 6 131919 212510 bulk 2, cargo 3, oil tanker 1 (1997 est.) # 3 2 2 ? 1 ? ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? 1 Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, Internal Security Forces # 15 years of age # 218831 120753 ? 256000000 5.40 territorial dispute with Qatar over the Hawar Islands and maritime boundary dispute with Qatar currently before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) # ? # @Baker Island United States ? # # Oceania, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia # 1.40 1.40 0 ? ? # 4.80 ? ? # 200 ? 12 equatorial; scant rainfall, constant wind, burning sun # low, nearly level coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef # Pacific Ocean 0 m unnamed location 8 m guano (deposits worked until 1891) # 0 0 0 0 100 0 the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard # no natural fresh water resources # NA # NA # treeless, sparse, and scattered vegetation consisting of grasses, prostrate vines, and low growing shrubs; primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife # 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? none Baker Island ? # ? .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # NA # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of the US is used # no economic activity # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only; note - there is one boat landing area along the middle of the west coast # ? ? ? ? # 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Bangladesh 0 mar sonar Bamla, Ami tomay bhalobashi, Ciradin tomar akas, tomar batas, amar prane Oma amar prane, bajay basi. Sonar Bamla, Ami tomay bhalobasi. O ma, Fagune tor amer bane ghrane pagal kare, mari hay, hay re O ma, Fagune tor amer bane ghrane pagal kare, O ma, aghrane tor bhara ksete ki dekhechi ami ki dekhechi madhur hasi Sonar Bamla ami tomay bhalo basi, ki sobha, ki chaya go ki sneha, ki maya go ki acal bichayecha bater mule, nadir kule kule. Ma, tor mukher bani amar kane lage suhar mato, mari hay hay re ma, tor nadankhani malin hale, o ma, ami nayanjale bhasi. # About 1200 AD, Muslim invaders, under Sufi influence, supplanted existing Hindu and Buddhist dynasties in Bengal. This incursion led to the conversion to Islam of most of the population in the eastern areas of Bengal, and created a sizable Muslim minority in the western areas of Bengal. Since then, Islam has played a crucial role in the region's history and politics. Bengal was absorbed into the Mughul Empire in the 16th century, and Dhaka, the seat of a nawab (the representative of the emperor), gained some importance as a provincial center. But, it remained remote and thus a difficult-to-govern region--especially the section east of the Brahmaputra River--outside the mainstream of Mughul politics. Portuguese traders and missionaries were the first Europeans to reach Bengal, in the latter part of the 15th century. They were followed by representatives of the Dutch, the French, and the British East India Companies. By the end of the 17th century, the British presence, on the Indian subcontinent, was centered in Calcutta. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the British gradually extended their commercial contacts and administrative control beyond Calcutta to Bengal. In 1859, the British Crown replaced the East India Company, extending British dominion from Bengal--which became a region of India--in the east, to the Indus River in the west. The rise of nationalism throughout British-controlled India, in the late 19th century, resulted in mounting animosity between the Hindu and Muslim communities. In 1885, the All-India National Congress was founded with Indian and British membership. Muslims seeking an organization of their own founded the All-India Muslim League in 1906. Although both the League and the Congress supported the goal of Indian self-government, within the British Empire, the two parties were unable to agree on a way to ensure the protection of Muslim political, social, and economic rights. The subsequent history of the nationalist movement was characterized by periods of Hindu-Muslim cooperation, as well as by communal antagonism. The idea of a separate Muslim state gained increasing popularity among Indian Muslims after 1936, when the Muslim League suffered a decisive defeat in the first elections under India's 1935 constitution. In 1940, the Muslim League called for an independent state in regions where Muslims were in the majority. Campaigning on that platform in provincial elections in 1946, the League won the majority of the Muslim seats contested in Bengal. Widespread communal violence followed, especially in Calcutta. When British India was partitioned and the independent dominions of India and Pakistan were created in 1947, the region of Bengal was divided along religious lines. The predominantly Muslim eastern half was designated East Pakistan--and made part of the newly independent Pakistan--while the predominantly Hindu western part became the Indian state of West Bengal. Pakistan's history from 1947 to 1971 was marked by political instability and economic difficulties. Dominion status was rejected in 1956 in favor of an "Islamic republic within the Commonwealth." Attempts at civilian political rule failed, and the government imposed martial law between 1958 and 1962, and again between 1969 and 1972. Almost from the advent of independent Pakistan in 1947, frictions developed between East and West Pakistan, which were separated by more than 1,600 kilometers of Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences also contributed to the estrangement of East from West Pakistan. Bengalis strongly resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan. Responding to these grievances, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman--known widely as "Mujib"--in 1949 formed the Awami League (AL), a party designed mainly to promote Bengali interests. Mujib became president of the Awami League, and emerged as leader of the Bengali autonomy movement. In 1966, he was arrested for his political activities. After the Awami League won all the East Pakistan seats of the Pakistan national assembly in 1970-71 elections, West Pakistan opened talks with the East on constitutional questions about the division of power between the central government and the provinces, as well as the formation of a national government headed by the Awami League. The talks proved unsuccessful, however, and on March 1, 1971, Pakistani President Yahya Khan indefinitely postponed the pending national assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan. Mujib was arrested again; his party was banned, and most of his aides fled to India, where they organized a provisional government. On March 26, 1971, following a bloody crackdown by the Pakistan army, Bengali nationalists declared an independent People's Republic of Bangladesh. As fighting grew between the army and the Bengali mukti bahini ("freedom fighters"), an estimated 10 million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal. The crisis in East Pakistan produced new strains in Pakistan's troubled relations with India. The two nations had fought a war in 1965, mainly in the west, but the refugee pressure in India in the fall of 1971 produced new tensions in the east. Indian sympathies lay with East Pakistan, and in November, India intervened on the side of the Bangladeshis. On December 16, 1971, Pakistani forces surrendered and Bangladesh--meaning "Bengal nation"--was born; the new country became a parliamentary democracy under a 1972 constitution. # BD Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India # 144000 133910 10090 4246 Burma 193 km, India 4,053 km # 580 18 up to the outer limits of the continental margin # 200 ? 12 tropical; cool, dry winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); cool, rainy monsoon (June to October) # mostly flat alluvial plain; hilly in southeast # Indian Ocean 0 m Reng Tlang 957 m natural gas, arable land, timber # 73 2 5 15 5 31000 droughts, cyclones; much of the country routinely flooded during the summer monsoon season # many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate flood-prone land; limited access to potable water; water-borne diseases prevalent; water pollution especially of fishing areas results from the use of commercial pesticides; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation; deforestation; severe overpopulation # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands # Law of the Sea # ? # 127567002 38 24339519 23377955 59 38897130 36818818 3 2239638 1893942 1.76 28.89 10.60 -0.69 1.05 1.04 1.06 1.18 ? 97.67 56.66 56.69 56.63 3.32 Bangladeshi(s) Bangladesh Bengali 98%, Biharis 250,000, tribals less than 1 million # Muslim 88.3%, Hindu 10.5%, other 1.2% # Bangla (official), English # age 15 and over can read and write # 38.10 49.40 26.10 People's Republic of Bangladesh Bangladesh ? # ? .bd republic Dhaka 4 divisions; Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi note: there may be two new divisions named Barisal and Sylhet # ? # Independence Day, 26 March (1971) 4 November 1972, effective 16 December 1972, suspended following coup of 24 March 1982, restored 10 November 1986, amended many times # based on English common law # 18 years of age; universal # President Mustafizur RAHMAN ; note - the president's duties are normally ceremonial, but with the 13th amendment to the constitution ("Caretaker Government Amendment"), the president's role becomes significant at times when Parliament is dissolved and a caretaker government is installed - at presidential direction - to supervise the elections # Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed (since 23 June 1996) # Cabinet selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president # president elected by National Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1996 (next to be held by NA October 2001); following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually appointed prime minister by the president # NA # unicameral National Parliament or Jatiya Sangsad (330 seats; 300 elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies, 30 seats reserved for women; members serve five-year terms) # last held 12 June 1996 (next to be held NA 2001) # percent of vote by party - AL 33.87%, BNP 30.87%; seats by party - AL 178, BNP 113, JP 33, JI 3, other 2, election still to be held 1; note - the elections of 12 June 1996 brought to power an Awami League government for the first time in twenty-one years; held under a neutral, caretaker administration, the elections were characterized by a peaceful, orderly process and massive voter turnout, ending a bitter two-year impasse between the former BNP and opposition parties that had paralyzed National Parliament and led to widespread street violence # Supreme Court, the Chief Justices and other judges are appointed by the president # Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), Khaleda ZIAur Rahman; Awami League (AL), Sheikh HASINA Wajed; Jatiyo Party (JP), Hussain Mohammad ERSHAD; Jamaat-E-Islami (JI), Motiur Rahman NIZAMI; Bangladesh Communist Party (BCP), Saifuddin Ahmed MANIK # ? # AsDB, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUA, NAM, OIC, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNOMIL, UNPREDEP, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # green with a large red disk slightly to the hoist side of center; the red sun of freedom represents the blood shed to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush countryside, and secondarily, the traditional color of Islam # Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains one of the world's poorest, most densely populated, and least developed nations. Annual GDP growth has averaged over 4% in recent years from a low base. Its economy is largely agricultural, with the cultivation of rice the single most important activity in the economy. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, the inefficiency of state-owned enterprises, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploiting energy resources (natural gas), inadequate power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms. Frequent strikes that crippled the economy in 1995 and early 1996 subsided after Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed's Awami League government assumed power in mid-1996, allowing a return to normal economic activity. The current government has made some headway improving the climate for foreign investors and liberalizing the capital markets; for example, it has negotiated with foreign firms for oil and gas exploration, better countrywide distribution of cooking gas, and the construction of natural gas pipelines and power plants. Progress on other economic reforms has been halting because of opposition from the bureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups. # 5.50 270 34443 30 18 52 2.50 56000000 agriculture 63%, services 25%, industry and mining 10% (1996) # 35.20 3600.00 5300 jute manufacturing, cotton textiles, food processing, steel, fertilizer # 5.30 2.98 11500 71 rice, jute, tea, wheat, sugarcane, potatoes; beef, milk, poultry # 3900 garments, jute and jute goods, leather, frozen fish and seafood # Western Europe 42%, US 30%, Hong Kong 4%, Japan 3% (FY95/96 est.) # 6900 capital goods, textiles, food, petroleum products # India 21%, China 10%, Western Europe 8%, Hong Kong 7%, Singapore 6% (FY95/96 est.) # 17100.00 $1.475 billion (FY96/97) # ? # 1 taka (Tk) = 100 poisha # 45.45 1 July - 30 June 249800 poor domestic telephone service # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean); international radiotelephone communications and landline service to neighboring countries # 9 6 0 ? 11 350000 2892 978 km 1.676-m gauge # # 1,914 km 1.000-m gauge (1992) # # 223391 16,084 km # 207,307 km (1995 est.) # 5150 ? ? 1220 Chittagong, Dhaka, Chalna Port (Mongla) # 39 310728 444245 bulk 2, cargo 31, oil tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 2 (1997 est.) # 16 15 1 2 4 1 7 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary forces (includes Bangladesh Rifles, Bangladesh Ansars, Armed Police Reserve, Village Defense Parties, National Cadet Corps) # ? # 33780741 19984761 ? 481000000 1.70 a portion of the boundary with India is indefinite # transit country for illegal drugs produced in neighboring countries # @Barbados 0 In plenty and in time of need When this fair land was young Our brave forefathers sowed the seed From which our pride has sprung A pride that makes no wanton boast Of what it has withstood That binds our hearts from coast to coast The pride of nationhood chorus We loyal sons and daughters all Do hereby make it known These fields and hills beyond recall Are now our very own We write our names on history's page With expectations great Strict guardians of our heritage Firm craftsmen of our fate The Lord has been the people's guide For past three hundred years. With Him still on the people's side We have no doubts or fears. Upward and onward we shall go, Inspired, exulting, free, And greater will our nation grow In strength and unity. # British sailors who landed on Barbados in the 1620s at the site of present-day Holetown on the Caribbean coast found the island uninhabited. As elsewhere in the eastern Caribbean, Arawak Indians may have been annihilated by invading Caribs, who are believed to have subsequently abandoned the island. From the arrival of the first British settlers in 1627-28 until independence in 1966, Barbados was under uninterrupted British control. Nevertheless, Barbados always enjoyed a large measure of local autonomy. Its House of Assembly, which began meeting in 1639, is the third-oldest legislative body in the Western Hemisphere, preceded only by Bermuda's legislature and the Virginia House of Burgesses. As the sugar industry developed into the main commercial enterprise, Barbados was divided into large plantation estates which replaced the small holdings of the early British settlers. Some of the displaced farmers relocated to British colonies in North America. To work the plantations, slaves were brought from Africa; the slave trade ceased a few years before the abolition of slavery throughout the British empire in 1834. Local politics were dominated by plantation owners and merchants of British descent. It was not until the 1930s that a movement for political rights was begun by the descendants of emancipated slaves. One of the leaders of this movement, Sir Grantley Adams, founded the Barbados Labor Party in 1938. Progress toward more democratic government for Barbados was made in 1951, when universal adult suffrage was introduced. This was followed by steps toward increased self-government, and in 1961, Barbados achieved internal autonomy. From 1958 to 1962, Barbados was one of 10 members of the West Indies Federation, and Sir Grantley Adams served as its first and only prime minister. When the federation was terminated, Barbados reverted to its former status as a self-governing colony. Following several attempts to form another federation composed of Barbados and the Leeward and Windward Islands, Barbados negotiated its own independence at a constitutional conference with the United Kingdom in June 1966. After years of peaceful and democratic progress, Barbados became an independent state within the British Commonwealth on November 30, 1966. # BDS Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Venezuela # 430 430 0 ? ? # 97 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; rainy season (June to October) # relatively flat; rises gently to central highland region # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mount Hillaby 336 m petroleum, fish, natural gas # 37 0 5 12 46 ? infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides # pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers # Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling # Biodiversity # easternmost Caribbean island # 259025 23 30592 29747 67 84725 87730 10 9926 16305 0.09 14.92 8.21 -5.86 1.02 1.03 0.97 0.61 ? 17.25 74.79 72.03 77.62 1.85 Barbadian(s) Barbadian black 80%, white 4%, other 16% # Protestant 67% (Anglican 40%, Pentecostal 8%, Methodist 7%, other 12%), Roman Catholic 4%, none 17%, unknown 3%, other 9% (1980) # English # age 15 and over has ever attended school # 97.40 98 96.80 none Barbados ? # ? .bb parliamentary democracy Bridgetown 11 parishes; Christ Church, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint James, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Lucy, Saint Michael, Saint Peter, Saint Philip, Saint Thomas note: the city of Bridgetown may be given parish status # ? # Independence Day, 30 November (1966) 30 November 1966 # English common law; no judicial review of legislative acts # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Clifford Straughn HUSBANDS (since 1 June 1996) # Prime Minister Owen Seymour ARTHUR (since 6 September 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Billie MILLER (since 6 September 1994) # Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor general appointed by the queen; prime minister appointed by the governor general # ? # bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (21-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Assembly (28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) # House of Assembly - last held 6 September 1994 (next to be held by January 1999) # House of Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - BLP 19, DLP 8, NDP 1 # Supreme Court of Judicature, judges are appointed by the Service Commissions for the Judicial and Legal Service # Democratic Labor Party or DLP [David THOMPSON]; Barbados Labor Party or BLP [Owen ARTHUR]; National Democratic Party or NDP [Richard HAYNES] # ? # ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO # three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident) # Historically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. The start of the Port Charles Marina project in Speightstown helped the tourism industry continue to expand in 1996-97. The government continues its efforts to reduce the unacceptably high unemployment rate, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises. # 3 6590 1707 7 17 76 2.40 68900 services 75%, industry 15%, agriculture 10% (1996 est.) # 16.20 600 645 tourism, sugar, light manufacturing, component assembly for export # 0.80 0.14 591.50 2145 sugarcane, vegetables, cotton # 235 sugar and molasses, rum, other foods and beverages, chemicals, electrical components, clothing # US 15%, UK 15%, Trinidad and Tobago 9%, Windward Islands 8% # 763 consumer goods, machinery, foodstuffs, construction materials, chemicals, fuel, electrical components # US 37%, Trinidad and Tobago 11%, UK 10%, Japan 7% # 359 ? # ? # 1 Barbadian dollar (Bds$) = 100 cents # 2 1 April - 31 March 87343 island wide automatic telephone system # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Trinidad and Saint Lucia # 3 2 0 ? 2 69350 ? # # # # 1640 1,573 km # 67 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Bridgetown # 57 869363 1365640 bulk 15, cargo 30, container 1, combination bulk 4, multifunction large-load carrier 1, oil tanker 4, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 1 # 1 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Royal Barbados Defense Force (includes Ground Forces and Coast Guard), Royal Barbados Police Force # ? # 71891 49562 ? ? ? none # one of many Caribbean transshipment points for narcotics bound for the US and Europe # @Bassas da India France ? # # Southern Africa, islands in the southern Mozambique Channel, about one-half of the way from Madagascar to Mozambique # 0.20 0.20 0 ? ? # 35.20 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical # a volcanic rock 2.4 meters high # Indian Ocean 0 m unnamed location 2.4 m none # 0 0 0 0 100 0 maritime hazard since it is usually under water during high tide and surrounded by reefs; subject to periodic cyclones # NA # NA # NA # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? none Bassas da India ? # ? .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # NA # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of France is used # no economic activity # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? claimed by Madagascar # ? # @Belarus 0 ? # # BEL Eastern Europe, east of Poland # 207600 207600 0 3098 Latvia 141 km, Lithuania 502 km, Poland 605 km, Russia 959 km, Ukraine 891 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? cold winters, cool and moist summers; transitional between continental and maritime # generally flat and contains much marshland # Nyoman River 90 m Dzyarzhynskaya Hara 346 m forests, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas # 29 1 15 34 21 1000 NA # soil pollution from pesticide use; southern part of the country contaminated with fallout from 1986 nuclear reactor accident at Chornobyl' in northern Ukraine # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection # Climate Change, Law of the Sea # landlocked # 10409050 20 1062012 1018154 67 3365065 3564078 13 460633 939108 -0.05 9.71 13.47 3.25 1.05 1.04 0.94 0.49 ? 14.16 68.26 62.26 74.56 1.34 Belarusian(s) Belarusian Byelorussian 77.9%, Russian 13.2%, Polish 4.1%, Ukrainian 2.9%, other 1.9% # Eastern Orthodox 80%, other (including Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, and Muslim) 20% (1997 est.) # Byelorussian, Russian, other # age 15 and over can read and write # 98 99 97 Republic of Belarus Belarus Respublika Byelarus' # none .by republic Minsk 6 voblastsi (singular - voblasts') and one municipality* (harady, singular - horad); Brestskaya (Brest), Homyel'skaya (Homyel'), Horad Minsk*, Hrodzyenskaya (Hrodna), Mahilyowskaya (Mahilyow), Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya (Vitsyebsk) note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses) # ? # Independence Day, 3 July (1990); note - date set by referendum of November referendum of 24 November 1996; became effective on 17 November 1996 # based on civil law system # 18 years of age; universal # President Aleksandr LUKASHENKO (since 20 July 1994) # Prime Minister Sergey LING (acting since 18 November 1996, confirmed 19 February 1997); First Deputy Prime Minister Petr PRAKAPOVICH (since 23 December 1996); Deputy Prime Ministers Vladimir GARKUN (since 21 July 1994), Valeriy KOKAREV (since 23 August 1994), Vasiliy DOLGOLEV (since 30 October 1995), Vladimir ZAMETALIN (since 15 July 1997) # Council of Ministers # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 24 June and 10 July 1994 (next to be held NA 2001 because of the additional two years provided by the November 1996 referendum); prime minister appointed by the president # Aleksandr LUKASHENKO elected president; percent of vote - Aleksandr LUKASHENKO 85%, Vyacheslav KEBICH 15% note: first presidential elections took place in June-July 1994 # bicameral Parliament or Natsionalnoye Sobranie established by the 27 November Constitution consists of the Council of the Republic or Soviet Republiki (64 seats; 8 appointed by the president and 56 indirectly elected by deputies of local councils for four-year terms) and the Chamber of Representatives or Palata Pretsaviteley (110 seats; note - present members came from the defunct Supreme Soviet) # last held May and November-December 1995 (two rounds, each with a run-off; next to be held NA 2000) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - KPB 42, Agrarian 33, CAB 9, Party of People's Concord 8, UPNAZ 2, SDPB 2, BPR 1, Green Party 1, Republican Party of Labor and Justice 1, BSP 1, BNF 1, Social and Sports Party 1, Ecological Party 1, independents 95, vacant 62; note - the last election took place to fill seats in the former Supreme Soviet (260 seats); after the November 1996 referendum, seats for the Chamber of Representatives were filled by former Supreme Soviet members as follows: PKB 24, Agrarian 14, Party of Peoples Concord 5, LDPB 1, UPNAZ 1, Green World Party 1, Belarusian Social Sports Party 1, Ecological Party 1, Republican Party of Labor and Justice 1, independents 61; 58 of the 64 seats in the Council of the Republic have been appointed/elected # Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, half of the judges appointed by the president and half appointed by the Chamber of Representatives # Belarusian Communist Party or KPB [Viktor CHIKIN]; Agrarian Party [Aleksandr PAVLOV, chairman]; Civic Accord Bloc (United Civic Party) or CAB [Stanislav BOGDANKEVICH, chairman]; Party of People's Concord [Leonid SECHKO, chairman]; Party of All-Belarusian Unity and Concord or UPNAZ [Dmitriy BULAKOV, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democrat Hramada or SDBP [Nikolay STATKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Patriotic Movement (Belarusian Patriotic Party) or BPR [Anatoliy BARANKEVICH]; Green Party of Belarus or BPZ [Nikolay KARTASH, chairman]; Republican Party of Labor and Justice or RPPS [Anatol NETYLKIN, chairman]; Belarusian Popular Front or BNF [Levon BARSHEVSKIY, chairman]; Belarusian Social Sports Party or BSSP [Aleksandr ALEKSANDROVICH, chairman]; Ecological Party or BEP [Liudmila YELIZAROVA, chairman]; United Democratic Party of Belarus or ADPB [Aleksandr DOBROVOLSKIY]; Slavic Assembly or SAB [Andrey TSEGALKA]; Liberal-Democratic Party or LDPB [Sergei GAYDUKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Christian-Democratic Unity or BKDZ [Petr SILKO]; Polish Democratic Union or PDZ [Eduard AKHREM]; Party of Beer Lovers [Yuriy GONCHAR]; Party of Communists Belarusian or KPB [Sergei KALYAKIN and Vasiliy NOVIKOV, chairmen]; Belarusian Labor Party or BPP [Aleksandr BUKHVOSTOV] # ? # BIS, CCC, CEI, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant) # red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe of white on the hoist side bears in red the Belarusian national ornament # The Belarusian government has revived economic output since mid-1996 by pursuing a policy of rapid credit expansion, ending years of cumulative decline. Real GDP increased by 2.6% in 1996 and the growth rate tripled in 1997. Lack of profitability and resurgent inflation - which increased from an average monthly rate of 2.8% in 1996 to 4.4% in 1997 - however, have kept enterprises from making much needed capital investments. As a result, infrastructure and equipment stocks have continued to deteriorate. Belarus has seen little structural reform since 1995, when LUKASHENKO launched the country on the path of "market socialism." Privatization of enterprises controlled by the central government virtually ceased in 1996. As of May 1997, only about 10% of all enterprises under central government control had been privatized. In addition, LUKASHENKO has re-imposed administrative control over prices and the national currency's exchange rate, and expanded the state's right to intervene arbitrarily in the management of private enterprise. Lack of structural reform, and a climate hostile to business, have inhibited foreign investment in Belarus in 1995-97. In 1995 Belarus ranked second to last among the 15 former Soviet republics in terms of the average amount of foreign investment it attracted per capita. Although it moved up to 11th place in 1996, this was largely due to inflows from Russia related to the construction of the Yamal natural gas pipeline. Belarus's trade deficit has grown steadily over the past three years - from 8% of total trade turnover in 1995 to 14% in the first quarter of 1997 - despite the government's efforts to promote exports and limit imports. Given Belarus's limited fiscal reserve, a continued growth in the trade deficit will increase vulnerability to a balance of payments crisis. # 8.50 2150 22379 20 43 37 65 4300000 industry and construction 40%, agriculture and forestry 19%, services 41% (1997 est.) # 3.30 4000 4100 tractors, metal-cutting machine tools, off-highway dump trucks up to 110-metric-ton load capacity, wheel-type earth movers for construction and mining, eight-wheel-drive, high-flotation trucks with cargo capacity of 25 metric tons for use in tundra and roadless areas, equipment for animal husbandry and livestock feeding, motorcycles, television sets, chemical fibers, fertilizer, linen fabric, wool fabric, radios, refrigerators, other consumer goods # 17 7.21 23700 3144 grain, potatoes, vegetables; meat, milk # 5400 machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs # Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany # 6700 fuel, natural gas, industrial raw materials, textiles, sugar # Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany # 970 ODA, $186 million (1993) # ? # Belarusian rubel (BR) # 31030 calendar year 1849000 the new NMT-450 analog cellular system is now operating in Minsk # international traffic is carried by the Moscow international gateway switch and also by satellite; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (through Canada) and 1 Eutelsat (through the UK) # 35 18 0 3170000 2 3500000 5488 5,488 km 1.520-m gauge (873 km electrified) (1993) # # # # 52131 36,544 km # 15,587 km (1996 est.) # ? 1470 ? 1980 Mazyr # ? ? ? ? # 118 36 2 18 5 9 11 82 1 6 4 ? 62 ? Army, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards # 18 years of age # 2681014 2099860 78780 4500000000000 1.30 demarcation has begun on border with Lithuania # limited cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis, mostly for the domestic market; transshipment point for illicit drugs to Russia and Western Europe # @Belgium 0 Dutch O dierbaar Belgiδ, o heilig land der Vadren, onze ziel en ons hart zijn U gewijd. Aanvaard ons kracht en bloed van ons adren, wees ons doel in arbeid en in strijd. Bloei, o land, in eendracht niet te breken; wees immer U zelf en ongeknecht. Het woord getrouw dat ge onbevreesd moogt spreken. Voor Vorst, voor vrijheid en voor recht. Het woord getrouw dat ge onbevreesd moogt spreken. Voor Vorst, voor vrijheid en voor recht. Voor Vorst, voor vrijheid en voor recht. Voor Vorst, voor vrijheid en voor recht. French Noble Belgique, α jamais terre chΘrie, A toi nos coeurs, α toi nos bras. Par le sang pur rΘpondu pour toi, patrie, Nous le jurons d'un seul cri: tu vivras. Tu vivras, toujours grande et belle, Et ton invincible unitΘ, Aura pour devise immortelle: Le Roi, la Loi, La libertΘ. Aura pour devise immortelle: Le Roi, la Loi, La libertΘ. Le Roi, la Loi, La libertΘ. Le Roi, la Loi, La libertΘ. # Belgium is one of the smallest and most densely populated countries of Europe. The area formed a part of the United Netherlands from 1815 to 1830. It became independent in 1831 as a hereditary, representative and constitutional monarchy. Ancient Latin and German heritages meet, but fail to mix, in Belgium. Apart from a small German-speaking population in the east, the country is divided between the Dutch-speaking Flemings in the north and the French-speaking Walloons in the south. The various political entities which preceded Belgium have left a heritage rich with both cultural and historical associations, with medieval university cities, small village communities, and traditions in the arts. Belgium has been the scene of major European conflicts, including Waterloo, and the two World Wars. Today it is the most heavily industrialized nation in europe. # B Western Europe, bordering the North Sea, between France and the Netherlands # 30510 30230 280 1385 France 620 km, Germany 167 km, Luxembourg 148 km, Netherlands 450 km # 64 ? median line with neighbors # ? 68 12 temperate; mild winters, cool summers; rainy, humid, cloudy # flat coastal plains in northwest, central rolling hills, rugged mountains of Ardennes Forest in southeast # North Sea 0 m Signal de Botrange 694 m coal, natural gas # 24 1 20 21 34 10 flooding is a threat in areas of reclaimed coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes # Meuse River, a major source of drinking water, polluted from steel production wastes; other rivers polluted by animal wastes and fertilizers; industrial air pollution contributes to acid rain in neighboring countries # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Law of the Sea # crossroads of Western Europe; majority of West European capitals within 1,000 km of Brussels which is the seat of both the EU and NATO # 10174922 17 903954 860940 66 3387329 3318221 17 693519 1010959 0.09 10.21 10.41 1.05 1.05 1.04 1.02 0.68 ? 6.27 77.35 74.13 80.74 1.49 Belgian(s) Belgian Fleming 55%, Walloon 33%, mixed or other 12% # Roman Catholic 75%, Protestant or other 25% # Flemish 56%, French 32%, German 1%, legally bilingual 11% # age 15 and over can read and write # 99 ? ? Kingdom of Belgium Belgium Royaume de Belgique/Koninkrijk Belgie # Belgique/Belgie .be federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch Brussels 9 provinces (French: provinces, singular - province; Flemish: provincien, singular - provincie); Antwerpen, Brabant, Hainaut, Liege, Limburg, Luxembourg, Namur, Oost-Vlaanderen, West-Vlaanderen note: constitutional reforms passed by Parliament in 1993 theoretically increased the number of provinces to 10 by splitting the province of Brabant into two new provinces, Flemish Brabant and Walloon Brabant, but this has not been confirmed by the US Government # ? # National Day, 21 July (ascension of King LEOPOLD to the throne in 1831) 7 February 1831, last revised 14 July 1993; parliament approved a constitutional package creating a federal state # civil law system influenced by English constitutional theory; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal and compulsory # King ALBERT II (since 9 August 1993); Heir Apparent Prince PHILIPPE, son of the king # Prime Minister Jean-Luc DEHAENE (since 6 March 1992) # Council of Ministers appointed by the king and approved by Parliament # none; the king is a constitutional monarch; prime minister appointed by the king and then approved by Parliament # ? # bicameral Parliament consists of a Senate or Senaat in Flemish, Senat in French (71 seats; 40 members are directly elected, 31 will be indirectly elected at a later date; members serve four-year terms) and a Chamber of Deputies or Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers in Flemish, Chambre des Representants in French (150 seats; members are directly elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms) # Senate and Chamber of Deputies - last held 21 May 1995 (next to be held by the end of 1999) # Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CVP 7, SP 6, VLD 6, VU 2, AGALEV 1, VB 3, PS 5, PRL 5, PSC 3, ECOLO 2; note - before the 1995 elections, there were 184 seats; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - CVP 17.2%, PS 11.9%, SP 12.6%, VLD 13.1%, PRL 10.3%, PSC 7.7%, VB 7.8%, VU 4.7%, ECOLO 4.0%, AGALEV 4.4%, FN 2.3%; seats by party - CVP 29, PS 21, SP 20, VLD 21, PRL 18, PSC 12, VB 11, VU 5, ECOLO 6, AGALEV 5, FN 2; note - before the 1995 elections, there were 212 seats note: as a result of the 1993 constitutional revision that furthered devolution into a federal state, there are now three levels of government (federal, regional, and linguistic community) with a complex division of responsibilities; this reality leaves six governments each with its own legislative assembly; for other acronyms of the listed parties see Political parties and leaders # Supreme Court of Justice or Hof van Cassatie in Flemish, Cour de Cassation in French, judges are appointed for life by the Belgian monarch # Flemish Christian Democrats or CVP (Christian People's Party) [Marc VAN PEEL, president]; Francophone Christian Democrats or PSC (Social Christian Party) [Gerard DEPREZ, president]; Flemish Socialist Party or SP [Louis TOBBACK, president]; Francophone Socialist Party or PS [Philippe BUSQUIN, president]; Flemish Liberal Democrats or VLD [Herman DE CROO, president]; Francophone Liberal Reformation Party or PRL [Louis MICHEL, president]; Francophone Democratic Front or FDF [Olivier MAINGAIN, president]; Volksunie or VU [Bert ANCIAUX, president]; Vlaams Blok or VB [Karel DILLEN]; National Front or FN [Frank VANHECKE, president]; AGALEV (Flemish Greens) [no president]; ECOLO (Francophone Greens) [no president]; other minor parties # ? # ACCT, AfDB, AG (observer), AsDB, Australia Group, Benelux, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MTCR, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNPREDEP, UNRWA, UNTSO, UPU, WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC # three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the design was based on the flag of France # This highly developed private enterprise economy has capitalized on its central geographic location, highly developed transport network, and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry is concentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north, although the government is encouraging reinvestment in the southern region of Walloon. With few natural resources, Belgium must import substantial quantities of raw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making its economy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. Two-thirds of its trade is with other EU countries. The economy grew at a strong 4% annual pace during the period 1988-90, slowed to 1% in 1991-92, dropped by 1.5% in 1993, recovered with moderate 2.3% growth in 1994 and 1995, and fell off again to 1.4% in 1996, with continued substantial unemployment. Belgium's public debt fell from 127% of GDP in 1996 to 124% in 1997, and the government is trying to control its expenditures to bring the figure more into line with other industrialized countries. GDP growth of 2.5% is forecast for 1998. # 2.30 26420 268821 2 28 70 1.70 4283000 services 69.7%, industry 27.7%, agriculture 2.6% (1992) # 12.75 ? ? engineering and metal products, motor vehicle assembly, processed food and beverages, chemicals, basic metals, textiles, glass, petroleum, coal # 9.70 13.59 69560 7306 sugar beets, fresh vegetables, fruits, grain, tobacco; beef, veal, pork, milk # 172000 iron and steel, transportation equipment, tractors, diamonds, petroleum products # EU 67.2% (Germany 19%), US 5.8%, former Communist countries 1.4% (1994) # 158500 fuels, grains, chemicals, foodstuffs # EU 75% (Germany 22.1%), US 5%, former Communist countries 0.8% (1997) # 31300.00 ? # ODA, $808 million (1993) # 1 Belgian franc (BF) = 100 centimes # 37.46 calendar year 5691000 nationwide cellular telephone system; extensive cable network; limited microwave radio relay network # 5 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Eutelsat # 3 39 0 100000 32 3315662 3368 # 3,368 km 1.435-m gauge (1996) # # # 143175 143,175 km (including 1,674 km of expressways) # 0 km (1996 est.) # 2043 161 1167 3300 Antwerp (one of the world's busiest ports), Brugge, Gent, Hasselt, Liege, Mons, Namur, Oostende, Zeebrugge # 25 60082 93973 bulk 2, cargo 7, chemical tanker 5, liquefied gas tanker 1, oil tanker 10 (1997 est.) # 42 24 6 9 2 1 6 18 ? ? ? 3 15 1 Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie # 19 years of age # 2549277 2111332 63937 4600000000 1.70 none # source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for cocaine, heroin, hashish, and marijuana entering Western Europe # @Belize 0 O. Land of the Free by the Carib Sea, Our manhood we pledge to thy liberty! No tyrants here linger, despots must flee This tranquil haven of democracy The blood of our sires which hallows the sod, Brought freedom from slavery oppression's rod, By the might of truth and the grace of God, No longer shall we be hewers of wood. Arise! ye sons of the Baymen's clan, Put on your armour, clear the land! Drive back the tyrants, let despots flee - Land of the Free by the Carib Sea! Nature has blessed thee with wealth untold, O'er mountains and valleys where prairies roll; Our fathers, the Baymen, valiant and bold Drove back the invader; this heritage hold From proud Rio Hondo to old Sarstoon, Through coral isle, over blue lagoon; Keep watch with the angels, the stars and moon; For freedom comes tomorrow's noon. National Prayer Almighty and Eternal God, who through Jesus Christ has revealed Your Glory to all nations, please protect and preserve Belize, our beloved country. God of might, wisdom and justice, please assist our Belizean government and people with your Holy Spirit of counsel and fortitude. Let your light of Your divine wisdom direct their plans and endeavours so that with Your help we may attain our just objectives. With Your guidance, may all our endeavours tend to peace, social justice, liberty, national happiness, the increase of industry, sobriety and useful knowledge. We pray, O God of Mercy, for all of us that we may be blessed in the knowledge and sanctified in the observance of Your most holy law, that we may be preserved in union and in peace which the world itself cannot give. And, after enjoying the blessings of this life, please admit us, dear Lord, to that eternal reward that You have prepared for those who love You. Amen. # The Mayan civilization spread into the area of Belize between 1500 BC and AD 300 and flourished until about AD 1200. Several major archeological sites, notably Caracol, Lamanai, Lubaantun, Altun Ha, and Xunantunich, reflect the advanced civilization and much denser population of that period. European contact began in 1502 when Columbus sailed along the coast. The first recorded European settlement was begun by shipwrecked English seamen in 1638. Over the next 150 years, more English settlements were established. This period was also marked by piracy, indiscriminate logging, and sporadic attacks by Indians and neighboring Spanish settlements. Great Britain first sent an official representative to the area in the late 18th century, but Belize was not formally termed the Colony of British Honduras until 1840. It became a crown colony in 1862. Subsequently, several constitutional changes were enacted to expand representative government. Full internal self-government under a ministerial system was granted in January 1964. The official name of the territory was changed from British Honduras to Belize in June 1973, and full independence was granted on September 21, 1981. Belize held its first general elections in December 1984. These brought to an end the long rule of the People's United Party under George Cadle Prince, who had served as head of government since 1961. The opposition United Democratic Party led by Manuel Esquivel won 21 of 28 seats in the House of representatives. # BZ Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Mexico # 22960 22800 160 516 Guatemala 266 km, Mexico 250 km # 386 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; very hot and humid; rainy season (May to February) # flat, swampy coastal plain; low mountains in south # Caribbean Sea 0 m Victoria Peak 1,160 m arable land potential, timber, fish # 2 1 2 92 3 20 frequent, devastating hurricanes (September to December) and coastal flooding (especially in south) # deforestation; water pollution from sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Marine Dumping, Ship Pollution, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # national capital moved 80 km inland from Belize City to Belmopan because of hurricanes; only country in Central America without a coastline on the North Pacific Ocean # 230160 42 49486 47596 54 63259 61567 4 4048 4204 2.42 31.05 5.50 -1.38 1.05 1.04 1.03 0.96 ? 32.36 68.97 67.01 71.03 3.87 Belizean(s) Belizean mestizo 44%, Creole 30%, Maya 11%, Garifuna 7%, other 8% # Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 30% (Anglican 12%, Methodist 6%, Mennonite 4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Pentecostal 2%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1%, other 2%), none 2%, other 6% (1980) # English (official), Spanish, Mayan, Garifuna (Carib) # age 14 and over has ever attended school # 70.30 70.30 70.30 none Belize ? # ? .bz parliamentary democracy Belmopan 6 districts; Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo # ? # Independence Day, 21 September (1981) 21 September 1981 # English law # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Colville YOUNG (since 17 November 1993) # Said MUSA; Deputy Prime Minister John BRICENO # Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor general appointed by the queen; prime minister appointed by the governor general # ? # bicameral National Assembly consists of the Senate (8 members; members are appointed for five-year terms, five on the advice of the prime minister, two on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and one after consultation with the Belize Advisory Council - this council serves as an independent body to advise the governor general with respect to difficult decisions such as granting pardons, commutations, stays of execution, the removal of justices of appeal who appear to be incompetent, etc.) and the National Assembly (29 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) # National Assembly - last held 30 June 1993 (next to be held no later than September 1998) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 13, UDP 15, NABR 1 # Supreme Court, the chief justice is appointed by the governor general on advice of the prime minister # People's United Party or PUP [Said MUSA]; United Democratic Party or UDP [Manuel ESQUIVEL, Dean BARROW]; National Alliance for Belizean Rights or NABR [Philip GOLDSON] # ? # ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO, WTrO # blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland # The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming greater importance. Sugar, the chief crop, accounts for more than one-third of exports, while the banana industry is the country's largest employer. The government's tough austerity program in 1997 resulted in an economic slowdown that is likely to continue in 1998. Political tension in the run-up to the elections will tend to discourage investment, already suffering as a result of tight monetary and fiscal policies. The trade deficit has been growing, mostly as a result of low export prices for sugar and bananas and could increase further if a pre-election boost in government spending leads to a rise in imports. The ruling in 1997 by the World Trade Organization against the European Union's banana import regime - which had granted Belize preferential treatment - is also hurting the prospects for growth, and could contribute to an increase in already high unemployment. # 2.90 2740 631 20 27 53 1 71000 agriculture 30%, services 16%, government 15.4%, commerce 11.2%, manufacturing 10.3% # 13 140 142 garment production, food processing, tourism, construction # 0.20 0.02 105 491 bananas, coca, citrus, sugarcane; lumber; fish, cultured shrimp # 166 sugar, citrus fruits, bananas, clothing, fish products, molasses, wood # US 44%, UK 42%, other EU 5%, Canada 3% (1996) # 262 machinery and transportation equipment, food, manufactured goods, fuels, chemicals, pharmaceuticals # US 55%, Mexico 12%, UK 5% (1997) # 217 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Belizean dollar (Bz$) = 100 cents # 2 1 April - 31 March 29000 trunk network depends primarily on microwave radio relay # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 6 9 1 ? 2 27048 ? # # # # 2248 427 km # 1,821 km (1996 est.) # 825 ? ? ? Belize City, Big Creek, Corozol, Punta Gorda # 265 1298562 2055027 bulk 26, cargo 184, chemical tanker 4, combination bulk 1, container 6, liquefied gas tanker 1, oil tanker 26, passenger-cargo 2, refrigerated cargo 8, roll-on/roll-off cargo 4, specialized tanker 2, vehicle carrier 1 # 44 3 ? 1 1 10 2 41 ? ? ? ? 30 ? Belize Defense Force (includes Ground Forces, Maritime Wing, Air Wing, and Volunteer Guard), Belize National Police # 18 years of age # 56142 33328 2536 15000000 2 border with Guatemala in dispute; talks to resolve the dispute are ongoing # transshipment point for cocaine; small-scale illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; minor money-laundering center # @Benin 0 Refrain Enfants du Benin debout La liberte d'un cri sonore Chante aux premiers feux de l'aurore Enfants du Benin debout Jadis a son appel Nos aieux Sans faiblesse Ont su avec courage et ardeur Pleins d'allegresse Livrez au prix du sang Des combats eclatants Accourez vous aussi Batisseurs du present Plus forts dans l'unite Et chaque jour a la tache Pour la prosperite Construisez sans relache Refrain # Benin is a unitary single-party peoples republic with one legislative house (National Revolutionary Assembly) with 196 seats. Since the 17th century the country was known as the Kingdom of Dahomey. Formerly a part of French West Africa, it became independent as the Republic of Dahomey on 1 August 1960. The present name was given on 1 December 1975 when the military government adopted a Marxist-Leninist constitution and Benin became a people's republic. # RPB Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Nigeria and Togo # 112620 110620 2000 1989 Burkina 306 km, Niger 266 km, Nigeria 773 km, Togo 644 km # 121 ? ? # ? ? 200 tropical; hot, humid in south; semiarid in north # mostly flat to undulating plain; some hills and low mountains # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mount Tanekas 641 m small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber # 13 4 4 31 48 100 hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north in winter # recent droughts have severely affected marginal agriculture in north; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection # none of the selected agreements # no natural harbors # 6100799 48 1465067 1455852 50 1455224 1582880 2 61523 80253 3.31 45.82 12.77 0 1.03 1 0.91 0.76 ? 100.22 53.61 51.56 55.72 6.48 Beninese (singular and plural) Beninese African 99% (42 ethnic groups, most important being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, Bariba), Europeans 5,500 # indigenous beliefs 70%, Muslim 15%, Christian 15% # French (official), Fon and Yoruba (most common vernaculars in south), tribal languages (at least six major ones in north) # age 15 and over can read and write # 37 48.70 25.80 Republic of Benin Benin Republique du Benin # Benin .bj republic under multiparty democratic rule; dropped Marxism-Leninism Porto-Novo is the official capital; Cotonou is the seat of government 6 departments; Atakora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Oueme, Zou # ? # National Day, 1 August (1990) 2 December 1990 # based on French civil law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; Prime Minister Adrien HOUNGBEDJI (since 9 April 1996) acts as assistant to the president; a prime minister is not provided for in the constitution but was appointed by President KEREKOU with the permission of the constitutional court # Council of Ministers headed by the prime minister; all are appointed by the president # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 March 1996 (next to be held March 2001) # Mathieu KEREKOU elected president; percent of vote - Mathieu KEREKOU 52.49%, Nicephore SOGLO 47.51% # unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (83 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms) # last held 28 March 1995 (next to be held NA 1999) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RB 20, PRD 19, FARD-ALAFIA 10, PSD 7, NCC 3, RDL-VIVOTEN 3, PCB 2, AC 1, RDP 1, other 17 # Constitutional Court or Cour Constitutionnelle, Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, High Court of Justice # Alliance of the National Party for Democracy and Development or PNDD and the Democratic Renewal Party or PRD [Pascal Chabi KAO]; Action for Renewal and Development or FARD-ALAFIA [Mathieu KEREKOU]; Alliance of the Social Democratic Party or PSD and the National Union for Solidarity and Progress or UNSP [Bruno AMOUSSOU]; Alliance Chameleon or AC; Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [Adekpedjon AKINDES]; Alliance for Social Democracy or ASD [Robert DOSSOU]; Liberal Democrats' Rally for National Reconstruction-Vivoten or RDL-Vivoten [Severin ADJOVI]; Communist Party of Benin or PCB [Pascal TODJINOU, first secretary]; Our Common Cause or NCC [Albert TEVOEDJRE]; Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP; The Renaissance Party of Benin or RB [Nicephore SOGLO] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, MIPONUH, NAM, OAU, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red with a vertical green band on the hoist side # The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output, which had averaged a sound 4% during 1990-95, rose to 5.5% in 1996 and was targeted at 4.8% for 1997. Rapid population growth offset much of this growth in output. Inflation jumped to 55% in 1994 (compared to 3% in 1993) following the 50% currency devaluation in January 1994, but has subsided over the past three years, with a target of 3.5% inflation in 1997. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are extremely vulnerable to developments in Nigeria, particularly fuel shortages. Support by the Paris Club and official bilateral creditors has eased the external debt situation in recent years. The government, still burdened with money-losing state enterprises and a bloated civil service, has been gradually implementing a World Bank supported structural adjustment program since 1991. # 5.80 380 2318 34 14 52 3.50 ? ? # ? 299 445 textiles, cigarettes; beverages, food; construction materials, petroleum # ? 0.01 6 45 corn, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), yams, beans, rice, cotton, palm oil, peanuts; poultry, livestock # 192 cotton, crude oil, palm products, cocoa # Brazil 18%, Portugal 14%, Morocco, Libya, France # 693 foodstuffs, beverages, tobacco, petroleum products, intermediate goods, capital goods, light consumer goods # France 27%, Thailand 9%, China, Hong Kong # 1700 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes # 608.36 calendar year 16200 fair system of open wire and microwave radio relay # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); submarine cable # 2 2 0 ? 2 20000 578 # # 578 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.) # # 6787 1,357 km (including 10 km of expressways) # 5,430 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Cotonou, Porto-Novo # ? ? ? ? # 6 2 ? 1 1 3 ? 4 ? ? 1 ? ? ? Armed Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), National Gendarmerie # 18 years of age # 1311490 671230 65498 33000000 3.20 none # transshipment point for narcotics associated with Nigerian trafficking organizations and most commonly destined for Western Europe and the US # @Bermuda 0 ? # Bermuda was discovered in 1503 by a Spanish explorer, Juan de Bermudez, who made no attempt to land because of the treacherous reef surrounding the uninhabited islands. In 1609, a group of British colonists led by Sir George Somers was shipwrecked and stranded on the islands for 10 months. Their reports aroused great interest about the islands in England, and in 1612 King James extended the Charter of the Virginia Company to include them. Later that year, about 60 British colonists arrived and founded the town of St. George, the oldest continuously inhabited English-speaking settlement in the Western Hemisphere. Representative government was introduced to Bermuda in 1620, and it became a self-governing colony. Due to the islands' isolation, for many years Bermuda remained an outpost of 17th-century British civilization, with an economy based on the use of the islands' cedar trees for shipbuilding and the salt trade. Hamilton, a centrally located port founded in 1790, became the seat of government in 1815. Slaves from Africa were brought to Bermuda soon after the colony was established. The slave trade was outlawed in Bermuda in 1807, and all slaves were freed in 1834. Today, about 60% of Bermudians are of African descent. In the early 20th century, Bermuda's tourism industry began to develop and thrive; Bermuda has prospered economically since World War II. Internal self-government was bolstered by the establishment of a formal constitution in 1968; debate about independence has ensued, although a 1995 independence referendum was defeated. # GB North America, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, east of North Carolina (US) # 50 50 0 ? ? # 103 ? ? # ? 200 12 subtropical; mild, humid; gales, strong winds common in winter # low hills separated by fertile depressions # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Town Hill 76 m limestone, pleasant climate fostering tourism # 6 ? ? ? ? ? hurricanes (June to November) # asbestos disposal; water pollution; preservation of open space # NA # NA # consists of about 360 small coral islands with ample rainfall, but no rivers or freshwater lakes; some land, reclaimed and otherwise, was leased by US Government from 1941 to 1995 # 62009 20 6191 6046 70 21330 21912 10 2777 3753 0.77 12.21 7.22 2.68 1.05 1.02 0.97 0.74 ? 9.57 76.77 75 78.63 1.71 Bermudian(s) Bermudian black 61%, white and other 39% # Anglican 28%, Roman Catholic 15%, African Methodist Episcopal (Zion) 12%, Seventh-Day Adventist 6%, Methodist 5%, other 34% (1991) # English (official), Portuguese # age 15 and over can read and write # 98 98 99 none Bermuda ? # ? .bm NA Hamilton 9 parishes and 2 municipalities*; Devonshire, Hamilton, Hamilton*, Paget, Pembroke, Saint George*, Saint Georges, Sandys, Smiths, Southampton, Warwick # ? # Bermuda Day, 24 May 8 June 1968 # English law # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Thorold MASEFIELD (since June 1997) # Premier Jennifer SMITH # Cabinet nominated by the premier, appointed by the governor # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor appointed by the queen; premier appointed by the governor # ? # bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (an 11-member body appointed by the governor) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held by NA October 1998 # NA # Supreme Court # United Bermuda Party or UBP [Pamela GORDON]; Progressive Labor Party or PLP [Jennifer SMITH]; National Liberal Party or NLP [Charles JEFFERS] # ? # Caricom (observer), CCC, ICFTU, Interpol (subbureau), IOC # red with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (white and blue shield with a red lion holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag # Bermuda enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, having successfully exploited its location by providing financial services for international firms and luxury tourist facilities for 360,000 visitors annually. The tourist industry, which accounts for an estimated 28% of GDP, attracts 84% of its business from North America. The industrial sector is small, and agriculture is severely limited by a lack of suitable land. About 80% of food needs are imported. International business contributes over 60% of Bermuda's economic output; a failed independence vote in late 1995 can be partially attributed to Bermudian fears of scaring away foreign firms. # 2.40 29950 1857 ? ? ? 1.80 34633 clerical 23%, services 22%, laborers 17%, professional and technical 17%, administrative and managerial 12%, sales 7%, agriculture and fishing 2% (1996) # 0 430.90 452.90 tourism, finance, insurance, structural concrete products, paints, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, ship repairing # ? 0.14 527.53 7856 bananas, vegetables, citrus, flowers; dairy products # 67.70 reexports of pharmaceuticals # Netherlands 50%, Brazil 13%, Canada 6% (1996) # 569 miscellaneous manufactured articles, machinery and transport equipment, food and live animals, chemicals # US 73%, UK 5%, Canada 4% (1996 est.) # ? ? # ? # 1 Bermudian dollar (Bd$) = 100 cents # 1 1 April - 31 March 54000 modern, fully automatic telephone system # 3 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 5 3 0 78000 3 57000 ? # # # # 225 225 km # 0 km (1997 est.) # ? ? ? ? Hamilton, Saint George # 91 4590132 7440524 bulk 18, chemical tanker 1, container 18, liquefied gas tanker 7, oil tanker 26, refrigerated cargo 15, roll-on/roll-off cargo 3, short-sea passenger 2, vehicle carrier 1 # 1 1 ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Bermuda Regiment, Bermuda Police Force, Bermuda Reserve Constabulary # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Bhutan 0 ? # The creation of the entity now known as Bhutan is credited to Mgawang Mangyal, a Tibetan Drukpa-lama, who entered the region in 1616 and died in 1651. He ended, at least for some time, the various conflicts between the local rulers of the western provinces. After 1639 Mangyal was given the title of Shabdung, the uppermost religious and worldly leader. The theocratic system he developed continued until 1907. In 1907, Ugyen Wangchuck was made hereditary king, being recognized by the British as the sole ruler of Bhutan. The present king, Jigme Singye Wangchuk, is the fourth in this line of hereditary rulers. The Treaty of Punakha in 1910 gave British-India power of control over Bhutan's external relations. With Indian independence in 1947 this control passed to India. Bhutan became a constitutional monarchy in 1969 when the king delegated part of his previously absolute power to the council of ministers and the Tsogdu, or parliament. The Tsogdu has 150 members, 45 of whom are reserved for civil-servants, ministers, royal advisers and lamas. The remaining 105 members are chosen by general election. # BHT Southern Asia, between China and India # 47000 47000 0 1075 China 470 km, India 605 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? varies; tropical in southern plains; cool winters and hot summers in central valleys; severe winters and cool summers in Himalayas # mostly mountainous with some fertile valleys and savanna # Dangme Chu 97 m Khula Kangri I 7,553 m timber, hydropower, gypsum, calcium carbide # 2 0 6 66 26 340 violent storms coming down from the Himalayas are the source of the country's name which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season # soil erosion; limited access to potable water # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban # Law of the Sea # landlocked; strategic location between China and India; controls several key Himalayan mountain passes # 1908307 40 396839 368391 56 549050 518780 4 38235 37012 2.27 37.33 14.60 0 1.05 1.08 1.06 1.03 ? 111.66 52.31 52.77 51.83 5.22 Bhutanese (singular and plural) Bhutanese Bhote 50%, ethnic Nepalese 35%, indigenous or migrant tribes 15% # Lamaistic Buddhism 75%, Indian- and Nepalese-influenced Hinduism 25% # Dzongkha (official), Bhotes speak various Tibetan dialects, Nepalese speak various Nepalese dialects # age 15 and over can read and write # 42.20 56.20 28.10 Kingdom of Bhutan Bhutan ? # ? .bt monarchy; special treaty relationship with India Thimphu 18 districts (dzongkhag, singular and plural); Bumthang, Chhukha, Chirang, Daga, Geylegphug, Ha, Lhuntshi, Mongar, Paro, Pemagatsel, Punakha, Samchi, Samdrup Jongkhar, Shemgang, Tashigang, Thimphu, Tongsa, Wangdi Phodrang # ? # National Day, 17 December (1907) (Ugyen WANGCHUCK became first hereditary no written constitution or bill of rights # based on Indian law and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # each family has one vote in village-level elections # King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK (since 24 July 1972); note - the king is both the chief of state and head of government # King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK (since 24 July 1972); note - the king is both the chief of state and head of government # Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsog) appointed by the king note: there is also a Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde), members nominated by the king # none; the king is a hereditary monarch # ? # unicameral National Assembly or Tshogdu (150 seats; 105 elected from village constituencies, 10 represent religious bodies, and 35 are designated by the king to represent government and other secular interests; members serve three-year terms) # last held NA (next to be held NA) # NA # the Supreme Court of Appeal is the king; High Court, judges appointed by the king # no legal parties # ? # AsDB, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, NAM, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO # divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side # The economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about 40% of GDP. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. GDP growth averaged 5% per year in 1991-95, with information not yet available for 1996-97. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment. # 6.90 420 801 42 32 26 7 ? agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry and commerce 2% # ? 146 152 cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide # 7.60 0.36 1707.00 143 rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs # 77.40 cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, electricity (to India), precious stones, spices # India 94%, Bangladesh # 104.10 fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice # India 77%, Japan, UK, Germany, US # 129 $NA # ? # 1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note - Indian currency is also legal tender # 39.36 1 July - 30 June 4620 domestic telephone service is very poor with very few telephones in use # international telephone and telegraph service is by landline through India; a satellite earth station was planned (1990) # 1 1 0 23000 0 200 ? # # # # 3285 1,994 km # 1,291 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? none # ? ? ? ? # 2 1 ? ? 1 1 ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? Royal Bhutan Army, Palace Guard, Militia # 18 years of age # 466594 248985 18946 ? ? with Nepal over 91,000 Bhutanese refugees in Nepal # ? # @Bolivia 0 Bolivianos el hado propicio coron≤ nuestros votos y anhelo es ya libre, ya libre este suelo, ya ces≤ su servil condici≤n. Al estruendo marcial que ayer fuera y al clamor de la guerra horroroso, siguen hoy en contraste armonioso dulces himnos de paz y de uni≤n. (repeat previous two lines) CHORUS De la Patria, el alto nombre en glorioso esplendor conservemos y en sus aras de nuevo juremos ímorir antes que esclavos vivir! (repeat three times) Esta tierra inocente y hermosa, que a debido a Bolφvar su nombre, es la patria feliz donde el hombre goza el bien de la dicha y la paz. Que los hijos del grande Bolφvar han ya mil y mil veces jurado: morir antes que ver humillado de la Patria el augusto pend≤n. (repeat previous two lines) CHORUS Loor eterno a los bravos guerreros, cuyo heroφco valor y firmeza, conquistaron las glorias que empieza hoy Bolivia feliz a gozar. Que sus nombres el mßrmol y el bronce a remotas edades transmitan y en sonoros cantares repitan: íLibertad, Libertad, Libertad! (repeat previous two lines) CHORUS # The Andean region probably has been inhabited for some 20,000 years. Beginning about the 2nd century B.C., the Tiwanakan culture developed at the southern end of Lake Titicaca. This culture, centered around and named for the great city of Tiwanaku, developed advanced architectural and agricultural techniques before it disappeared around 1200 A.D., probably because of extended drought. Roughly contemporaneous with the Tiwanakan culture, the Moxos in the eastern lowlands and the Mollos north of present-day La Paz also developed advanced agricultural societies that had dissipated by the 13th century of our era. In about 1450, the Quechua-speaking Incas entered the area of modern highland Bolivia and added it to their empire. They controlled the area until the Spanish conquest in 1525. <P> During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata--modern Sucre). Bolivian silver mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth, and Potosi, site of the famed Cerro Rico--"Rich Mountain"-was, for many years, the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew. Independence was proclaimed in 1809, but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of the republic, named for Simon Bolivar, on August 6, 1825. Independence did not bring stability. For nearly 60 years, coups and short-lived constitutions dominated Bolivian politics. Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated during the War of the Pacific (1879-83), when it lost its seacoast and the adjoining rich nitrate fields to Chile. <P> An increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late 1800s. During the early part of the 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elites followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first third of the century. <P> Living conditions of the indigenous peoples, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on large estates, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. <P> Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932-35) marked a turning point. Great loss of life and territory discredited the traditional ruling classes, while service in the army produced stirrings of political awareness among the indigenous people. From the end of the Chaco War until the 1952 revolution, the emergence of contending ideologies and the demands of new groups convulsed Bolivian politics. <P> The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR lead the successful 1952 revolution. Under President Victor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, carried out a sweeping land reform, promoted rural education, and nationalized the country's largest tin mines. It also committed many serious violations of human rights. <P> Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President Rene Barrientos, a former member of the junta elected President in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later Gen.) Hugo Banzer Suarez as President in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during Banzer's presidency, but demands for greater political freedom undercut his support. His call for elections in 1978 plunged Bolivia into turmoil once again. <P> Elections in 1978, 1979, and 1980 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, Gen. Luis Garcia Meza carried out a ruthless and violent coup. His government was notorious for human rights abuses, narcotics trafficking, and economic mismanagement. Later convicted in absentia for crimes including murder, Garcia Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year sentence in 1995. <P> After a military rebellion forced out Garcia Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982--22 years after the end of his first term of office (1956-60)--Hernan Siles Zuazo again became President. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term. <P> In the 1985 elections, the Nationalist Democratic Action Party (ADN) of Gen. Banzer won a plurality of the popular vote, followed by former President Paz Estenssoro's MNR and former Vice President Jaime Paz Zamora's Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR). But in the congressional run-off, the MIR sided with MNR, and Paz Estenssoro was chosen for a fourth term as president. When he took office in 1985, he faced a staggering economic crisis. Economic output and exports had been declining for several years. Hyperinflation had reached an annual rate of 24,000%. Social unrest, chronic strikes, and unchecked drug trafficking were widespread. <P> In four years, Paz Estenssoro's Administration achieved economic and social stability. The military stayed out of politics, and all major political parties publicly and institutionally committed themselves to democracy. Human rights violations, which badly tainted some governments earlier in the decade, were not a problem. However, his remarkable accomplishments were not won without sacrifice. The collapse of tin prices in October 1985, coming just as the government was moving to reassert its control of the mismanaged state mining enterprise, forced the government to lay off over 20,000 miners. The highly successful shock treatment that restored Bolivia's financial system also led to some unrest and temporary social dislocation. <P> Although the MNR list headed by Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada finished first in the 1989 elections, no candidate received a majority of popular votes and so in accordance with the constitution, a congressional vote determined who would be president. The Patriotic Accord (AP) coalition between Gen. Banzer's ADN and Jaime Paz Zamora's MIR, the second- and third-place finishers, respectively, won out. Paz Zamora assumed the presidency and the MIR took half the ministries. Banzer's center-right ADN took control of the National Political Council (CONAP) and the other ministries. Paz Zamora was a moderate, center-left president whose political pragmatism in office outweighed his Marxist origins. Having seen the destructive hyperinflation of the Siles Zuazo Administration, he continued the neo-liberal economic reforms begun by Paz Estenssoro, codifying some of them. Paz Zamora took a fairly hard line against domestic terrorism, personally ordering the December 1990 attack on terrorists of the Nestor Paz Zamora Committee (CNPZ--named after his brother who died in the 1970 Teoponte insurgency) and authorizing the early 1992 crackdown against the Tupac Katari Guerrilla Army (EGTK). <P> Paz Zamora's regime was less decisive against narcotics trafficking. The government broke up a number of trafficking networks but issued a 1991 surrender decree giving lenient sentences to the biggest narcotics kingpins. Also, his administration was extremely reluctant to pursue net eradication of illegal coca. It did not agree to an updated extradition treaty with the U.S., although two traffickers have been extradited to the U.S. since 1992. Beginning in early 1994, the Bolivian Congress investigated Paz Zamora's personal ties to accused major trafficker Isaac Chavarria, who subsequently died in prison while awaiting trial. MIR deputy chief Oscar Eid was jailed in connection with similar ties in 1994; he was found guilty and sentenced to four years in prison in November 1996. Technically still under investigation, Paz Zamora became an active presidential candidate in 1996. <P> The 1993 elections continued the tradition of open, honest elections and peaceful democratic transitions of power. The MNR defeated the ADN/MIR coalition by a 34% to 20% margin, and the MNR's Gonzalo "Goni" Sanchez de Lozada was selected as president by an MNR/MBL/UCS coalition in the Congress. <P> Sanchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. He relied heavily on successful entrepreneurs-turned-politicians like himself and on fellow veterans of the Paz Estenssoro Administration (during which Sanchez de Lozada was planning minister). The most dramatic change undertaken by the Sanchez de Lozada Government was the Capitalization program, under which investors acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the state oil corporation, telecommunications system, electric utilities, and others. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent social disturbances, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through 1996. <P> In the 1997 elections, Gen. Hugo Banzer, leader of the ADN, won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. Gen. Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, and CONDEPA parties which hold a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress selected him as president and he was inaugurated on August 6, 1997. # BOL Central South America, southwest of Brazil # 1098580 1084390 14190 6743 Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid # rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau (Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin # Rio Paraguay 90 m Cerro Illimani 6,882 m tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber # 2 0 24 53 21 1750 cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March-April) # the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection # landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru # 7826352 39 1559149 1526646 56 2139680 2245268 5 161431 194178 2 31.43 9.89 -1.53 1.05 1.02 0.95 0.83 ? 63.86 60.89 57.98 63.94 4.05 Bolivian(s) Bolivian Quechua 30%, Aymara 25%, mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry) 25%-30%, white 5%-15% # Roman Catholic 95%, Protestant (Evangelical Methodist) # Spanish (official), Quechua (official), Aymara (official) # age 15 and over can read and write # 83.10 90.50 76 Republic of Bolivia Bolivia Republica de Bolivia # Bolivia .bo republic La Paz (seat of government); Sucre (legal capital and seat of judiciary) 9 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Beni, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija # ? # Independence Day, 6 August (1825) 2 February 1967; revised in August 1994 # based on Spanish law and Napoleonic Code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age, universal and compulsory (married); 21 years of age, universal and compulsory (single) # President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet appointed by the president from a panel of candidates proposed by the Senate # president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002) # Hugo BANZER Suarez elected president; percent of vote - Hugo BANZER Suarez (ADN) 22%; Jaime PAZ Zamora (MIR) 17%, Juan Carlos DURAN (MNR) 18%, Ivo KULJIS (UCS) 16%, Remedios LOZA (CONDEPA) 17%; no candidate received a majority of the popular vote; Hugo BANZER Suarez won a congressional runoff election on 5 August 1997 after forming a "megacoalition" with MIR, UCS, CONDEPA, NFR and PCD # bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of Chamber of Senators or Camara de Senadores (27 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (130 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # Chamber of Senators and Chamber of Deputies - last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002) # Chamber of Senators - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 11, MIR 7, MNR 4, CONDEPA 3, UCS 2; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 32, MNR 26, MIR 23, UCS 21, CONDEPA 19, MBL 5, IU 4 # Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges appointed for a 10-year term by National Congress # Left Parties: Free Bolivia Movement or MBL [Antonio ARANIBAR]; Patriotic Axis of Convergence or EJE-P [Ramiro BARRANECHEA]; April 9 Revolutionary Vanguard or VR-9 [Carlos SERRATE]; Alternative of Democratic Socialism or ASD [Jerjes JUSTINIANO]; Revolutionary Front of the Left or FRI [Oscar ZAMORA]; Bolivian Communist Party or PCB [Marcos DOMIC]; United Left or IU [Marcos DOMIC]; Front of National Salvation or FSN [Manual MORALES Davila]; Socialist Party One or PS-1; Bolivian Socialist Falange or FSB; Socialist Unzaguista Movement or MAS Center-Left Parties: Movement of the Revolutionary Left or MIR [Oscar EID]; Christian Democrat or PDC [Benjamin MIGUEL]; New Youth Force [Alfonso SAAVEDRA Bruno] Center Party: Nationalist Revolutionary Movement or MNR [Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA] # ? # AG, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, LAIA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band # With its long history of semifeudal social controls, dependence on volatile prices for its mineral exports, and bouts of hyperinflation, Bolivia has remained one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries. However, Bolivia has experienced generally improving economic conditions since the PAZ Estenssoro administration (1985-89) introduced market-oriented policies which reduced inflation from 11,700% in 1985 to about 20% in 1988. PAZ Estenssoro was followed as president by Jaime PAZ Zamora (1989-93) who continued the free-market policies of his predecessor, despite opposition from his own party and from Bolivia's once powerful labor movement. By maintaining fiscal discipline, PAZ Zamora helped reduce inflation to 9.3% in 1993, while GDP grew by an annual average of 3.25% during his tenure. President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (1993-1997) vowed to advance the market-oriented economic reforms he helped launch as PAZ Estenssoro's planning minister. His successes included the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico and the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) as well as the privatization of the state airline, phone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. Furthermore, SANCHEZ DE LOZADA sponsored legislation creating private social security accounts for all adult Bolivians and capitalized these new accounts with the state's remaining 50% share in the privatized companies. Hugo BANZER Suarez took office in August 1997 and has proclaimed his commitment to the economic reforms of the previous administration. # 4.40 950 7435 17 26 57 7 2500000 agriculture NA%, services and utilities NA%, manufacturing, mining and construction NA% # 10 3750 3750 mining, smelting, petroleum, food and beverages, tobacco, handicrafts, clothing # 4 0.79 2900.00 370 coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes; timber # 1400 metals 34%, natural gas 9.4%, soybeans 8.4%, jewelry 11%, wood 6.9% # US 22%, UK 9.3%, Colombia 8.7%, Peru 7.4%, Argentina 7.2% # 1700 capital goods 48%, chemicals 11%, petroleum 5%, food 5% (1993 est.) # US 20%, Japan 13%, Brazil 12, Chile 7.5% (1996) # 4200 ODA, $588 million (1997) # ? # 1 boliviano ($B) = 100 centavos # 5.37 calendar year 144300 microwave radio relay system being expanded # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 129 0 68 ? 43 500000 3691 # # 3,652 km 1.000-m gauge; 39 km 0.760-m gauge (13 km electrified) (1995) # # 52216 2,872 km (including 27 km of expressways) # 49,344 km (1995 est.) # 10000 1800 580 1495 none; however, Bolivia has free port privileges in the maritime ports of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay # 1 4214 6390 ? # 1153 11 4 3 4 229 837 1142 ? 3 73 ? ? ? Army (Ejercito Boliviano), Navy (Fuerza Naval Boliviana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Boliviana), National Police Force (Policia Nacional de Bolivia) # 19 years of age # 1859823 1209537 82670 154000000 1.90 has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Chile over Rio Lauca water rights # world's third-largest cultivator of coca (after Peru and Colombia) with an estimated 46,900 hectares under cultivation in 1997, a 2.5% decrease in overall cultivation of coca from 1996 levels; Bolivia, however, is the second-largest producer of coca leaf; even so, farmer abandonment and voluntary and forced eradication programs resulted in leaf production dropping from 75,100 metric tons in 1996 to 73,000 tons in 1997, a 3% decrease from 1996; government considers all but 12,000 hectares illicit; intermediate coca products and cocaine exported to or through Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile to the US and other international drug markets; alternative crop program aims to reduce illicit coca cultivation # @Bosnia and Herzegovina 0 Zemljo tisucljetna Na vjernost ti se kunem Od mora do Save Od Drine do Une. Jedna si jedina Moja domovina Jedna si jedina Bosna i Hercegovina Bog nek' te sacuva Za pokoljenja nova Zemljo mojih snova Mojih pradjedova. Jedna si jedina Moja domovina Jedna si jedina Bosna i Hercegovina. # The Bosnian conflict began in the spring of 1992 when the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina held a referendum on independence and the Bosnian Serbs - supported by neighboring Serbia - responded with armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In March 1994, Bosnia's Muslims and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement in Washington creating their joint Muslim/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A group of rebel Muslims, however, continues to battle government forces in the northwest enclave of Bihac. A Contact Group of countries, the US, UK, France, Germany, and Russia, continues to seek a resolution between the Federation and the Bosnian Serbs. In July of 1994 the Contact Group presented a plan to the warring parties that roughly equally divides the country between the two, while maintaining Bosnia in its current internationally recognized borders. The Federation agreed to the plan almost immediately, while the Bosnian Serbs rejected it. On 21 November 1995, in Dayton, Ohio, the former Yugoslavia's three warring parties signed a peace agreement that brought to a halt over three years of interethnic civil strife in Bosnia and Herzegovina (the final agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Agreement, signed by Bosnian President IZETBEGOVIC, Croatian President TUDJMAN, and Serbian President MILOSEVIC, divides Bosnia and Herzegovina roughly equally between the Muslim/Croat Federation and the Bosnian Serbs while maintaining Bosnia's currently recognized borders. An international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops began to enter Bosnia in late 1995 to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement and is scheduled to depart the country within one year. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) whose mission is to deter renewed hostilities. SFOR will remain in place until June 1998. A High Representative appointed by the UN Security Council is responsible for civilian implementation of the accord, including monitoring implementation, facilitating any difficulties arising in connection with civilian implementation, and coordinating activities of the civilian organizations and agencies in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Bosnian conflict began in the spring of 1992 when the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina held a referendum on independence and the Bosnian Serbs - supported by neighboring Serbia - responded with armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In March 1994, Bosnia's Muslims and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement in Washington creating their joint Muslim/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation, formed by the Muslims and Croats in March 1994, is one of two entities (the other being the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska) that comprise Bosnia and Herzegovina. # BOS Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia # 51233 51233 0 1459 Croatia 932 km, Serbia and Montenegro 527 km (312 km with Serbia, 215 km with Montenegro) # 20 ? ? # ? ? ? hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast # mountains and valleys # Adriatic Sea 0 m Maglic 2,386 m coal, iron, bauxite, manganese, forests, copper, chromium, lead, zinc # 14 5 20 39 22 20 frequent and destructive earthquakes # air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992-95 civil strife # Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection # none of the selected agreements # within Bosnia and Herzegovina's recognized borders, the country is divided into a joint Muslim/Croat Federation (about 51% of the territory) and a Serb Republic, The Republika Srpska [RS] (about 49% of the territory); the region called Herzegovina is contiguous to Croatia and traditionally has been settled by an ethnic Croat majority # 3365727 18 307857 291424 71 1177516 1195419 11 156041 237470 3.63 8.72 12.32 39.91 1.07 1.05 0.98 0.65 ? 30.80 63.03 58.35 68.02 1.14 Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s) Bosnian, Herzegovinian Serb 40%, Muslim 38%, Croat 22% (est.) # Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Catholic 15%, Protestant 4%, other 10% # Serbo-Croatian (often called Bosnian) 99% # ? # ? ? ? none Bosnia and Herzegovina none # Bosna i Hercegovina .ba emerging democracy Sarajevo there are two first-order administrative divisions approved by the US Government - the Muslim/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federacija Bosna i Hercegovina) and Republika Srpska; it has been reported that the Muslim/Croat Federation is comprised of 10 cantons identified by either number or name - Goradzde (5), Livno (10), Middle Bosnia (6), Neretva (7), Posavina (2), Sarajevo (9), Tuzla Podrinje (3), Una Sana (1), West Herzegovina (8), Zenica Doboj (4) # ? # Republika Srpska - "Republic Day," 9 January; Independence Day, 1 March; the Dayton Agreement, signed 14 December 1995, included a new constitution now in force # based on civil law system # 16 years of age, if employed; 18 years of age, universal # Chairman of the Presidency Alija IZETBEGOVIC (since 14 September 1996); other members of the three-member rotating presidency: Ante JELAVIC ( Croat) and Zivko RADISIC (Serb) # Cochairman of the Council of Ministers Haris SILAJDZIC (since NA January 1997); Cochairman of the Council of Ministers Boro BOSIC (since NA January 1997) NA # Council of Ministers nominated by the council chairmen note: president of the Muslim/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ejup GANIC (since 1 January 1998); president of the Republika Srpska: Biljana PLAVSIC (since September 1996) # the three presidency members (one each Muslim, Croat, Serb) are elected by direct election (first election for a two-year term, thereafter for a four-year term); the president with the most votes becomes the chairman; election last held 14 September 1996 (next to be held September 1998); the cochairmen are nominated by the presidency # Alija IZETBEGOVIC elected chairman of the collective presidency with the highest number of votes; percent of vote - Alija IZETBEGOVIC received 80% of the Muslim vote to Haris SILAJDZIC's 14%; Kresimir ZUBAK received 88% of the Croat vote to Ivo KOMSIC's 11%; Momcilo KRAJISNIK received 68% of the Serb vote to Mladen IVANIC's 30% # bicameral Parliamentary Assembly or Skupstina consists of the National House of Representatives or Vijece Opcina (42 seats - 14 Serb, 14 Croat, and 14 Muslim; members serve two-year terms) and the House of Peoples or Vijece Gradanstvo (15 seats - 5 Muslim, 5 Croat, 5 Serb; members serve two-year terms) # National House of Representatives - elections last held 14 September 1996 (next to be held NA); note - the House of Peoples is elected by the Muslim/Croat Federation's 140-seat House of Representatives (two-thirds) and the Republika Srpska's 83-seat National Assembly (one-third) # National House of Representatives: two-thirds chosen from the Muslim/Croat Federation: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - SDA 16, HDZ-BiH 7, Joint List of Social Democrats 3, Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina 2; one-third chosen from the Bosnian Serb Republic: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - SDS 9, SDA 3, Democratic Patriotic Front/Union for Peace and Progress 2 note: the Muslim/Croat Federation has a House of Representatives with 140 seats: seats by party - SDA 80, HDZ-BiH 33, Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina 11, Joint List of Social Democrats 10, other 6; the Republika Srpska has a National Assembly with 83 seats: seats by party - SDS 24, Serb Radical Party 15, Serb National Alliance 15, Socialist Party 9, Independent Social Democrats 2, Coalition for United Bosnia and Herzegovina and others 18 # Supreme Court, supervised by the Ministry of Justice; Constitutional Court, supervised by the Ministry of Justice # Party of Democratic Action or SDA [Alija IZETBEGOVIC]; Croatian Democratic Union of BiH or HDZ-BiH [Bozo RAJIC]; Serb Democratic Party or SDS [Aleksa BUHA]; Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina or SBiH [Haris SILAJDZIC]; Joint List (consists of the following parties: UBSD, RP, MBO, HSG, and SPP); Civic Democratic Party or GDS [Ibrahim SPAHIC]; Croatian Peasants' Party of BiH or HSS [Ivo KOMSIC]; Independent Social Democratic Party or SNSD [Milorad DODIK]; Liberal Bosniak Organization or LBO [Muhamed FILIPOVIC]; Liberal Party or LS [Rasim KADIC, president]; Muslim-Bosniac Organization or MBO [Adil ZULFIKARPASIC]; Republican Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina or RS [Stjepan KLJUIC]; Serb Civic Council or SGV [Mirko PEJANOVIC]; Social Democratic Party or SDP (formerly the Democratic Party of Socialists or DSS) [Zlatko LAGUMDZIJA]; Socialist Party of Republika Srpska or SPRS [Zivko RADISIC]; Social Democrats of Bosnia Herzegovina [Selim BESLAGIC]; Serb Radical Party of RS [Nikola POPLASEN]; Serb Party of Krojina and Posavina or SSKIP [Predrag LAZAREVIC]; National Democratic Union (also known as Democratic People's Union or DNZ) [Fikret ABDIC]; Serb National Alliance or SNS [Biljana PLAVSIC]; Coalition for a United and Democratic BiH (coalition of SDA, SBiH, LS, and GDS) note: 82 parties participated in the September 1997 municipal elections # ? # CE (guest), CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OIC (observer), OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO # a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle # Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation. Although agriculture has been almost all in private hands, farms have been small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally has been a net importer of food. Industry has been greatly overstaffed, one reflection of the rigidities of communist central planning and management. TITO had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. The bitter interethnic warfare in Bosnia caused production to plummet by 80% from 1990 to 1995, unemployment to soar, and human misery to multiply. With an uneasy peace in place, output has recovered in 1996-97 at high percentage rates on a low base, but remains less than half the 1990 level. The country, especially in the Muslim-Croat area, receives substantial amounts of humanitarian aid from the international community. Wide regional differences in war damage and access to the outside world have resulted in substantial variations in living conditions among local areas and individual families. # 35 700 2356 19 23 58 ? 1026254 NA% # 40 ? ? steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining; much of capacity damaged or shut down (1995) # ? 2.34 1400 506 wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock # 152 NA # NA # 1100 NA # NA # 3500 $1.2 billion (1997 pledged) # ? # 1 convertible marka = 100 convertible pfenniga; former currencies still used # ? calendar year 727000 NA # no satellite earth stations # 9 2 0 840000 6 1012094 1021 # 1,021 km 1.435-m gauge (1995); note - some segments still need repair and/or reconstruction # # # 21846 11,425 km # 10,421 km (1996 est.) # ? 174 ? 90 Bosanski Brod (an inland waterway port on the Sava which is not useable), Orasje (ferry) # ? ? ? ? # 26 9 ? 4 2 1 2 17 ? ? 1 9 7 2 Army # 19 years of age # 912536 733931 26114 ? ? disputes with Serbia over Serbian populated areas # transit point for minor regional marijuana and opiate trafficking routes # @Botswana 0 Fatshe leno la rona, Ke mpho ya Modimo, Ke boswa jwa borraetsho; A le nne ka kagiso. Tsogang, tsogang! banna, tsogang! Emang, basadi, emang, tlhagafalang! Re kopaneleng go direla Lefatshe la rona. Ina lentle la tumo La chaba ya Botswana, Ka kutlwano le kagisano, E bopagantswe mmogo. # The Batswana, a term inclusively used to denote all citizens of Botswana, also refers to the country's major ethnic group (the "Tswana" in South Africa), which came into the area from South Africa during the Zulu wars of the early 1880s. Prior to European contact, the Batswana lived as herders and farmers under tribal rule. <P> In the late 19th century, hostilities broke out between the Batswana and Boer settlers from the Transvaal. After appeals by the Batswana for assistance, the British Government in 1885 put "Bechuanaland" under its protection. The northern territory remained under direct administration and is today's Botswana, while the southern territory became part of the Cape Colony and is now part of the northwest province of South Africa; the majority of Setswana-speaking people today live in South Africa. Despite South African pressure, inhabitants of the Bechuanaland Protectorate, Basutoland (now Lesotho), and Swaziland in 1909 asked for and received British assurances that they would not be included in the proposed Union of South Africa. An expansion of British central authority and the evolution of tribal government resulted in the 1920 establishment of two advisory councils representing Africans and Europeans. Proclamations in 1934 regularized tribal rule and powers. A European-African advisory council was formed in 1951, and the 1961 constitution established a consultative legislative council. <P> In June 1964, Britain accepted proposals for democratic self-government in Botswana. The seat of government was moved from Mafikeng, in South Africa, to newly established Gaborone in 1965. The 1965 constitution led to the first general elections and to independence in September 1966. Seretse Khama, a leader in the independence movement and the legitimate claimant to traditional rule of the Batswana, was elected as the first president, re-elected twice, and died in office in 1980. The presidency passed to the sitting vice president, Ketumile Masire, who was elected in his own right in 1984 and re-elected in 1989 and 1994. # RB Southern Africa, north of South Africa # 600370 585370 15000 4013 Namibia 1,360 km, South Africa 1,840 km, Zimbabwe 813 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? semiarid; warm winters and hot summers # predominately flat to gently rolling tableland; Kalahari Desert in southwest # junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers 513 m Tsodilo Hill 1,489 m diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, iron ore, silver # 1 0 46 47 6 20 periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility # overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection # none of the selected agreements # landlocked; population concentrated in eastern part of the country # 1448454 42 310253 302960 54 370925 409941 4 20637 33738 1.11 32.02 20.89 0 1.03 1.02 0.90 0.61 ? 59.29 40.09 39.46 40.75 4.03 Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural) Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural) Batswana 95%, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi 4%, white 1% # indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 50% # English (official), Setswana # age 15 and over can read and write # 69.80 80.50 59.90 Republic of Botswana Botswana ? # ? .bw parliamentary republic Gaborone 10 districts and four town councils*; Central, Chobe, Francistown*, Gaborone*, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse*, Ngamiland, North-East, Selebi-Phikwe*, South-East, Southern # ? # Independence Day, 30 September (1966) March 1965, effective 30 September 1966 # based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet appointed by the president # president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 15 October 1994 (next to be held NA October 1999); vice president appointed by the president # Sir Ketumile MASIRE elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - NA note: President MASIRE resigned on 31 March 1998; Vice President MOGAE assumed the presidency pending elections to be held in 1999; on 2 April 1998, Festus MOGAE, then president, designated S. K. Ian KHAMA to be vice president after he is elected to the National Assembly in accordance with constitutional requirements # bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Chiefs (a largely advisory 15-member body consisting of the chiefs of the eight principal tribes, four elected subchiefs, and three members selected by the other 12) and the National Assembly (44 seats, 40 members are directly elected by popular vote and 4 appointed by the majority party; members serve five-year terms) # National Assembly - elections last held 15 October 1994 (next to be held October 1999) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - BDP 27, BNF 13 # High Court; Court of Appeal # Botswana Democratic Party or BDP [Festus MOGAE]; Botswana Freedom Party or BFP [leader NA]; Botswana National Front or BNF [Kenneth KOMA]; Botswana People's Party or BPP [Knight MARIPE]; Independence Freedom Party or IFP [Motsamai MPHO]; Unified Action Party or UAP [Lepetu SETSHWEALD] # ? # ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center # Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 4% of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. Diamond mining and tourism also are important to the economy. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. Substantial mineral deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980 to 35% in 1997. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. On the plus side is the substantial positive trade balance. # 6 3260 4722 4 45 51 10 235000 100,000 public sector; 135,000 private sector, including 14,300 who are employed in various mines in South Africa; most others engaged in cattle raising and subsistence agriculture (1995 est.) # 20 1600.00 1800.00 diamonds, copper, nickel, coal, salt, soda ash, potash; livestock processing # 4.60 0.22 1000 962 sorghum, maize, millet, pulses, groundnuts (peanuts), beans, cowpeas, sunflower seed; livestock # 2310 diamonds 71%, copper and nickel 5%, meat 3% # Europe 74%, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 22%, Zimbabwe 3% # 1600.00 foodstuffs, vehicles and transport equipment, textiles, petroleum products # Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 74%, Europe 8%, Zimbabwe 6% # 619 ODA, $189 million (1993) # ? # 1 pula (P) = 100 thebe # 3.85 1 April - 31 March 19109 small system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and a few radiotelephone communication stations # microwave radio relay links to Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) # 7 13 0 ? 0 13800 971 # # 971 km 1.067-m gauge (1995) # # 18482 4,343 km # 14,139 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? none # ? ? ? ? # 92 12 1 1 9 1 22 80 ? ? 3 55 ? ? Botswana Defense Force (includes Army and Air Wing), Botswana National Police # 18 years of age # 335301 177248 18148 199000000 5.20 quadripoint with Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe is in disagreement; dispute with Namibia over uninhabited Kasikili (Sidudu) Island in Linyanti (Chobe) River is presently at the ICJ; at least one other island in Linyanti River is contested # ? # @Bouvet Island Norway ? # # N Southern Africa, island in the South Atlantic Ocean, south-southwest of the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa) # 58 58 0 ? ? # 29.60 ? ? # ? ? 4 antarctic # volcanic; maximum elevation about 800 meters; coast is mostly inaccessible # Atlantic Ocean 0 m unnamed location 780 m none # 0 0 0 0 100 0 NA # NA # NA # NA # covered by glacial ice # 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? none Bouvet Island ? # ? .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # NA # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of Norway is used # no economic activity; declared a nature reserve # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Brazil 0 Music: Francisco Manuel da Silva (1795-1865) Verses: Joaquim Os≤rio Duque Estrada (1870-1927) Ouviram do Ipiranga αs margens plßcidas De um povo her≤ico o brado retumbante, E o sol da liberdade, em raios f·lgidos, Brilhou no cΘu da Pßtria nesse instante. Se o penhor dessa igualdade Conseguimos conquistar com braτo forte, Em teu seio ≤ liberdade, Desafia o nosso peito a pr≤pria morte! ╙ Pßtria amada Idolatrada Salve! Salve! Brasil de um sonho intenso, um raio vφvido, De amor e de esperanτa α terra desce Se em teu formoso cΘu risonho e lφmpido A imagem do Cruzeiro resplandece Gigante pela pr≤pria natureza ╔s belo, Θs forte, impßvido colosso, E o teu futuro espelha essa grandeza, Terra adorada! Entre outras mil ╔s tu, Brasil, ╙ Pßtria amada Dos filhos deste solo Θs mπe gentil, Pßtria amada Brasil! II Deitado eternamente em berτo esplΩndido, ao som do mar e α luz do cΘu profundo, Fulguras, ≤ Brasil, florπo da AmΘrica, Iluminado ao sol do Novo Mundo! Do que a terra mais garrida Teus risonhos lindos campos tem mais flores, "Nossos bosques tem mais vida" "Nossa vida" no teu seio "mais amores" ╙ Pßtria amada Idolatrada Salve! Salve! Brasil, de amor eterno seja sφmbolo O lßbaro que ostentas estrelado, E diga o verde-louro dessa flΓmula - paz no futuro e gl≤ria no passado - Mas se ergues da justiτa a clava forte, Verßs que um filho teu nπo foge α luta, Nem teme, quem te adora, a pr≤pria morte, Terra adorada! Entre outras mil ╔s tu, Brasil, ╙ Pßtria amada Dos filhos deste solo Θs mπe gentil Pßtria amada Brasil! # Brazil was claimed for Portugal in 1500 by Pedro Alvares Cabral. It was ruled from Lisbon as a colony until 1808, when the royal family, having fled from Napoleon's army, established the seat of Portuguese Government in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil became a kingdom under Dom Joao VI, who returned to Portugal in 1821. His son declared Brazil's independence on September 7, 1822, and became emperor with the title of Dom Pedro I. His son, Dom Pedro II, ruled from 1831 to 1889, when a federal republic was established in a coup by Deodoro da Fonseca, marshal of the army. Slavery had been abolished a year earlier by the Regent Princess Isabel while Dom Pedro II was in Europe. <P> From 1889 to 1930, the government was a constitutional democracy, with the presidency alternating between the dominant states of Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais. This period ended with a military coup that placed Getulio Vargas, a civilian, in the presidency; Vargas remained as dictator until 1945. From 1945 to 1961, Eurico Dutra, Vargas, Juscelino Kubitschek, and Janio Quadros were elected presidents. When Quadros resigned in 1961, he was succeeded by Vice President Joao Goulart. <P> Goulart's years in office were marked by high inflation, economic stagnation, and the increasing influence of radical political elements. The armed forces, alarmed by these developments, staged a coup on March 31, 1964. The coup leaders chose as president Humberto Castello Branco, followed by Arthur da Costa e Silva (1967-69), Emilio Garrastazu Medici (1968-74), and Ernesto Geisel (1974-79) all of whom were senior army officers. Geisel began a liberalization which was carried further by his successor, Gen. Joao Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo (1979-85). Figueiredo not only permitted the return of politicians exiled or banned from political activity during the 1960s and 1970s, but also allowed them to run for state and federal offices in 1982. <P> At the same time, an electoral college consisting of all members of congress and six delegates chosen from each state, continued to choose the president. In January 1985, the electoral college voted Tancredo Neves from the opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB) into office as President. However, Tancredo Neves became ill in March and died a month later. His Vice President, former Senator Jose Sarney, became President upon Neves' death. <P> Brazil completed its transition to a popularly elected government in 1989, when Fernando Collor de Mello won 53% of the vote in the first direct presidential election in 29 years. In 1992, a major corruption scandal led to the impeachment and ultimate resignation of President Collor. Vice President Itamar Franco took his place and governed for the remainder of Collor's term culminating in the October 3, 1994 presidential elections, when Fernando Henrique Cardoso was elected President with 54% of the vote. He took office January 1, 1995. <P> President Cardoso has sought to establish the basis for long-term stability and growth and to reduce Brazil's extreme socioeconomic imbalances. His proposals to Congress include constitutional amendments to open the Brazilian economy to greater foreign participation and to implement sweeping reforms--including social security, government administration, and taxation--to reduce excessive public sector spending and improve government efficiency. # BR Eastern South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean # 8511965 8456510 55455 14691 Argentina 1,224 km, Bolivia 3,400 km, Colombia 1,643 km, French Guiana 673 km, Guyana 1,119 km, Paraguay 1,290 km, Peru 1,560 km, Suriname 597 km, Uruguay 985 km, Venezuela 2,200 km # 7491 24 200 nm # 200 ? 12 mostly tropical, but temperate in south # mostly flat to rolling lowlands in north; some plains, hills, mountains, and narrow coastal belt # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Pico da Neblina 3,014 m bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, uranium, petroleum, hydropower, timber # 5 1 22 58 14 28000 recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south # deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador # 169806557 30 26090859 25132122 65 54199642 55769122 5 3499272 5115540 1.24 20.92 8.53 -0.03 1.05 1.04 0.97 0.68 ? 36.96 64.36 59.39 69.59 2.33 Brazilian(s) Brazilian white (includes Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish, Polish) 55%, mixed white and black 38%, black 6%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 1% # Roman Catholic (nominal) 70% # Portuguese (official), Spanish, English, French # age 15 and over can read and write # 83.30 83.30 83.20 Federative Republic of Brazil Brazil Republica Federativa do Brasil # Brasil .br federal republic Brasilia 26 states (estados, singular - estado) and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Acre, Alagoas, Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Distrito Federal*, Espirito Santo, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondonia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Sergipe, Tocantins # ? # Independence Day, 7 September (1822) 5 October 1988 # based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age # President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet appointed by the president # president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 3 October 1994 (next to be held NA October 1998) # Fernando Henrique CARDOSO elected president; percent of vote - Fernando Henrique CARDOSO 53%, Luis Inacio LULA da Silva 26%, Eneas CARNEIRO 7%, Orestes QUERCIA 4%, Leonel BRIZOLA 3%, Espiridiao AMIN 3%; note - second direct presidential election since 1960 # bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional consists of the Federal Senate or Senado Federal (81 seats; three members from each state or federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara dos Deputados (513 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms) # Federal Senate - last held 3 October 1994 for two-thirds of Senate (next to be held October 1998 for one-third of the Senate); Chamber of Deputies - last held 3 October 1994 (next to be held October 1998) # Federal Senate - percent of vote by party - PMDB 28%, PFL 22%, PSDB 12%, PPR 7%, PDT 7%, PT 6%, PTB 6%, other 12%; seats by party - NA; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - PMDB 21%, PFL 18%, PDT 7%, PSDB 12%, PPR 10%, PTB 6%, PT 10%, other 16%; seats by party - NA note: party totals since the fall of 1994 have changed considerably due to extensive party-switching # Supreme Federal Tribunal, 11 judges are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the Senate # Brazilian Democratic Movement Party or PMDB [Paes DE ANDRADE, president]; Liberal Front Party or PFL [Jose JORGE, president]; Workers' Party or PT [Jose DIRCEU, president]; Brazilian Workers' Party or PTB [Rodrigues PALMA, president]; Democratic Labor Party or PDT [Leonel BRIZOLA, president]; Brazilian Progressive Party or PPB [Espiridiao AMIN, president]; Brazilian Social Democracy Party or PSDB [Artur DA TAVOLA, president]; Popular Socialist Party or PPS [Roberto FREIRE, president]; Communist Party of Brazil or PCdoB [Joao AMAZONAS, chairman]; Liberal Party or PL [Alvaro VALLE, president] # ? # AfDB, AG (observer), BIS (pending member), CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur, MIPONUH, MONUA, MTCR, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS, OPANAL, PCA, RG, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMOP, UNPREDEP, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the night sky over Brazil; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress) # Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, Brazil's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and is expanding its presence in world markets. Prior to the institution of a stabilization plan - the Plano Real (Real Plan) in mid-1994, stratospheric inflation rates had disrupted economic activity and discouraged foreign investment. Since then, tight monetary policy has brought inflation under control - consumer prices increased by less than 5% in 1997 compared to more than 1,000% in 1994. At the same time, GDP growth slowed from 5.7% in 1994 to about 3.0% in 1997 due to tighter credit. The strong currency, another cornerstone of the Real Plan, has encouraged imports - contributing to a growing trade deficit - and restrained export growth. Brazil's more stable economy allowed it to weather the fallout in 1995 from the Mexican peso crisis relatively well. Record levels of foreign investment have flowed in, helping support the Real Plan through financial shocks in October-November 1997 that occurred in the wake of the Asian financial crisis. These shocks caused Brazil's foreign exchange reserves to drop by $8 billion to $52 billion and the stock market to decline by about 25%, although it still ended up more than 30% for the year. President CARDOSO remains committed to defending the Real Plan, but he faces several key challenges domestically and abroad. His package of fiscal reforms requiring constitutional amendments has progressed slowly through the balkanized Brazilian legislature; in their absence, the government continues to run deficits and has limited room to relax its interest and exchange rate policies if it wants to keep inflation under control. Some foreign investors remain concerned about the viability of Brazil's exchange rate policy because of the country's fiscal and current account deficits. The government thus has to contend with the possibility of capital flight or a speculative attack that could draw down foreign reserves to a critical level and force a devaluation. # 3 4720 801487 13 38 49 4.80 57000000 services 42%, agriculture 31%, industry 27% # 7 87500 96000 textiles, shoes, chemicals, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, steel, aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, other machinery and equipment # 4.50 57.64 264895.00 1878 coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus; beef # 53000 iron ore, soybean bran, orange juice, footwear, coffee, motor vehicle parts # EU 28%, Latin America 23%, US 20%, Argentina 12% (1996) # 61400 crude oil, capital goods, chemical products, foodstuffs, coal # EU 26%, US 22%, Argentina 13%, Japan 5% (1996) # 192900 ODA, $107 million (1993) # ? # 1 real (R$) = 100 centavos # 1.12 calendar year 14426673 extensive microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 64 earth stations # 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean Region East) # 1223 0 151 60000000 112 30000000 26895 5,730 km 1.600-m gauge # 194 km 1.440-m gauge # 20,958 km 1.000-m gauge; 13 km 0.760-m gauge # # 1980000 184,140 km # 1,795,860 km (1996 est.) # 50000 2000 3804 1095 Belem, Fortaleza, Ilheus, Imbituba, Manaus, Paranagua, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande, Salvador, Santos, Vitoria # 188 4498081 7279945 bulk 37, cargo 26, chemical tanker 9, combination ore/oil 11, container 16, liquefied gas tanker 10, multifunction large-load carrier 1, oil tanker 61, passenger-cargo 5, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 11 (1997 est.) # 3291 502 5 19 130 319 29 2789 ? ? 76 1324 1389 ? Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy (includes Marines), Brazilian Air Force, Federal Police (paramilitary) # 18 years of age # 46620486 31337037 1806162 15100000000 1.90 short section of the boundary with Paraguay, just west of Salto das Sete Quedas (Guaira Falls) on the Rio Parana, has not been precisely delimited; two short sections of boundary with Uruguay are in dispute - Arroio Invernada (Arroyo de la Invernada) area of the Rio Quarai (Rio Cuareim) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Quarai and the Uruguay River # limited illicit producer of cannabis, minor coca cultivation in the Amazon region, mostly used for domestic consumption; government has a large-scale eradication program to control cannabis; important transshipment country for Bolivian and Colombian cocaine headed for the US and Europe; increasingly used by Andean traffickers as a way station between Peru and Colombia # @British Indian Ocean Territory United Kingdom ? # # Southern Asia, archipelago in the Indian Ocean, about one-half the way from Africa to Indonesia # 60 60 0 ? ? # 698 ? ? # ? 200 3 tropical marine; hot, humid, moderated by trade winds # flat and low (up to four meters in elevation) # Indian Ocean 0 m unnamed location on Diego Garcia 15 m coconuts, fish # 0 0 0 ? ? 0 NA # NA # NA # NA # archipelago of 2,300 islands; Diego Garcia, largest and southernmost island, occupies strategic location in central Indian Ocean; island is site of joint US-UK military facility # 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? British Indian Ocean Territory none ? # ? .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # NA # ? # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952) # Commissioner David Ross MACLENNAN (since NA 1994); Administrator Don CAIRNS (since NA); note - both reside in the UK # NA # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; commissioner and administrator appointed by the queen # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # white with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and six blue wavy horizontal stripes bearing a palm tree and yellow crown centered on the outer half of the flag # All economic activity is concentrated on the largest island of Diego Garcia, where joint UK-US defense facilities are located. Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, Mauritius, the Philippines, and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands. # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? NA # NA # 1 1 0 ? 1 ? ? # # # # 1 short stretch of paved road of NA km between port and airfield on Diego Garcia # NA km # ? ? ? ? Diego Garcia # ? ? ? ? # 1 ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? the island of Diego Garcia is claimed by Mauritius; the Chagos Archipelago is claimed by Seychelles # ? # @British Virgin Islands United Kingdom ? # # GB Caribbean, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico # 150 150 0 ? ? # 80 ? ? # ? 200 3 subtropical; humid; temperatures moderated by trade winds # coral islands relatively flat; volcanic islands steep, hilly # Caribbean Sea 0 m Mount Sage 521 m NEGL # 20 7 33 7 33 ? hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October) # limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchment) # NA # NA # strong ties to nearby US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico # 18705 21 2008 1957 74 7079 6689 5 535 437 2.41 16.15 4.76 12.67 1.05 1.03 1.06 1.22 ? 22.97 74.94 74.19 75.73 1.72 British Virgin Islander(s) British Virgin Islander black 90%, white, Asian # Protestant 86% (Methodist 45%, Anglican 21%, Church of God 7%, Seventh-Day Adventist 5%, Baptist 4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 2%, other 2%), Roman Catholic 6%, none 2%, other 6% (1981) # English (official) # age 15 and over can read and write # 97.80 ? ? none British Virgin Islands ? # ? .vg NA Road Town none (dependent territory of the UK) # ? # Territory Day, 1 July 1 June 1977 # English law # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor David MACKILLIGIN (since NA June 1995) # Chief Minister Ralph T. O'NEAL (since 15 May 1995; appointed after the death of former Chief Minister H. Lavity STOUTT) # Executive Council appointed by the governor from members of the Legislative Council # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor appointed by the queen; chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council # ? # unicameral Legislative Council (13 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, 1 member from each of 9 electoral districts, 4 at large members; members serve five-year terms) # last held 20 February 1995 (next to be held NA February 2000) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - VIP 6, CCM 2, UP 2, independents 3 # Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court # United Party or UP [Conrad MADURO]; Virgin Islands Party or VIP [Ralph T. O'NEAL]; Concerned Citizens Movement or CCM [E. Walwyn BREWLEY]; Independent People's Movement or IPM [Omar HODGE and Allen O'NEAL] # ? # Caricom (associate), CDB, ECLAC (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, OECS (associate), UNESCO (associate) # blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful) # The economy, one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, is highly dependent on tourism, which generates an estimated 45% of the national income. In 1985, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. An estimated 210,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend 1996. The adoption of a comprehensive insurance law in late 1994, which provides a blanket of confidentiality with regulated statutory gateways for investigation of criminal offenses, is expected to make the British Virgin Islands even more attractive to international business. Livestock raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Because of traditional close links with the US Virgin Islands, the British Virgin Islands has used the dollar as their currency since 1959. # 4.50 11890 222 3 14 83 2.50 4911 tourism NA% # 3 77.10 76.40 tourism, light industry, construction, rum, concrete block, offshore financial center # 4 0.01 42 3224 fruits, vegetables; livestock, poultry; fish # 3.40 rum, fresh fish, fruits, animals; gravel, sand # Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US # 11.50 building materials, automobiles, foodstuffs, machinery # Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US # 4.50 ? # ? # 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents # ? 1 April - 31 March 6291 NA # submarine cable to Bermuda # 1 3 0 9000 1 4000 ? # # # # 113 NA km # NA km # ? ? ? ? Road Town # ? ? ? ? # 3 2 ? ? ? 1 1 1 ? ? ? 1 ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Brunei 0 Ya Allah lanjutkanlah usia Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Adil berdaulat menaungi nusa memimpin rakyat kekal bahagia hidup sentosa negara dan sultan Ilahi selamatkan Brunei Darussalam # Historians believe there was a forerunner to the present Brunei Sultanate which the Chinese called Po-ni. Chinese and Arabic records indicate that this ancient trading kingdom existed at the mouth of the Brunei River as early as the seventh or eighth century A.D. This early kingdom was apparently conquered by the Sumatran empire of Srivijaya in the early ninth century and later controlled northern Borneo and the Philippines. It was subjugated briefly by the Java-based Majapahit Empire but soon regained its independence and once again rose to prominence. <p> The Brunei Empire had its golden age from the 15th to the 17th centuries, when its control extended over the entire island of Borneo and north into the Philippines. Brunei was particularly powerful under the fifth sultan, Bolkiah (1473-1521), who was famed for his sea exploits and even briefly captured Manila; and under the ninth sultan, Hassan (1605-19), who fully developed an elaborate Royal Court structure, elements of which remain. <p> After Sultan Hassan, Brunei entered a period of decline, due to internal battles over royal succession as well as the rising influences of European colonial powers in the region, that, among other things, disrupted traditional trading patterns, destroying the economic base of Brunei and many other Southeast Asia sultanates. In 1839, the English adventurer James Brooke arrived in Borneo and helped the Sultan put down a rebellion. As a reward, he became governor and later "Rajah" of Sarawak in northwest Borneo and gradually expanded the territory under his control. <p> Meanwhile, the British North Borneo Company was expanding its control over territory in northeast Borneo. In 1888, Brunei became a protectorate of the British Government, retaining internal independence but with British control over external affairs. In 1906, Brunei accepted a further measure of British control when executive power was transferred to a British resident, who advised the ruler on all matters except those concerning local custom and religion. <p> In 1959, a new constitution was written declaring Brunei a self-governing state, while its foreign affairs, security, and defense remained the responsibility of the United Kingdom. An attempt in 1962 to introduce a partially elected legislative body with limited powers was abandoned after the opposition political party, Partai Rakyat Brunei, launched an armed uprising, which the government put down with the help of British forces. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the government also resisted pressures to join neighboring Sabah and Sarawak in the newly formed Malaysia. The Sultan eventually decided that Brunei would remain an independent state. <p> In 1967, Sultan Omar abdicated in favor of his eldest son, Hassanal Bolkiah, who became the 29th ruler. The former Sultan remained as Defense Minister and assumed the royal title Seri Begawan. In 1970, the national capital, Brunei Town, was renamed Bandar Seri Begawan in his honor. The Seri Begawan died in 1986. <p> On January 4, 1979, Brunei and the United Kingdom signed a new treaty of friendship and cooperation. On January 1, 1984, Brunei Darussalam became a fully independent state. # BRU Southeastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and Malaysia # 5770 5270 500 381 Malaysia 381 km # 161 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; hot, humid, rainy # flat coastal plain rises to mountains in east; hilly lowland in west # South China Sea 0 m Bukit Pagon 1,850 m petroleum, natural gas, timber # 1 1 1 85 12 10 typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are very rare # seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia # Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # close to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave of Malaysia # 315292 33 53219 50906 63 103949 93370 4 7569 6279 2.44 24.92 5.17 4.61 1.06 1.05 1.11 1.21 ? 23.30 71.69 70.17 73.29 3.35 Bruneian(s) Bruneian Malay 64%, Chinese 20%, other 16% # Muslim (official) 63%, Buddhism 14%, Christian 8%, indigenous beliefs and other 15% (1981) # Malay (official), English, Chinese # age 15 and over can read and write # 88.20 92.60 83.40 Negara Brunei Darussalam Brunei ? # ? .bn constitutional sultanate Bandar Seri Begawan 4 districts (daerah-daerah, singular - daerah); Belait, Brunei and Muara, Temburong, Tutong # ? # National Day, 23 February (1984) 29 September 1959 (some provisions suspended under a State of Emergency since December 1962, others since independence on 1 January 1984) # based on English common law; for Muslims, Islamic Shari'a law supersedes civil law in a number of areas # none # Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the sultan is both the chief of state and head of government # Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the sultan is both the chief of state and head of government # Council of Cabinet Ministers appointed and presided over by the sultan; deals with executive matters note: there is also a Religious Council (members appointed by the sultan) that advises on religious matters, a Privy Council (members appointed by the sultan) that deals with constitutional matters, and the Council of Succession (members appointed by the sultan) that determines the succession to the throne if the need arises # none; the sultan is a traditional Islamic monarch # ? # unicameral Legislative Council or Majlis Masyuarat Megeri (a privy council that serves only in a consultative capacity; NA seats; members appointed by the sultan) # last held in March 1962 note: in 1970 the Council was changed to an appointive body by decree of the sultan; an elected Legislative Council is being considered as part of constitutional reform, but elections are unlikely for several years # ? # Supreme Court, chief justice and judges are sworn in by the sultan for three-year terms # Brunei United National Party (inactive), Anak HASANUDDIN, chairman; Brunei National Solidarity Party (the first legal political party and now banned), Mohamad HATTA bin Maji Zainal Abidin, secretary general; Brunei Peoples Party (banned), Sheik A. M. AZAHARI, leader; Brunei National Democratic Party or BNDP (deregistered), Haji Abdul LATIF bin Abdul Hamad, president # ? # APEC, ASEAN, C, CCC, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDB, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO # yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; the emblem includes a swallow-tailed flag on top of a winged column within an upturned crescent above a scroll and flanked by two upraised hands # This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for perhaps half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other Third World countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government is beginning to show progress on its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion. # 3.50 25090 7911 5 46 49 2 144000 government 48%, production of oil, natural gas, services, and construction 42%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 4%, other 6% (1986 est.) # 4.80 2500 2600 petroleum, petroleum refining, liquefied natural gas, construction # 4 0.65 1260 4311 rice, cassava (tapioca), bananas; water buffalo # 2620 crude oil, liquefied natural gas, petroleum products # ASEAN 31%, Japan 27%, South Korea 26%, UK, Taiwan (1996 est.) # 2650 machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, chemicals # Singapore 29%, UK 19%, US 13%, Malaysia 9%, Japan 5% (1994 est.) # 0 ? # ? # 1 Bruneian dollar (B$) = 100 cents # 1.75 calendar year 90000 NA # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) # 4 4 0 284000 1 173000 13 # # 13 km 0.610-m gauge # # 1150 399 km # 751 km (1996 est.) # 209 135 418 920 Bandar Seri Begawan, Kuala Belait, Muara, Seria, Tutong # 7 348476 340635 ? # 2 1 1 ? ? 1 ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? 3 Land Forces, Navy, Air Force, Royal Brunei Police # 18 years of age # 87048 50408 3126 312000000 6.20 may wish to purchase the Malaysian salient that divides the country; possibly involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island # ? # @Bulgaria 0 Bulgaria Latin Transliteration Gorda Stara planeena do neyee Doonava seeneye, Sluntse Trakeeya ogryava nad Pereena plameneyee. CHORUS Meela Rodeeno, tee see zemen rayee, tvoyeeta hubost, tvoyeeta prelest, ah, te nyamat krayee! (repeat chorus) English Translation Proudly rise the Balkan peaks, At their feet Blue Danube flows; Over Thrace the sun is shining, Pirin looms in purple glow. CHORUS Oh, dear native land, Earthly paradise! For your loveliness, your beauty E'er will charm our eyes. (repeat chorus) # Long a crossroads of civilizations (archaeological finds date back to 4600 B.C.), Bulgaria was first recognized as an independent state in AD 681. Bulgarian Orthodox Christanity, which became a hallmark of national identity, was established in the 9th century. Bulgaria was ruled by the Byzantine Empire from 1018 to 1185 and the Ottoman Empire from 1396 to 1878. In 1879, Bulgaria adopted a democratic constitution and invited a German nobleman, Alexander of Battenburg, to be prince. <P> In the early part of the 20th century, in an effort to gain Macedonian and other territories, Bulgaria engaged in two Balkan wars and become allied with Germany during World War I. It suffered disastrous losses as a result. The interwar period was dominated by economic and political instability and by terrorism as political factions, including monarchists and communists, struggled for influence. In World War II, Bulgaria ultimately allied again with Germany but protected its Jewish population of some 50,000 from the Holocaust. When King Boris III died in 1943, political uncertainty heightened. The Fatherland Front, an umbrella coalition led by the Communist Party, was established. This coalition backed neutrality and withdrawal from occupied territories. Bulgaria tried to avoid open conflict with the Soviet Union during the war, but the U.S.S.R. invaded in 1944 and placed the Fatherland Front in control of government. <P> After Bulgaria's surrender to the Allies, the Communist Party purged opposition figures in the Fatherland Front, exiled young King Simeon II, and rigged elections to consolidate power. In 1946, a referendum was passed overwhelmingly, ending the monarchy and declaring Bulgaria a people's republic. In a questionable election the next year, the Fatherland Front won 70% of the vote and Communist Party leader Georgi Dimitrov became prime minister. In 1947, the Allied military left Bulgaria and the government declared the country a communist state. Forty-two years of heavy-handed totalitarian rule followed. All democratic opposition was crushed, agriculture and industry were nationalized, and Bulgaria became the closest of the Soviet Union's allies. Unlike other countries of the Warsaw Pact, however, Bulgaria did not have Soviet troops stationed on its territory. <P> Dimitrov died in 1949. Todor Zhivkov became communist party chief in 1956 and prime minister in 1962. Zhivkov held power until November 1989, when he was deposed by members of his own party, soon renamed the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP). The BSP won the first post-communist parliamentary elections in 1990 with a small majority. The BSP government formed at that time was brought down by a general strike in late 1990 and replaced by a transitional coalition government. Meanwhile, Zhelyu Zhelev, a communist-era dissident, was elected president by the Parliament in 1990 and later won Bulgaria's first direct presidential elections, in 1992. Zhelev served until early 1997. The country's first fully democratic parliamentary elections, in November 1991, ushered in another coalition government, which was led by the pro-reform Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) in partnership with the Movement for Rights and Freedoms (MRF). This coalition collapsed in late 1992, however, and was succeeded by a technocratic team, put forward by the MRF, which governed at the sufferance of the BSP for 2 years. The BSP won pre-term elections in December 1994 and remained in office until February 1997, when a populace alienated by the BSP's failed, corrupt government demanded its resignation and called for new elections. # BG Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Romania and Turkey # 110910 110550 360 1808 Greece 494 km, Macedonia 148 km, Romania 608 km, Serbia and Montenegro 318 km (all with Serbia), Turkey 240 km # 354 24 ? # 200 ? 12 temperate; cold, damp winters; hot, dry summers # mostly mountains with lowlands in north and southeast # Black Sea 0 m Musala 2,925 m bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, timber, arable land # 37 2 16 35 10 12370 earthquakes, landslides # air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; deforestation; forest damage from air pollution and resulting acid rain; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands # Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol # strategic location near Turkish Straits; controls key land routes from Europe to Middle East and Asia # 8240426 16 696131 662335 68 2756695 2812192 16 564698 748375 -0.60 8.08 13.24 -0.80 1.06 1.05 0.98 0.75 ? 12.78 71.96 68.39 75.74 1.14 Bulgarian(s) Bulgarian Bulgarian 85.3%, Turk 8.5%, Gypsy 2.6%, Macedonian 2.5%, Armenian 0.3%, Russian 0.2%, other 0.6% # Bulgarian Orthodox 85%, Muslim 13%, Jewish 0.8%, Roman Catholic 0.5%, Uniate Catholic 0.2%, Protestant, Gregorian-Armenian, and other 0.5% # Bulgarian, secondary languages closely correspond to ethnic breakdown # age 15 and over can read and write # 98 99 97 Republic of Bulgaria Bulgaria ? # ? .bg republic Sofia 9 provinces (oblasti, singular - oblast); Burgas, Grad Sofiya, Khaskovo, Lovech, Montana, Plovdiv, Ruse, Sofiya, Varna # ? # Independence Day, 3 March (1878) adopted 12 July 1991 # civil law and criminal law based on Roman law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Petar STOYANOV (since 22 January 1997); Vice President Todor KAVALDZHIEV (since 22 January 1997) # Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) Ivan Kostov (since 19 May 1997); Deputy Prime Ministers Aleksandur BOZHKOV (since 12 February 1997 Evgeniy BAKURDZHIEV (since 21 May 1997), Veselin METODIEV (since 21 May 1997) # Council of Ministers elected by the National Assembly # president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 27 October and 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2001); chairman of the Council of Ministers (prime minister) nominated by the president # Petar STOYANOV elected president; percent of vote - Petar STOYANOV 59.73% # unicameral National Assembly or Narodno Sobranie (240 seats; members are popularly elected to serve four-year terms) # last held 19 April 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) # percent of vote by party - UDF 52%, BSP 22%, ANS 7%, Euro-left 5.5%, BBB 4.95%; seats by party - UDF 137, BSP 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 14, BBB 12 # Supreme Court, chairman appointed for a seven-year term by the president; Constitutional Court, 12 justices appointed or elected for a nine-year term # Bulgarian Socialist Party or BSP [Georgi PURVANOV, chairman]; Union of Democratic Forces or UDF (an alliance of pro-Democratic parties) [Ivan KOSTOV]; Euro-left [Aleksandur TOMOV]; Alliance for National Salvation or ANS (coalition led mainly by Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS [Ahmed DOGAN]); Bulgarian Business Bloc or BBB [Georgi GANCHEV]; People's Union [Anastasiya MOZER and Stefan SAVOV, cochairmen] # ? # ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G-9, IAEA, IBEC, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, IIB, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, MONUA, NAM (guest), NSG, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMOT, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC # three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the national emblem formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe has been removed - it contained a rampant lion within a wreath of wheat ears below a red five-pointed star and above a ribbon bearing the dates 681 (first Bulgarian state established) and 1944 (liberation from Nazi control) # One of the poorest countries of central Europe, Bulgaria has slowly been moving from its old command economy towards a market-oriented economy. The economy faced a major crisis in 1996, marked by a banking system in turmoil, a depreciating currency, inflation of 311%, and contracting production and foreign trade. Foreign exchange reserves dwindled to $518 million, while dramatically hiked interest rates added to the domestic debt burden and stifled growth. GDP fell by 11% in 1996, after experiencing 2.0% growth in 1995. Privatization of state-owned industries stagnated, although the first auction of a mass privatization program was undertaken in late 1996. Lagging progress on structural reforms led to postponement of IMF disbursements under a $580 million standby loan agreed to in July 1996. In November 1996, the IMF proposed a currency board as Bulgaria's best chance to restore confidence in the lev, eliminate unnecessary spending, and avoid hyperinflation. The board was set up on 1 July 1997. Its establishment was followed by a reduction in inflation and interest rates and by a rise in foreign investment. Simultaneously the government pledged to sell off some of the most attractive state assets. GDP in 1997 dropped 7.4%, but is expected to rebound to an estimated 2% in 1998. Other government objectives include: the completion of land reform, the privatization and strengthening of the banking system, and the modernization of the legal environment of business. # -7.40 1140 9394 12 31 57 579 3570000 industry 41%, agriculture 18%, other 41% (1992) # 14 2700 3200.00 machine building and metal working, food processing, chemicals, textiles, construction materials, ferrous and nonferrous metals # -7.40 12.09 41449.00 4821 grain, oilseed, vegetables, fruits, tobacco; livestock # 4900.00 machinery and equipment 15.2%; agriculture and food 18.9%; textiles and apparel 14.8%; metals, minerals, and fuels 26.5%; chemicals and plastics 20%; other 4.6% (1996) # OECD 50.0% (EU 37.2%); CIS and Central and Eastern Europe 32.4%; Arab countries 5.8%; other 11.8% (1995) # 4500 fuels, minerals, and raw materials 40.7%; machinery and equipment 18.4%; textiles and apparel 11.6%; agricultural products 7.5%; metals and ores 5.2%; chemicals and plastics 12.2%; other 4.4% (1996) # OECD 45.5% (EU 38.1%); CIS and Central and Eastern European countries 41.1%; Arab countries 1.8%; other 11.6% (1995) # 10000 ? # ? # 1 lev (Lv) = 100 stotinki # 1740 calendar year 2773293 extensive but antiquated transmission system of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay; telephone service is available in most villages # direct dialing to 36 countries; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean Region); Intelsat available through a Greek earth station # 20 15 0 ? 29 2100000 4292 # 4,047 km 1.435-m gauge (2,650 km electrified; 917 double track) # # 245 km 0.760-m gauge (1995) # 36720 33,746 km (including 314 km of expressways) # 2,974 km (1996 est.) # 470 193 525 1400 Burgas, Lom, Nesebur, Ruse, Varna, Vidin # 94 1027117 1541266 bulk 45, cargo 23, chemical tanker 4, container 2, oil tanker 9, passenger-cargo 1, railcar carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 6, short-sea passenger 1 (1997 est.) # 34 34 1 14 9 ? 10 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Troops, Internal Troops # 19 years of age # 2042441 1703879 61643 418600000 2 twenty bilateral agreements remain unsigned in a dispute over Bulgarian nonrecognition of Macedonian as a language distinct from Bulgarian # major European transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and, to a lesser degree, South American cocaine for the European market; limited producer of precursor chemicals; significant producer of amphetamines, much of which are consumed in the Middle East # @Burkina 0 Contre la fΘrule humiliante il y a dΘjα mille ans, La rapacitΘ venue de loin les asservir il y a cent ans. Contre la cynique malice mΘtamorphosΘe En nΘocolonialisme et ses petits servants locaux Beaucoup flanchΦrent et certains rΘsistΦrent. Mais les Θchecs, les succΦs, la sueur, le sang Ont fortifiΘ notre peuple courageux et fertilisΘ sa lutte hΘro∩que. CHORUS Et une seule nuit a rassemblΘe en elle L'histoire de tout un peuple. Et une seule nuit a dΘclenchΘ sa marche triomphale Vers l'horizon du bonheur. Une seule nuit a rΘconciliΘ notre peuple Avec tous les peuples du monde, A la conquΩte de la libertΘ et du progrΦs La patrie ou la mort, nous vaincrons. Nourris α la source vive de la RΘvolution. Les engagΘs volontaires de la libertΘ et de la paix Dans l'Θnergie nocturne et salutaire du 4 ao√t N'avaient pas que les armes α la main, mais aussi et surtout La flamme au c£ur pour legitimement libΘrer Le Faso α jamais des fers de tous ceux qui ╟α et, lα en poluaient l'Γme sacrΘe de l'indΘpendance, de la souverainetΘ. CHORUS Et sΘant dΘsormais en sa dignitΘ recouvrΘe L'amour et l'honneur en partage avec l'humanitΘ, Le peuple du Burkina chante un hymne α la victoire, A la gloire du travail libΘrateur, Θmancipateur. A bas l'explotation de l'homme par l'homme! HΘ en avant pour le bonheur de tout homme, Par tous les hommes aujourd'hui et demain, par tous les hommes ici et pour toujours! HORUS RΘvolution populaire notre sΦve nourriciΦre. MaternitΘ immortelle du progrΦs α visage d'homme. Foyer Θternel de dΘmocratie consensuelle, O∙ enfin l'identitΘ nationale a droit de citΘ, O∙ pour toujours l'injustice perd ses quartiers, Et o∙, des mains des bΓtisseurs d'un monde radieux M√rissent partout les moissons de voeux patriotiques, brillent les soleils infins de joie. CHORUS # Until the end of the 19th century, the history of Burkina Faso was dominated by the empire-building Mossi, who are believed to have come from central or eastern Africa sometime in the 11th century. For centuries, the Mossi peasant was both farmer and soldier, and the Mossi people were able to defend their religious beliefs and social structure against forcible attempts to convert them to Islam by Muslims from the northwest. <P> When the French arrived and claimed the area in 1896, Mossi resistance ended with the capture of their capital at Ouagadougou. In 1919, certain provinces from Cote d'Ivoire were united into a separate colony called the Upper Volta in the French West Africa federation. In 1932, the new colony was dismembered in a move to economize; it was reconstituted in 1937 as an administrative division called the Upper Coast. After World War II, the Mossi renewed their pressure for separate territorial status and on September 4, 1947, Upper Volta became a French West African territory again in its own right. <P> A revision in the organization of French Overseas Territories began with the passage of the Basic Law (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956. This act was followed by reorganizational measures approved by the French parliament early in 1957 that ensured a large degree of self-government for individual territories. Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the French community on December 11, 1958. <P> Upper Volta achieved independence on August 5, 1960. The first president, Maurice Yameogo, was the leader of the Voltaic Democratic Union (UDV). The 1960 constitution provided for election by universal suffrage of a president and a national assembly for 5-year terms. Soon after coming to power, Yameogo banned all political parties other than the UDV. The government lasted until 1966 when after much unrest-mass demonstrations and strikes by students, labor unions, and civil servants-the military intervened. <P> The military coup deposed Yameogo, suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, and placed Lt. Col. Aboukar Sangoule Lamizana at the head of a government of senior army officers. The army remained in power for 4 years, and on June 14, 1970, the Voltans ratified a new constitution that established a 4-year transition period toward complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout the 1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments. After conflict over the 1970 constitution, a new constitution was written and approved in 1977, and Lamizana was reelected by open elections in 1978. <P> Lamizana's government faced problems with the country's traditionally powerful trade unions, and on November 25, 1980, Col. Saye Zerbo overthrew President Lamizana in a bloodless coup. Colonel Zerbo established the Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress as the supreme governmental authority, thus eradicating the 1977 constitution. <P> Colonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from trade unions and was overthrown two years later, on November 7, 1982, by Maj. Dr. Jean-Baptiste Ouedraogo and the Council of Popular Salvation (CSP). The CSP continued to ban political parties and organizations, yet promised a transition to civilian rule and a new constitution. <P> Factional infighting developed between moderates in the CSP and the radicals, led by Capt. Thomas Sankara who was appointed prime minister in January 1983. The internal political struggle and Sankara's leftist rhetoric led to his arrest and subsequent efforts to bring about his release, directed by Capt. Blaise Compaore. This release effort resulted in yet another military coup d'etat on August 4, 1983. <P> After the coup, Sankara formed the National Council for the Revolution (CNR), with himself as president. Sankara also established Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDRs) to "mobilize the masses" and implement the CNR's revolutionary programs. The CNR, whose exact membership remained secret until the end, contained two small intellectual Marxist-Leninist groups. Sankara, Compaore, Capt. Henri Zongo, and Maj. Jean-Baptiste Boukary Lengani-all leftist military officers-dominated the regime. <P> On August 4, 1984, Upper Volta changed its name to Burkina Faso, meaning "the country of honorable people." Sankara, a charismatic leader, sought by word, deed, and example to mobilize the masses and launch a massive bootstrap development movement. But many of the strict austerity measures taken by Sankara met with growing resistance and disagreement. Despite his initial popularity and personal charisma, problems began to surface in the implementation of the revolutionary ideals. <P> The CDRs, which were formed as popular mass organizations, deteriorated in some areas into gangs of armed thugs and clashed with several trade unions. Tensions over the repressive tactics of the government and its overall direction mounted steadily. On October 15, 1987, Sankara was assassinated in a coup which brought Capt. Blaise Compaore to power. <P> Compaore, Capt. Henri Zongo, and Maj. Jean-Baptiste Boukary Lengani formed the Popular Front (FP), which pledged to continue and pursue the goals of the revolution and to "rectify" Sankara's "deviations" from the original aims. The new government, realizing the need for popular support, tacitly moderated many of Sankara's policies. As part of a much-discussed political "opening" process, several political organizations, three of them non-Marxist, were accepted under an umbrella political organization created in June 1989 by the FP. <P> Some members of the leftist "Organisation pour la Democratie Populaire/Movement du Travail" (ODP/MT) were against the admission of non-Marxist groups in the front. On September 18, 1989, while Compaore was returning from a two-week trip to Asia, Lengani and Zongo were accused of plotting to overthrow the Popular Front. They were arrested and summarily executed the same night. Compaore reorganized the government, appointed several new ministers, and assumed the portfolio of Minister of Defense and Security. On December 23, 1989, a presidential security detail arrested about 30 civilians and military personnel accused of plotting a coup in collaboration with the Burkinabe external opposition. # BF Western Africa, north of Ghana # 274200 273800 400 3192 Benin 306 km, Ghana 548 km, Cote d'Ivoire 584 km, Mali 1,000 km, Niger 628 km, Togo 126 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? tropical; warm, dry winters; hot, wet summers # mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast # Mouhoun (Black Volta) River 200 m Tena Kourou 749 m manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, antimony, copper, nickel, bauxite, lead, phosphates, zinc, silver # 13 0 22 50 15 200 recurring droughts # recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands # Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban # landlocked # 11266393 48 2721564 2687770 49 2616375 2899923 3 146195 194566 2.72 46.24 17.65 -1.41 1.03 1.01 0.90 0.75 ? 109.15 46.10 45.38 46.85 6.64 Burkinabe (singular and plural) Burkinabe Mossi about 24%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani # indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 50%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10% # French (official), tribal languages belonging to Sudanic family, spoken by 90% of the population # age 15 and over can read and write # 19.20 29.50 9.20 none Burkina ? # ? .bf parliamentary Ouagadougou 30 provinces; Bam, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houe, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komoe, Kossi, Kouritenga, Mouhoun, Namentenga, Naouri, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Sanguie, Sanmatenga, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Yatenga, Zoundweogo note: there may be a new administrative structure of 45 provinces (Bale, Bam, Banwa, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Comoe, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houet, Ioba, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komandjari, Kompienga, Kossi, Koupelogo, Kouritenga, Kourweogo, Leraba, Loroum, Mouhoun, Nahouri, Namentenga, Nayala, Naumbiel, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Samentenga, Sanguie, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Tuy, Yagha, Yatenga, Ziro, Zondomo, Zoundweogo) # ? # Anniversary of the Revolution, 4 August (1983) 2 June 1991 # based on French civil law system and customary law # universal # President Captain Blaise COMPAORE (since 15 October 1987) # Prime Minister Kadre Desire OUEDRAOGO (since 6 February 1996) # Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister # president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; the number of terms which a president may serve is not limited; election last held 1 December 1991 (next to be held NA 1998); prime minister appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature # Blaise COMPAORE elected president with 90.4% percent of the votes of those who voted (the abstention rate was 74.7%) # bicameral; consists of a National Assembly or Assemblee des Deputes Populaires (ADP) (111 seats; members are popularly elected to serve five-year terms) and the purely consultative Chamber of Representations or Chambre des Representants (120 seats; members are appointed to serve three-year terms) # last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CDP 101, PDP 6, RDA 2, ADF 2 # Supreme Court; Appeals Court # African Democratic Assembly or RDA [Gerard Kango OUEDRAOGO]; Alliance for Democracy and Federation or ADF [Herman YAMEOGO]; Burkinabe Bolshevic Party or PBB; Burkinabe Socialist Party or PSB; Burkinabe Socialist Bloc or BSB [Earnest Nongma OUEDRAOGO, president]; Burkinabe Environmentalist Party or UVDB; Congress for Democracy and Progress or CDP [Din Salif SAWADAGO] (the strongest party in the 1997 legislative elections); Front for Social Forces or FFS [Fide'le KIENTEGA]; Group of Democratic Patriots or GDP; Movement for Social Tolerance and Progress or MTP; New Social Democrats or NSD; Open Revolutionary Party or POR; Organization for People's Democracy - Labor Movement or ODP-MT (ruling party at time of 1992 elections but was incorporated, with about a dozen smaller parties, into the powerful CDP in February 1996); Party for Democracy and Progress or PDP [Joseph KI-ZERBO]; Party for Progress and Social Development or PPDS; Party for African Independence or PAI # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia # One of the poorest countries in the world, landlocked Burkina has a high population density, few natural resources, and a fragile soil. Over 80% of the population is engaged in subsistence agriculture which is highly vulnerable to variations in rainfall. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January 1994 the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. # 6 240 2704 32 26 42 3 ? agriculture 80%, industry 15%, commerce, services, and government 5% # ? 277 492.00 cotton lint, beverages, agricultural processing, soap, cigarettes, textiles, gold # 4.20 0.08 220 21 peanuts, shea nuts, sesame, cotton, sorghum, millet, corn, rice; livestock # 298 cotton, animal products, gold # Cote d'Ivoire, France, Italy, Mali # 500 machinery, food products, petroleum # Cote d'Ivoire, France, Togo, Nigeria # 715 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes # 608.36 calendar year 21000 microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communication stations # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 1 32 1 ? 3 49000 622 # # 622 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.) # # 12506 2,001 km # 10,505 km (1995 est.) # ? ? ? ? none # ? ? ? ? # 33 2 1 1 3 14 14 31 ? ? ? ? ? ? Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, People's Militia # ? # 2317227 1187840 ? 104000000 6.40 none # ? # @Burma 0 ? # Settlers from Tibet in the 8th century formed the basis of what was later to become the Burmese people. From 1272 until the 16th century, the country formed part of the Chinese-Mongolian empire. The British made Burma part of the Indian empire in 1886. After numerous nationalist rebel lions, the Government of Burma Act of 1935 allowed for a level of internal self-government from 1937. The Japanese occupation led to independence in 1943. This independence was later ratified by the British and Burma left the Commonwealth with full independence on 1 January 1948. Political instability led to a military take-over by General U Ne Win in 1962. The military regime founded the Burmese Socialist Program Party (BSPP), the only legal party since 28 March 1962. The new single-party constitution was confirmed by referendum from 15 to 31 December 1973 and became official on 4 January 1974. This single-party people's republic has one legislative house, the People's Assembly, with 475 seats, elected every 4 years. First elections took place in January and February of 1974. New laws regarding political parties came into force in September 1988. # BUR Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh and Thailand # 678500 657740 20760 5876 Bangladesh 193 km, China 2,185 km, India 1,463 km, Laos 235 km, Thailand 1,800 km # 1930 24 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin # 200 ? 12 tropical monsoon; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April) # central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands # Andaman Sea 0 m Hkakabo Razi 5,881 m petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, some marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas # 15 1 1 49 34 10680 destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts # deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 # none of the selected agreements # strategic location near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes # 47305319 36 8798474 8461791 59 14052386 14019244 5 888773 1084651 1.65 28.96 12.51 0 1.06 1.04 1 0.82 ? 78.35 54.51 53.03 56.08 3.70 Burmese (singular and plural) Burmese Burman 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Mon 2%, Indian 2%, other 5% # Buddhist 89%, Christian 4% (Baptist 3%, Roman Catholic 1%), Muslim 4%, animist beliefs 1%, other 2% # Burmese, minority ethnic groups have their own languages # age 15 and over can read and write # 83.10 88.70 77.70 Union of Burma Burma Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw (translated by the US Government as Union of Myanma and by the Burmese as Union of Myanmar) # Myanma Naingngandaw .mm military regime Rangoon (regime refers to the capital as Yangon) 7 divisions* (yin-mya, singular - yin) and 7 states (pyine-mya, singular - pyine); Chin State, Ayeyarwady*, Bago*, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Magway*, Mandalay*, Mon State, Rakhine State, Sagaing*, Shan State, Tanintharyi*, Yangon* # ? # Independence Day, 4 January (1948) 3 January 1974 (suspended since 18 September 1988); national convention started on 9 January 1993 to draft a new constitution; chapter headings and three of 15 sections have been approved # does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government # Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government # State Peace and Development Council (SPDC); military junta, so named 15 November 1997, which initially assumed power 18 September 1988 under the name State Law and Order Restoration Council; the SPDC oversees the cabinet # none; the prime minister assumed power upon resignation of the former prime minister # ? # unicameral People's Assembly or Pyithu Hluttaw (485 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # last held 27 May 1990, but Assembly never convened # percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NLD 396, NUP 10, other 79 # limited; remnants of the British-era legal system in place, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial; the judiciary is not independent of the executive # Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA, proregime), THAN AUNG, general secretary; National Unity Party (NUP, proregime), THA KYAW; National League for Democracy (NLD), AUNG SHWE, chairman, AUNG SAN SUU KYI, general secretary; and eight minor legal parties # ? # AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing, all in white, 14 five-pointed stars encircling a cogwheel containing a stalk of rice; the 14 stars represent the 14 administrative divisions # Burma has a mixed economy with private activity dominant in agriculture, light industry, and transport, and with substantial state-controlled activity, mainly in energy, heavy industry, and the rice trade. Government policy in the last nine years, 1989-97, has aimed at revitalizing the economy after three decades of tight central planning. Thus, private activity has markedly increased; foreign investment has been encouraged, so far with moderate success; and efforts continue to increase the efficiency of state enterprises. Published estimates of Burma's foreign trade are greatly understated because of the volume of black-market trade. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Although Burma remains a poor Asian country, its rich resources furnish the potential for substantial long-term increases in income, exports, and living standards. # 6 1130 53455 61 10 29 30 18800000 agriculture 65.2%, industry 14.3%, trade 10.1%, government 6.3%, other 4.1% (FY88/89 est.) # ? 7900.00 12200 agricultural processing; textiles and footwear; wood and wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer # 9.20 1.21 4100 79 paddy rice, corn, oilseed, sugarcane, pulses; hardwood # 693 pulses and beans, teak, rice, rubber, hardwood # Singapore, China, Indonesia, India, Thailand # 1400 machinery, transport equipment, construction materials, food products, consumer goods # Japan, Singapore, China, Thailand, Malaysia # 5300 ODA, $61 million (1993) # ? # 1 kyat (K) = 100 pyas # 6.39 1 April - 31 March 122195 NA # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) # 2 1 0 ? 1 88000 3569 # # 3,569 km 1.000-m gauge (1995) # # 28200 3,440 km # 24,760 km (1996 est.) # 12800 1343 ? 330 Bassein, Bhamo, Chauk, Mandalay, Moulmein, Myitkyina, Rangoon, Akyab (Sittwe), Tavoy # 45 561786 742450 bulk 15, cargo 18, chemical tanker 1, container 2, oil tanker 3, passenger-cargo 3, refrigerated cargo 1, vehicle carrier 2 # 80 24 3 2 12 7 32 56 1 ? 4 19 ? 1 Army, Navy, Air Force # 18 years of age # 12208916 6523797 488818 380000000 ? none # world's largest illicit producer of opium (cultivation in 1997 - 155,150 hectares, a 5% decline from 1996; potential production - 2,365 metric tons, an 8% drop from 1996) and a minor producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; surrender of drug warlord KHUN SA's Mong Tai Army in January 1996 was hailed by Rangoon as a major counternarcotics success, but lack of serious government commitment and resources continue to hinder the overall antidrug effort; growing role in the production of methamphetamines for regional consumption # @Burundi 0 Original Kirundi Words Burundi Bwacu, Burundi buhire, Shinga icumu mu mashinga, Gaba intahe y'ubugabo ku bugingo. Warapfunywe ntiwapfuye, arahabishijwe ntiwahababuka, Uhagurukana, uhagurukana, uhagurukana, ubugabo urikukira. Komerwamashyi n'amakungu, Habwa impundu nabawe, Isamirane mu mashinga, isamirane mu mashinga, urundi bwacu, ragi ry'abasokuru, Ramutswa intahe n'ibihugu, Ufatanije ishyaka n'ubu hizi; Vuza impundu wiganzuye uwakuganza uwakuganza. urundi bwacu, nkoramutima kuri twe se, Tugutuye amaboko, umitima n'ubuzima, Imana yakuduhaye ikudutungire. Horana umwami n'abagabo n'itekane. Sagwa n'urweze, sagwa n'amahoro meza. Original French Words Cher Burundi, ⌠ doux pays, Prends place dans le concert des nations. En tout bien, tout honneur, accΘdΘ α l'indΘpendance. MutilΘ et meutri, tu es demeurΘ maεtre de toi-mΩme. L'heure venue, t'es levΘ Et fiΦrement tu t'es hissΘ au rang des peuples libres. Reτois donc le compliment des nations, AgrΘe l'hommage de tes enfants. Qu'α travers l'univers retentisse ton nom. Cher Burundi, hΘritage sacrΘ de nos a∩eux, Reconnu digne de te gouverner Au courage tu allies le sentiment de l'honneur. Chante la gloire de ta libertΘ reconquise. Cher Burundi, digne objet de notre plus tendre armour, A ton noble service nous vouons nos bras, nos coeurs et nos vies. Veuille Dieu, qui nous a fait don de toi, te conserver α notre vΘnΘration. Sous l'egide de l'UnitΘ, Dans la paix, la joie et la prospΘritΘ. # The first inhabitants were the pygmy Twa. Bantu Hutus followed, but these were conquered in the 16th century by the Tutsi (Watutsi), who probably came from Ethiopia. From 1884 until 1885, Burundi was part of German East Africa. The area fell to Belgium in 1916 when it was occupied by troops from the Congo (Kinshasa). Belgium exercised successively a League of Nations mandate and a UN trusteeship over the then Ruanda-Urundi. Independence was granted in 1962, and in 1966 the monarchy was overthrown. A number of military coups have followed, the latest being in September 1987. In 1972-73 an unsuccessful Hutu rebellion caused the deaths of some 10,000 Tutsi and 150,000 Hutu. Renewed tribal conflicts between the Tutsi and Hutu left tens of thousands dead in 1988. In a number of waves since October 1993, hundreds of thousands of refugees have fled the ethnic violence between the Hutu and Tutsi factions in Burundi and crossed into Rwanda, Tanzania, and Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire; since October 1996, an estimated 92,000 Burundi Hutus who fled to Zaire have been forced to return to Burundi by Tutsi rebel forces in Zaire, leaving an estimated 35,000 still dispersed there; in Burundi, the ethnic violence between the Hutus and the Tutsis continued in 1996, causing an estimated additional 150,000 Burundi Hutus to flee to Tanzania, thus raising their numbers in that country to about 250,000 # RU Central Africa, east of Democratic Republic of the Congo # 27830 25650 2180 974 Democratic Republic of the Congo 233 km, Rwanda 290 km, Tanzania 451 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? equatorial; high plateau with considerable altitude variation (772 m to 2,760 m); average annual temperature varies with altitude from 23 to 17 degrees centigrade but is generally moderate as the average altitude is about 1,700 m; average annual rainfall is about 150 cm; wet seasons from February to May and September to November, and dry seasons from June to August and December to January # hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in east, some plains # Lake Tanganyika 772 m Mount Heha 2,760 m nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited), vanadium # 44 9 36 3 8 140 flooding, landslides # soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection # Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban # landlocked; straddles crest of the Nile-Congo watershed # 5537387 47 1313112 1309600 50 1331336 1417228 3 69718 96393 3.51 41.61 17.38 10.84 1.03 1 0.93 0.72 ? 101.19 45.56 43.79 47.38 6.40 Burundian(s) Burundi Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 3,000, South Asians 2,000 # Christian 67% (Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 5%), indigenous beliefs 32%, Muslim 1% # Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area) # age 15 and over can read and write # 35.30 49.30 22.50 Republic of Burundi Burundi Republika y'u Burundi # Burundi .bi republic Bujumbura 15 provinces; Bubanza, Bujumbura, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Ngozi, Rutana, Ruyigi # ? # Independence Day, 1 July (1962) 13 March 1992; provides for establishment of a plural political system # based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # NA years of age; universal adult # President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996); note - former President NTIBANTUNGANYA was overthrown in a coup on 25 July 1996 and took refuge for 11 months in the US ambassador's residence in Bujumbura; former Major (retired) Pierre BUYOYA has not been recognized as president of Burundi by the US or most other governments # Prime Minister Pascal-Firmin NDIMIRA (since 31 July 1996) # Council of Ministers appointed by prime minister # NA # ? # unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (81 seats; members are popularly elected on a proportional basis to serve five-year terms) # last held 29 June 1993 (scheduled to be held in 1998, although no date has been set) # percent of vote by party - FRODEBU 71%, UPRONA 21.4%; seats by party - FRODEBU 65, UPRONA 16; other parties won too small shares of the vote to win seats in the assembly # Supreme Court or Cour Supreme # Unity for National Progress or UPRONA [Charles MUKASI, president]; Burundi Democratic Front or FRODEBU [Jean MINANI, president]; Socialist Party of Burundi or PSB; People's Reconciliation Party or PRP [Mathias HITIMANA, leader]; opposition parties, legalized in March 1992, include Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation or ABASA; Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development or RADDES [Cyrille SIGEJEJE, chairman]; and Party for National Redress or PARENA [Jean-Baptiste BAGAZA, leader] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and outer side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below) # Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country in an early stage of economic development. The economy is predominately agricultural with roughly 90% of the population dependent on subsistence agriculture. Its economic health depends on the coffee crop, which accounts for 80% of foreign exchange earnings. The ability to pay for imports therefore rests largely on the vagaries of the climate and the international coffee market. As part of its economic reform agenda, launched in February 1991 with IMF and World Bank support, Burundi is trying to diversify its agricultural exports, attract foreign investment in industry, and modernize government budgetary practices. Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 100,000 persons and the displacement of a million others. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply. An impoverished and disorganized government can hardly implement the needed reform programs. # 4.40 180 997 56 18 26 26 1900000 agriculture 93.0%, government 4.0%, industry and commerce 1.5%, services 1.5% (1983 est.) # ? 222 258 light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, soap; assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing # ? 0.04 158 32 coffee, cotton, tea, corn, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); meat, milk, hides # 40 coffee 81%, tea, cotton, hides # EU 60%, US 7%, Asia 1% # 127 capital goods 26%, petroleum products, foodstuffs, consumer goods # EU 47%, Asia 25%, US 6% # 1100 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Burundi franc (FBu) = 100 centimes # 412.59 calendar year 7200 sparse system of open wire, radiotelephone communications, and low-capacity microwave radio relay # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) # 2 2 0 ? 1 4500 ? # # # # 14480 1,028 km # 13,452 km (1995 est.) # ? ? ? ? Bujumbura # ? ? ? ? # 4 1 1 ? ? 2 1 3 ? ? ? ? ? ? Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie # 16 years of age # 1203518 627587 69030 25000000 2.60 none # ? # @Cambodia 0 ? # Early kingdoms in the region date from the 1st century AD. These culminated with the Khmer Empire, flourishing from the 9th until the 13th centuries and including present-day Thailand, Kampuchea (Cambodia), Laos, and southern Vietnam. The surrounding areas were gradually lost to Siam and Vietnam, and Cambodia became part of French Indochina in 1887. Its independence as a monarchy was declared in 1949 and recognized by France in 1953. It became a republic in 1970. Civil war from 1970 until 1975 ended in victory for the the communists, the Khmer Rouge. The country was invaded by Vietnamese troops in 1978 and a new government established. The Khmer Rouge continues guerilla activities. # K Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos # 181040 176520 4520 2572 Laos 541 km, Thailand 803 km, Vietnam 1,228 km # 443 24 200 nm # 200 ? 12 tropical; rainy, monsoon season (May to November); dry season (December to April); little seasonal temperature variation # mostly low, flat plains; mountains in southwest and north # Gulf of Thailand 0 m Phnum Aoral 1,810 m timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese, phosphates, hydropower potential # 13 0 11 66 10 920 monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts # logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand are resulting in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); deforestation; soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Marine Life Conservation, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 94 # Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping # a land of paddies and forests dominated by the Mekong River and Tonle Sap # 11339562 45 2611684 2533313 52 2729598 3119579 3 142836 202552 2.51 41.63 16.49 0 1.05 1.03 0.87 0.70 ? 106.76 47.99 46.64 49.41 5.81 Cambodian(s) Cambodian Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4% # Theravada Buddhism 95%, other 5% # Khmer (official), French # age 15 and over can read and write # 35 48 22 Kingdom of Cambodia Cambodia Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea # Kampuchea .kh multiparty liberal democracy under a constitutional monarchy established Phnom Penh 20 provinces (khett, singular and plural) and 3 municipalities* (krong, singular and plural); Banteay Mean Cheay, Batdambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Spoe, Kampong Thum, Kampot, Kandal, Kaoh Kong, Keb*, Kracheh, Mondol Kiri, Otdar Mean Cheay, Phnum Penh*, Pouthisat, Preah Seihanu* (Sihanoukville), Preah Vihear, Prey Veng, Rotanah Kiri, Siem Reab, Stoeng Treng, Svay Rieng, Takev note: there may be a new municipality called Pailin # ? # Independence Day, 9 November 1949 promulgated 21 September 1993 # currently being defined # 18 years of age; universal # King Norodom SIHANOUK (reinstated 24 September 1993) # power shared between First Prime Minister UNG HUOT (since NA August 1997) and Second Prime Minister HUN SEN (since NA 1993); note - former First Prime Minister Prince Norodom RANARIDDH deposed in July 1997 by forces loyal to HUN SEN # Council of Ministers appointed by the king # none; the king is a constitutional monarch; prime ministers appointed by the king # ? # unicameral National Assembly (120 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held 23 May 1993 (next to be held 26 July 1998) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FUNCINPEC 58, CPP 51, BLDP 10, MOLINAKA 1 note: the May 1993 elections were for the Constituent Assembly which became the National Assembly after the new constitution was promulgated in September 1993 # Supreme Council of the Magistracy, provided for in the constitution, was formed in December 1997 # National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCINPEC), Prince NORODOM RANARIDDH; Cambodian Pracheachon Party or Cambodian People's Party (CPP), CHEA SIM; Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party (BLDP), SON SANN; Buddhist Liberal Party (BLP), IENG MOULY; National Solidarity Party (also known as Democratic Kampuchea, also known as the Khmer Rouge), KHIEU SAMPHAN; Movement Pour La Liberation Nationale Khmere (MOLINAKA), PROM NEAKAREACH; Khmer Nation Party (KNP), SAM RANGSI # ? # ACCT, AsDB, ASEAN (observer), CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) # three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band # After four years of solid macroeconomic performance, Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in 1997 due to the twin shocks of the regional economic crisis and the July violence and political infighting. Economic growth fell from 6.5% in 1996 to 1.5% in 1997, foreign investment slowed, and tourism declined 16% from 1996 levels. Despite these difficulties, inflation accelerated only slightly to 9.5%; the government managed to keep the national budget in balance even with increased expenditures on the military and police; and the economy ran a small balance of payments surplus. The future payments could be adversely affected by the currency crises in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, which tends to make Cambodia's exports more expensive at the same time imports from these countries become cheaper. The long-term development of the economy after decades of war remains a daunting challenge. Human resource levels in the population are low, particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside. The almost total lack of basic infrastructure in the countryside will continue to hinder development. Recurring political instability hinders foreign investment. Corruption and inexperience among Cambodia's government officials will serve as a further drag on the economy. # 1.50 300 3402 47.30 15.40 37.30 9.50 2750000 agriculture 80% (1997 est.) # ? 261 496 rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles # 7 0.04 190 18 rice, rubber, corn, vegetables # 615 timber, garments, rubber, soybeans, sesame # Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, US # 1000 cigarettes, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery, motor vehicles # Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia # 2200 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 new riel (CR) = 100 sen # 3537 calendar year 7000 NA # landline international service limited to Vietnam and other adjacent countries; satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean Region) # 1 10 0 ? 5 800000 603 # # 603 km 1.000-m gauge # # 35769 4,165 km # 31,604 km (1997 est.) # 3700 ? ? ? Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville), Kampot, Krong Kaoh Kong, Phnom Penh # 87 390566 556743 bulk 10, cargo 66, container 2, livestock carrier 2, oil tankers 3, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 3 # 20 7 ? 2 2 3 ? 13 ? ? 3 10 ? 3 Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF) - created in 1993 by the merger of the Cambodian People's Armed Forces and the two noncommunist resistance armies # 18 years of age # 2477842 1381787 113098 160000000 ? offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam are in dispute; maritime boundary with Vietnam not defined; parts of border with Thailand are indefinite; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined # transshipment site for Golden Triangle heroin en route to West; possible money-laundering; high-level narcotics-related corruption reportedly involving government, military, and police; possible small-scale opium, heroin, and amphetamine production; large producer of cannabis for the international market # @Cameroon 0 O Cameroun berceau de nos ancΦtres, va debout et jaloux de ta libertΘ, comme un soleil ton drapeau fier doit etre, un symbole ardent de foi et d'unitΘ, Chorus: ChΦre Patrie, Terre cherie, Tu es notre seul et vrai bonheur, Notre joie,notre vie, En toi l'amour et le grand honneur. Que tous tes enfants du Nord et Sud, De l'Est a l'Ouest soit tout amour, Te servir que ce soit le seul but, pour remplir leur devoir toujour; Chorus: ChΦre Patrie, Terre cherie, Tu es notre seul et vrai bonheur, Notre joie,notre vie, En toi l'amour et le grand honneur. # Little is known of the early history of Cameroon. Its coast was visited in 1472 by the Portuguese navigator, Fernπo do P∙. The estuary of the river Wouri was named Rio dos Camaroφs, later adopted as the name of the whole of the country. Germany established the colony of Kamerun in 1884. In 1918 the area was divided: the western part became British and the eastern became French. French Cameroon became independent on 1 January 1960. Part of British Cameroon joined Nigeria in 1961, the other part joining Cameroon. # CAM Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria # 475440 469440 6000 4591 Central African Republic 797 km, Chad 1,094 km, Republic of the Congo 523 km, Equatorial Guinea 189 km, Gabon 298 km, Nigeria 1,690 km # 402 ? ? # ? ? 50 varies with terrain, from tropical along coast to semiarid and hot in north # diverse, with coastal plain in southwest, dissected plateau in center, mountains in west, plains in north # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Fako 4,095 m petroleum, bauxite, iron ore, timber, hydropower potential # 13 2 4 78 3 210 recent volcanic activity with release of poisonous gases # water-borne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 # Nuclear Test Ban # sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa # 15029433 46 3468861 3436814 51 3795748 3829824 3 224881 273305 2.81 42.06 13.96 0 1.03 1 0.99 0.82 ? 76.88 51.44 49.90 53.03 5.86 Cameroonian(s) Cameroonian Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1% # indigenous beliefs 51%, Christian 33%, Muslim 16% # 24 major African language groups, English (official), French (official) # age 15 and over can read and write # 63.40 75 52.10 Republic of Cameroon Cameroon ? # ? .cm unitary republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties Yaounde 10 provinces; Adamaoua, Centre, Est, Extreme-Nord, Littoral, Nord, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Ouest # ? # National Day, 20 May (1972) 20 May 1972 # based on French civil law system, with common law influence; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 21 years of age; universal # President Paul BIYA (since 6 November 1982) # Prime Minister Peter Mafany MUSONGE (since 19 September 1996) # Cabinet appointed by the president # president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 12 October 1997 (next to be held NA October 2004); prime minister appointed by the president # President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul BIYA 93%; note - supporters of the opposition candidates boycotted the elections, making a comparison of vote shares relatively meaningless # unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature) # last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CDPM 109, SDF 43, UNDP 13, UDC 5, UPC-K 1, MDR 1, MLJC 1; note - 7 contested seats will be filled in an election at a time to be set by the Supreme Court note: the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called Senate, which the government says will be established in 1998 # Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president # Cameroon People's Democratic Movement or CPDM (government-controlled and the only party until legalization of opposition parties in 1990) [Paul BIYA, president] major opposition parties: Cameroonian Democratic Union or UDC [Adamou NDAM NJOYA]; Movement for the Defense of the Republic or MDR [Dakole DAISSALA, leader]; Movement for the Youth of Cameroon or MLJC [ Marcel YANDO, leader]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Maigari BELLO BOUBA, chairman]; Social Democratic Front or SDF [John FRU NDI, leader]; Union of Cameroonian Populations or UPC [Augustin Frederick KODOG, leader]; Union of Cameroonian Democratic Forces or UFOC [Victorin Hameni BIELEU] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, C, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, PCA, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia # Because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Still, it faces many of the serious problems facing other underdeveloped countries, such as a top-heavy civil service and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. The development of the oil sector led to rapid economic growth between 1970 and 1985. Growth came to an abrupt halt in 1986, precipitated by steep declines in the prices of major exports: petroleum, coffee, and cocoa. Export earnings were cut by almost one-third, and inefficiencies in fiscal management were exposed. Since 1990, the government has embarked on various IMF and World Bank programs designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture, improve trade, and recapitalize the nation's banks. The government, however, failed to press forward vigorously with these programs. The latest enhanced structural adjustment agreement was signed in October 1997; the parties hope this will prove more successful, yet government mismanagement remains a problem. Inflation, which rose to 48% after the devaluation of 1994, has been brought back under control. Progress toward privatization of remaining state industry remains slow. President BIYA's new government of December 1997 has replaced old hands in the government economic control structure with promising technocrats. # 5 650 9769 32 27 41 3 ? ? # ? 2230 2230 petroleum production and refining, food processing, light consumer goods, textiles, lumber # ? 0.63 2715 201 coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, root starches; livestock; timber # 1900.00 crude oil and petroleum products, lumber, cocoa beans, aluminum, coffee, cotton # EU (particularly France, Italy, and Spain) about 60%, African countries, Korea, Taiwan, and China # 1500 machines and electrical equipment, food, consumer goods, transport equipment, petroleum products # EU (France 40%), African countries, US 7% # 10000 ? # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes # 608.36 1 July - 30 June 36737 cable, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 11 11 0 2000000 1 ? 1104 # # 1,104 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.) # # 34300 4,288 km # 30,012 km (1995 est.) # 2090 ? ? ? Bonaberi, Douala, Garoua, Kribi, Tiko # 2 24122 33509 ? # 52 11 2 4 3 1 1 41 ? ? 8 19 14 ? Army, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard # 18 years of age # 3287626 1663852 160640 102000000 ? demarcation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries in the vicinity of the Bakasi Peninsula has been referred to the ICJ with a ruling expected in 1998 # ? # @Canada 0 O Canada! Our home and native land! True patriot love in all thy sons command. With glowing hearts we see thee rise, The True North strong and free! From far and wide, O Canada,we stand on guard for thee. God keep our land glorious and free! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. O Canada, we stand on guard for thee. # Vikings are believed to have reached the Atlantic coast of Canada centuries before it was sighted by the English seaman John Cabot, in 1497. The French declared New France a colony in 1663, after having established Quebec City (1608) and Montreal (1642). The British gained control of New France in 1763. The British North American (BNA) act of 1867 proclaimed the Dominion of Canada, consisting of Ontario, Quebec, and the former colonies of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The BNA act established a federal system of government, based on the British parliament and cabinet, under the crown. Canada was proclaimed a self-governing Dominion within the British Empire in December 1931. Canada severed its last legislative link with Britain in 1982 by obtaining the right to amend its constitution (the BNA). # CDN Northern North America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and North Pacific Ocean, north of the conterminous US # 9976140 9220970 755170 8893 US 8,893 km (includes 2,477 km with Alaska) # 243791 ? 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin # ? 200 12 varies from temperate in south to subarctic and arctic in north # mostly plains with mountains in west and lowlands in southeast # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mount Logan 5,950 m nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, potash, silver, fish, timber, wildlife, coal, petroleum, natural gas # 5 0 3 54 38 7100 continuous permafrost in north is a serious obstacle to development; cyclonic storms form east of the Rocky Mountains, a result of the mixing of air masses from the Arctic, Pacific, and North American interior, and produce most of the country's rain and snow # air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affecting lakes and damaging forests; metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impacting on agricultural and forest productivity; ocean waters becoming contaminated due to agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling # Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation # second-largest country in world (after Russia); strategic location between Russia and US via north polar route; nearly 90% of the population is concentrated within 160 km of the US/Canada border # 30675398 20 3106331 2961328 68 10457686 10328953 12 1619704 2201396 1.09 12.12 7.25 6.03 1.05 1.05 1.01 0.74 ? 5.59 79.16 75.86 82.63 1.65 Canadian(s) Canadian British Isles origin 40%, French origin 27%, other European 20%, Amerindian 1.5%, other, mostly Asian 11.5% # Roman Catholic 45%, United Church 12%, Anglican 8%, other 35% (1991) # English (official), French (official) # age 15 and over can read and write # 97 ? ? none Canada ? # ? .ca federation with parliamentary democracy Ottawa 10 provinces and 2 territories*; Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory* note: the Northwest Territories will be split in two as of April 1999; the eastern section, which will be self-governing, will be renamed Nunavut, the west is as yet unnamed # ? # Canada Day, 1 July (1867) 17 April 1982 (Constitution Act); originally, the machinery of the government was set up in the British North America Act of 1867; charter of rights and unwritten customs # based on English common law, except in Quebec, where civil law system based on French law prevails; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Romeo LeBLANC (since 8 February 1995) # Prime Minister Jean CHRETIEN (since 4 November 1993) # Federal Ministry chosen by the prime minister from among the members of his own party sitting in Parliament # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor general appointed by the queen on the advice of the prime minister for a five-year term; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is automatically designated by the governor general to become prime minister # ? # bicameral Parliament or Parlement consists of the Senate or Senat (a body whose members are appointed to serve until reaching 75 years of age by the governor general and selected on the advice of the prime minister; its normal limit is 104 senators) and the House of Commons or Chambre des Communes (301 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) # House of Commons - last held 2 June 1997 (next to be held by NA June 2002) # percent of votes by party - Liberal Party 38%, Reform Party 19%, Tories 19%, Bloc Quebecois 11%, New Democratic Party 11%, other 2%; seats by party - Liberal Party 155, Reform Party 60, Bloc Quebecois 44, New Democratic Party 21, Progressive Conservative Party 20, independents 1 # Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the prime minister through the governor general # Liberal Party [Jean CHRETIEN]; Bloc Quebecois [Gilles DUCEPPE]; Reform Party [Preston MANNING]; New Democratic Party [Alexa MCDONOUGH]; Progressive Conservative Party [Jean CHAREST] # ? # ACCT, AfDB, AG (observer), APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, C, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE (observer), CP, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, ESA (cooperating state), FAO, G- 7, G- 8, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MIPONUH, MTCR, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS, OECD, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMOP, UNPREDEP, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC # three vertical bands of red (hoist side), white (double width, square), and red with a red maple leaf centered in the white band # As an affluent, high-tech industrial society, Canada today closely resembles the US in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards. Since World War II, the impressive growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. Canada started the 1990s in recession, and real rates of growth have averaged only 1.1% so far this decade. Because of slower growth, Canada still faces high unemployment - especially in Quebec and the Maritime Provinces - and a large public sector debt. With its great natural resources, skilled labor force, and modern capital plant, however, Canada will enjoy better economic prospects in the future. The continuing constitutional impasse between English- and French-speaking areas is raising the possibility of a split in the federation, making foreign investors somewhat edgy. # 3.50 19290 591728 3 31 66 1.80 15300000 services 75%, manufacturing 16%, agriculture 3%, construction 5%, other 1% (1997) # 8.60 106500 117200 processed and unprocessed minerals, food products, wood and paper products, transportation equipment, chemicals, fish products, petroleum and natural gas # 1.70 113.65 532640 17448 wheat, barley, oilseed, tobacco, fruits, vegetables; dairy products; forest products; commercial fisheries provide annual catch of 1.5 million metric tons, of which 75% is exported # 208600 newsprint, wood pulp, timber, crude petroleum, machinery, natural gas, aluminum, motor vehicles and parts; telecommunications equipment # US, Japan, UK, Germany, South Korea, Netherlands, China # 194400 crude oil, chemicals, motor vehicles and parts, durable consumer goods, computers; telecommunications equipment and parts # US, Japan, UK, Germany, France, Mexico, Taiwan, South Korea # 253000.00 ? # ODA, $1.6 billion (1995) # 1 Canadian dollar (Can$) = 100 cents # 1.44 1 April - 31 March 15300000 domestic satellite system with about 300 earth stations # 5 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) and 2 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean Region) # 900 29 0 ? 70 11530000 72963 # 72,963 km 1.435-m gauge (183 km electrified) (1996) # # # 1021000.00 358,371 km (including 19,000 km of expressways) # 662,629 km (1995 est.) # 3000 ? ? 74980 Becancour (Quebec), Churchill, Halifax, Hamilton, Montreal, New Westminster, Prince Rupert, Quebec, Saint John (New Brunswick), Saint John's (Newfoundland), Sept Isles, Sydney, Trois-Rivieres, Thunder Bay, Toronto, Vancouver, Windsor # 57 638267 902923 bulk 10, cargo 9, chemical tanker 4, oil tanker 16, passenger 2, passenger-cargo 1, railcar carrier 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 7, short-sea passenger 5, specialized tanker 1 # 1393 515 17 16 149 240 93 878 ? ? 73 350 455 17 Canadian Armed Forces (includes Land Forces Command or LC, Maritime Command or MC, Air Command or AC, Communications Command or CC, Training Command or TC), Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) # 17 years of age # 8200963 7033996 209679 7100000000 1.20 maritime boundary disputes with the US (Dixon Entrance, Beaufort Sea, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Machias Seal Island) # illicit producer of cannabis for the domestic drug market; use of hydroponics technology permits growers to plant large quantities of high-quality marijuana indoors; growing role as a transit point for heroin and cocaine entering the US market # @Cape Verde 0 ? # Sources disagree about who discovered the Cape Verde islands. Candidates are the Portuguese Diego Gomes in 1445, and the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto in 1450 (the dates are also not agreed upon). In 1462, Portuguese settlers arrived at Santiago and founded Ribeira Grande (now Cidade Velha)--the first permanent European settlement city in the tropics. In the 16th century, the archipelago prospered from the transatlantic slave trade. Pirates occasionally attacked the Portuguese settlements. Sir Francis Drake sacked Ribeira Grande in 1585. After a French attack in 1712, the city declined in importance relative to Praia, which became the capital in 1770. <P> The archipelago has experienced recurrent drought and famine since the end of the 18th century, and, with the decline in the slave trade, its fragile prosperity slowly vanished. However, the islands' position astride mid-Atlantic shipping lanes made Cape Verde an ideal location for resupplying ships. Because of its excellent harbor, Mindelo (on the island of Sπo Vicente) became an important commercial center during the 19th century. <P> Portugal changed Cape Verde's status from a colony to an overseas province in 1951 in an attempt to blunt growing nationalism. Nevertheless, in 1956, Amilcar Cabral, a Cape Verdean, and Rafael Barbosa organized (in Guinea-Bissau) the clandestine African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde (PAIGC), which demanded improvement in economic, social, and political conditions in Cape Verde and Portuguese Guinea and formed the basis of the two nations' independence movement. Moving its headquarters to Conakry, Guinea in 1960, the PAIGC began an armed rebellion against Portugal in 1961. Acts of sabotage eventually grew into a war in Portuguese Guinea that pitted 10,000 Soviet bloc-supported PAIGC soldiers against 35,000 Portuguese and African troops. <P> By 1972, the PAIGC controlled much of Portuguese Guinea despite the presence of the Portuguese troops. For logistical reasons, the organization did not attempt to disrupt Portuguese control in Cape Verde. Following the April 1974 revolution in Portugal, however, the PAIGC became an active political movement in Cape Verde. <P> In December 1974, the PAIGC and Portugal signed an agreement providing for a transitional government composed of Portuguese and Cape Verdeans. On June 30, 1975, Cape Verdeans elected a National Assembly, which received the instruments of independence from Portugal on July 5, 1975. <P> Immediately following a November 1980 coup in Guinea-Bissau (Portuguese Guinea declared independence in 1973 and was granted "de jure" independence in 1974), relations between the two countries became strained. Cape Verde abandoned its hope for unity with Guinea-Bissau and formed the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV). Problems have since been resolved, and relations between the countries are good. The PAICV and its predecessor established a one-party system and ruled Cape Verde from independence until 1990. <P> Responding to growing pressure for a political opening, the PAICV called an emergency congress in February 1990 to discuss proposed constitutional changes to end one-party rule. Opposition groups came together to form the Movement for Democracy (MpD) in Praia in April 1990. Together, they campaigned for the right to contest the presidential election scheduled for December 1990. The one-party state was abolished September 28, 1990, and the first multi-party elections were held in January 1991. The MpD won a majority of the seats in the National Assembly, and the MpD presidential candidate Mascarenhas Monteiro defeated the PAICV's candidate by 73.5% of the votes cast to 26.5%. Legislative elections in December 1995 increased the MpD majority in the National Assembly. The party now holds 50 of the National Assembly's 72 seats. A February 1996 presidential election returned President Mascarenhas Monteiro to office. The December 1995 and February 1996 elections were judged free and fair by domestic and international observers. # CV Western Africa, group of Islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Senegal # 4030 4030 0 ? ? # 965 ? ? # 200 ? 12 temperate; warm, dry summer; precipitation meager and very erratic # steep, rugged, rocky, volcanic # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Pico 2,829 m salt, basalt rock, pozzuolana (a siliceous volcanic ash used to produce hydraulic cement), limestone, kaolin, fish # 11 0 6 0 83 30 prolonged droughts; harmattan wind can obscure visibility; volcanically and seismically active # overgrazing of livestock and improper land use such as the cultivation of crops on steep slopes has led to soil erosion; demand for wood used as fuel has resulted in deforestation; desertification; environmental damage has threatened several species of birds and reptiles; overfishing # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban # none of the selected agreements # strategic location 500 km from west coast of Africa near major north-south sea routes; important communications station; important sea and air refueling site # 399857 46 92175 90557 48 90183 102541 6 9765 14636 1.49 34.47 7.04 -12.54 1.03 1.01 0.87 0.66 ? 47.53 70.50 67.21 73.89 5.08 Cape Verdean(s) Cape Verdean Creole (mulatto) 71%, African 28%, European 1% # Roman Catholicism fused with indigenous beliefs # Portuguese, Crioulo, a blend of Portuguese and West African words # age 15 and over can read and write # 71.60 81.40 63.80 Republic of Cape Verde Cape Verde Republica de Cabo Verde # Cabo Verde .cv republic Praia 14 districts (concelhos, singular - concelho); Boa Vista, Brava, Fogo, Maio, Paul, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, Sao Nicolau, Sao Vicente, Tarrafal note: there may be a new administrative structure of 16 districts (Boa Vista, Brava, Maio, Mosteiros, Paul, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, Sao Domingos, Sao Nicolau, Sao Filipe, Sao Vicente, Tarrafa) # ? # Independence Day, 5 July (1975) new constitution came into force 25 September 1992 # derived from the legal system of Portugal # 18 years of age; universal # President Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (since 22 March 1991) # Prime Minister Carlos Alberto Wahnon de Carvalho VEIGA (since 13 January 1991) # Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister from among the members of the National Assembly # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 February 1996 (next to be held NA February 2001); prime minister nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the president # Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro elected president; percent of vote - Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (independent) 80.1% # unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (72 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held 17 December 1995 (next to be held NA 2000) # percent of vote by party - MPD 59%, PAICV 28%, PCD 6%; seats by party - MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1 # Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Supremo Tribunal de Justia # Movement for Democracy or MPD [Prime Minister Carlos VEIGA, founder and president]; African Party for Independence of Cape Verde or PAICV [Pedro Verona Rodrigues PIRES, chairman]; Party for Democratic Convergence or PCD; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Joao ALEM, president] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OAU, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO, WTrO (applicant) # three horizontal bands of light blue (top, double width), white (with a horizontal red stripe in the middle third), and light blue; a circle of 10 yellow five-pointed stars is centered on the hoist end of the red stripe and extends into the upper and lower blue bands # Cape Verde's low per capita GDP reflects a poor natural resource base, serious water shortages exacerbated by cycles of long-term drought, and a high birth rate. The economy is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for almost 70% of GDP. Although nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas, the share of agriculture in GDP in 1995 was only 8%, of which fishing accounts for 1.5%. About 90% of food must be imported. The fishing potential, mostly lobster and tuna, is not fully exploited. Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and remittances from emigrants; remittances constitute a supplement to GDP of more than 20%. Economic reforms, launched by the new democratic government in 1991, are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy. Prospects for 1998 depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, remittances, and the momentum of the government's development program. # 4.50 1090 436 8 18 74 6.20 ? ? # ? 188 228 food and beverages, fish processing, shoes and garments, salt mining, ship repair, # ? 0.01 40 92 bananas, corn, beans, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, coffee, peanuts; fish # 12.80 shoes, garments, fish, bananas, hides, # Portugal, Spain, France, UK # 237 foodstuffs, consumer goods, industrial products, transport equipment, fuels # Portugal 41%, Netherlands, France, Spain, US # 202 ODA, $70 million (1995) # ? # 1 Cape Verdean escudo (CVEsc) = 100 centavos # 95.40 calendar year 22900 interisland microwave radio relay system with both analog and digital exchanges; work is in progress on a submarine fiber-optic cable system scheduled for completion in 1998 # 2 coaxial submarine cables; HF radiotelephone to Senegal and Guinea-Bissau; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 1 6 0 ? 1 7000 ? # # # # 1100 858 km # 242 km (1995 est.) # ? ? ? ? Mindelo, Praia, Tarrafal # 4 9620 13920 cargo 3, chemical tanker 1 (1997 est.) # 6 6 1 ? ? 5 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? People's Revolutionary Armed Forces (FARP; includes Army and Navy), Security Service # ? # 81265 46235 ? 3400000 2.20 none # increasingly used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs moving from Latin America and Africa destined for Western Europe # @Cayman Islands United Kingdom Cayman Islands - O land of soft, fresh breezes And verdant trees so fair, With the Creator's glory Reflected ev'rywhere, O sea of palest em'rald, Merging to darkest blue, Whene'er my thoughts fly Godward, I always think of you. Dear, verdant island, set in blue Caribbean Sea, I'm coming, coming very soon, O beautious isle, to thee. Although I wandered far, My heart enshrines thee yet. Homeland, fair Cayman Isle, I cannot thee forget. - Away from noise of cities, Their fret and carking care, With moonbeams' soft caresses, Unchecked by garish glare, Thy fruit with rarest juices, Abundant, rich and free, When sweet church bells are chiming, My fond heart yearns for thee. - When tired of all excitement And glam'rous worldly care, How sweet thy shores to reach And find a welcome there, And when comes on the season Of peace, goodwill to man, 'Tis then I love thee best of all, Beloved Isle Cayman. # Three coral islands (Grand Cayman, Little Cayman and Cayman Brac) in the Carribean Sea, 240km northwest of Jamaica. A dependancy of Jamaica until 1962, now a British crown colony. Discovered by Columbus in 1503. # GB Caribbean, island group in Caribbean Sea, nearly one-half of the way from Cuba to Honduras # 260 260 0 ? ? # 160 ? ? # ? 200 12 tropical marine; warm, rainy summers (May to October) and cool, relatively dry winters (November to April) # low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs # Caribbean Sea 0 m The Bluff 43 m fish, climate and beaches that foster tourism # 0 0 8 23 69 ? hurricanes (July to November) # no natural fresh water resources, drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchment # NA # NA # important location between Cuba and Central America # 37716 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 4.22 13.95 4.98 33.20 ? ? ? ? ? 8.40 77.10 75.37 78.81 1.34 Caymanian(s) Caymanian mixed 40%, white 20%, black 20%, expatriates of various ethnic groups 20% # United Church (Presbyterian and Congregational), Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Church of God, other Protestant denominations # English # age 15 and over has ever attended school # 98 98 98 none Cayman Islands ? # ? .ky NA George Town 8 districts; Creek, Eastern, Midland, South Town, Spot Bay, Stake Bay, West End, Western # ? # Constitution Day (first Monday in July) 1959, revised 1972 and 1992 # British common law and local statutes # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952) # Governor and President of the Executive Council John Wynne OWEN (since 15 September 1995) # Executive Council (three members appointed by the governor, four members elected by the Legislative Assembly) # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; the governor is appointed by the queen # ? # unicameral Legislative Assembly (18 seats, 3 official members and 15 elected by popular vote; members serve four-year terms) # last held 20 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 2000) # percent of vote - NA; seats - National Team coalition 9, independents 6 # Grand Court; Cayman Islands Court of Appeal # no formal political parties # ? # Caricom (observer), CDB, Interpol (subbureau), IOC # blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms on a white disk centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a pineapple and turtle above a shield with three stars (representing the three islands) and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS # With no direct taxation, the Islands are a thriving offshore financial center; 28,000 foreign companies do business with the 600 registered banks and trust companies; banking assets exceed $500 billion. Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Total tourist arrivals exceeded 1 million visitors in 1995 and again in 1996. About 90% of the islands' food and consumer goods must be imported. The Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world. # 4.50 23120 872 1.40 3.20 95.40 2.10 8061 service workers 18.7%, clerical 18.6%, construction 12.5%, finance and investment 6.7%, directors and business managers 5.9% (1979) # 7 141.50 160.70 tourism, banking, insurance and finance, construction, construction materials, furniture # ? 0.07 230 6929 vegetables, fruit; livestock; turtle farming # 3.40 turtle products, manufactured consumer goods # mostly US # 333 foodstuffs, manufactured goods # US, Trinidad and Tobago, UK, Netherlands Antilles, Japan # ? ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Caymanian dollar (CI$) = 100 cents # 0.83 1 April - 31 March 21584 NA # 1 submarine coaxial cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 2 1 0 28200 1 6000 ? # # # # 406 304 km # 102 km # ? ? ? ? Cayman Brac, George Town # 54 751113 1139958 bulk 4, cargo 8, chemical tanker 4, container 5, oil tanker 6, refrigerated cargo 18, roll-on/roll-off cargo 7, specialized tanker 1, vehicle carrier 1 # 3 2 ? ? 2 1 ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? Royal Cayman Islands Police Force (RCIPF) # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # vulnerable to drug money-laundering and drug transshipment # @Central African Republic 0 La Renaissance O Centrafrique, ⌠ berceau des Bantous! Reprends ton droit au respect, α lavie! Longtemps soumis, longtemps brimΘ par tous, Mais de ce jour brisant la tyrannie, Dans le travail, l'ordre et la dignitΘ, Tu reconquiers ton droit, ton unitΘ, Et pour franchir cette Θtape nouvelle, De nos ancΩtres la voix nous apelle. CHORUS Au travail dans l'ordre et la dignitΘ, Dans le respect du droit dans l'unitΘ, Brisant la misΦre et la tyrannie, Brandissant l'Θtendard de la Patrie. # Little is known of the early history of this landlocked country. The slave trade flourished from the 17th to the 19th centuries and a large part of the native population fled. The region was almost empty when the Sudanese Banda and Baya tribes arrived in the 19th century. French control was asserted in the late 19th century, when the colony of Ubangi-Shari was established. The territory was expanded in 1908 to include Chad, and was called French Equatorial Africa. Internal self-government was achieved in 1957 and the name Central African Republic was adopted. Full independence came in 1960. Pres. Jean-Bedel Bokassa seized power in a 1965 coup. He proclaimed himself emperor in 1977. His cruel rule ended in a French-assisted bloodless coup in 1979. The deteriorating political and economic situation led to a further coup in 1981. # RCA Central Africa, north of Democratic Republic of the Congo # 622980 622980 0 5203 Cameroon 797 km, Chad 1,197 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,577 km, Republic of the Congo 467 km, Sudan 1,165 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? tropical; hot, dry winters; mild to hot, wet summers # vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest # Oubangui River 335 m Mount Gaou 1,420 m diamonds, uranium, timber, gold, oil # 3 0 5 75 17 ? hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common # tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification; deforestation # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 94 # Law of the Sea # landlocked; almost the precise center of Africa # 3375771 44 745128 737879 52 864263 906656 4 55051 66794 2.02 38.72 16.75 -1.78 1.03 1 0.95 0.82 ? 105.73 46.82 45.02 48.68 5.12 Central African(s) Central African Baya 34%, Banda 27%, Sara 10%, Mandjia 21%, Mboum 4%, M'Baka 4%, Europeans 6,500 (including 3,600 French) # indigenous beliefs 24%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15%, other 11% # French (official), Sangho (lingua franca and national language), Arabic, Hunsa, Swahili # age 15 and over can read and write # 60 68.50 52.40 Central African Republic none Republique Centrafricaine # none .cf republic Bangui 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture), 2 economic prefectures* (prefectures economiques, singular - prefecture economique), and 1 commune**; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui**, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui*, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, Kemo-Gribingui, Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha*, Vakaga # ? # National Day, 1 December (1958) (proclamation of the republic) passed by referendum 29 December 1994; adopted 7 January 1995 # based on French law # 21 years of age; universal # President Ange PATASSE (since 22 October 1993) # Prime Minister Anicet Georges DOLOGUELE # Council of Ministers # president elected by popular vote for a 6-year term; election last held 19 September 1993 (next to be held NA 1999); prime minister appointed by the president # Ange PATASSE elected president; percent of vote - PATASSE 52.45%, Abel GOUMBA 45.62% # unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (85 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held 19 September 1993 (next to be held NA 1998) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MLPC 34, RDC 13, PLD 7, FPP 7, ADP 6, PSD 3, CN 3, MDREC 1, PRC 1, FC 1, MESAN 1, independents supporting David DACKO 6, other independents 2 note: the National Assembly is advised by the Economic and Regional Council or Conseil Economique et Regional; when they sit together they are called the Congress or Congres # Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, judges appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, judges appointed by the president # Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [Tchapka BREDE]; Central African Democratic Assembly or RDC [Andre KOLINGBA]; Central African Republican Party or PRC; Civic Forum or FC [Gen. Timothee MALENDOMA]; Democratic Movement for the Renaissance and Evolution of Central Africa or MDREC [Joseph BENDOUNGA]; Liberal Democratic Party or PLD [Nestor KOMBO-NAGUEMON]; Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People or MLPC [the party of the president, Ange Felix PATASSE]; Movement for Democracy and Development or MDD [David DACKO]; National Convention or CN [David GALIAMBO]; Patriotic Front for Progress or FPP [Abel GOUMBA]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Enoch Derant LAKOUE]; Social Evolution Movement of Black Africa or MESAN [Prosper LAVODRAMA and Joseph NGBANGADIBO] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC (observer), UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in center; there is a yellow five-pointed star on the hoist side of the blue band # Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates half of GDP. Timber has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%. Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies. The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on 12 January 1994 had mixed effects on the CAR's economy. Diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased, leading an estimated rise of GDP of 7% in 1994 and nearly 5% in 1995. Military rebellions and social unrest in 1996 were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and a drop in GDP of 1%. Ongoing violence between the government and rebel military groups over pay issues, living conditions, and political representation has destroyed many businesses in the capital, reduced tax revenues for the government, and delayed negotiations for an IMF financial aid agreement. # ? 320 1080 50 14 36 4 ? ? # 6 638 1900.00 diamond mining, sawmills, breweries, textiles, footwear, assembly of bicycles and motorcycles # ? 0.04 100 31 cotton, coffee, tobacco, manioc (tapioca), yams, millet, corn, bananas; timber # 171 diamonds, timber, cotton, coffee, tobacco # France 16%, Belgium-Luxembourg 40.1%, Italy, Japan, US, Spain, Iran, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo # 174 food, textiles, petroleum products, machinery, electrical equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, consumer goods, industrial products # France 37%, other EU countries, Japan 24%, Algeria, Cameroon, Namibia # 890 ODA, $NA; traditional budget subsidies from France # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes # 608.36 calendar year 16867 network consists principally of microwave radio relay and low-capacity, low-powered radiotelephone communication # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 1 1 0 ? 1 7500 ? # # # # 23810 429 km # 23,381 km (1995 est.) # 800 ? ? ? Bangui, Nola # ? ? ? ? # 52 3 ? 1 2 23 15 49 ? 1 10 ? ? ? Central African Army (includes Republican Guard), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Police Force # ? # 763085 398617 ? 30000000 2.30 none # ? # @Chad 0 La Tchadienne CHORUS Peuple Tchadien, debout et α l'ouvrage! Tu as conquis ta terre et ton droit; Ta libertΘ naεtra de ton courage. LΦve les yeux, l'avenir est α Toi. O mon Pays, que Dieu te prenne en garde, Que tes voisons admirent tes enfants. Joyeux, pacifique, avance en chantant, FidΦle α tes anciens qui te regardent. CHORUS # Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures existed in Chad before the Sahara Desert was formed. Central and northern of Chad were under control of Islamic empires from the 9th century AD. French interest in the area began in 1860, but colonisation did not start until 1900, when the south was occupied. Chad was made a territory of French Equatorial Africa in 1910. It became independent in 1960. After enduring decades of civil warfare among ethnic groups as well as invasions by Libya, Chad got started toward a more stable state with the seizure of the government in early December 1990 by former northern guerrilla leader Idress DEBY. His transitional government eventually suppressed armed rebellion in all quarters of the country, settled the territorial dispute with Libya on terms favorable to Chad, produced a democratic constitution which was ratified by popular referendum in March 1996, held multiparty national presidential elections in June and July 1996 (DEBY won with 67% of the vote), and held multiparty elections to the National Assembly in January and February 1997, in which Idress DEBY's party, Patriotic Salvation Movement or MPS, won a majority of the seats. # TCH Central Africa, south of Libya # 1284000 1259200 24800 5968 Cameroon 1,094 km, Central African Republic 1,197 km, Libya 1,055 km, Niger 1,175 km, Nigeria 87 km, Sudan 1,360 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? tropical in south, desert in north # broad, arid plains in center, desert in north, mountains in northwest, lowlands in south # Djourab Depression 175 m Emi Koussi 3,415 m petroleum (unexploited but exploration under way), uranium, natron, kaolin, fish (Lake Chad) # 3 0 36 26 35 140 hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in north; periodic droughts; locust plagues # inadequate supplies of potable water; improper waste disposal in rural areas contributes to soil and water pollution; desertification # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands # Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping # landlocked; Lake Chad is the most significant water body in the Sahel # 7359512 44 1631010 1623272 53 1903012 1982257 3 97118 122843 2.66 43.45 16.86 0 1.04 1 0.96 0.79 ? 116.97 48.22 45.81 50.73 5.74 Chadian(s) Chadian Muslims (Arabs, Toubou, Hadjerai, Fulbe, Kotoko, Kanembou, Baguirmi, Boulala, Zaghawa, and Maba), non-Muslims (Sara, Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye, Moundang, Moussei, Massa), nonindigenous 150,000 (of whom 1,000 are French) # Muslim 50%, Christian 25%, indigenous beliefs (mostly animism) 25% # French (official), Arabic (official), Sara and Sango (in south), more than 100 different languages and dialects # age 15 and over can read and write in French or Arabic # 48.10 62.10 34.70 Republic of Chad Chad Republique du Tchad # Tchad .td republic N'Djamena 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture); Batha, Biltine, Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, Chari-Baguirmi, Guera, Kanem, Lac, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Mayo-Kebbi, Moyen-Chari, Ouaddai, Salamat, Tandjile # ? # Independence Day, 11 August (1960) 31 March 1995, passed by referendum # based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY (since 4 December 1990) # Prime Minister Nassour Guelengdouksia OUAIDOU (since 16 May 1997); appointed by the president; note - he was reappointed on 1 January 1998 when President DEBY named his new government # Council of State appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister # the constitution provides for the election of a president by direct popular vote to serve a term of five years; if no candidate receives at least 50% of the total vote, the two candidates receiving the most votes must stand for a second round of voting; last held 2 June and 11 July 1996 (next to be held NA 2001); the prime minister is appointed by the president # in the first round of voting none of the 15 candidates received the required 50% of the total vote; percent of vote, first round - Lt. Gen. Idress DEBY 47.8%; percent of vote, second round - Lt. Gen. DEBY 69.1%, Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE 30.9% # unicameral National Assembly (125 seats; members serve four-year terms); replaces the Higher Transitional Council or the Conseil Superieur de Transition # National Assembly - last held in two rounds on 5 January and 23 February 1997, (next to be held NA 2001); in the first round of voting on 5 January 1997 some candidates won clear victories by receiving 50% or more of the vote; where that did not happen, the two highest scoring candidates stood for a second round of voting # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MPS 65, URD 29, UNDR 15, RDP 3, others 13 # Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; Criminal Courts; Magistrate Courts # Patriotic Salvation Movement or MPS [Maldom Bada ABBAS, chairman], originally in opposition but now the party in power and the party of the president; National Union for Development and Renewal or UNDR [Saleh KEBZABO, leader]; Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP [Lal Mahamat CHOUA, leader]; Union for Renewal and Democracy or URD [Gen. Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE, leader]; note - in mid-1996 Chad had about 60 political parties, of which these are the most prominent in the new National Assembly # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flag of Andorra, which has a national coat of arms featuring a quartered shield centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France # Landlocked Chad's economic development suffers from it's geographic remoteness, drought, lack of infrastructure, and political turmoil. About 85% of the population depends on agriculture, including the herding of livestock. Of Africa's Francophone countries, Chad benefited least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies in January 1994. Financial aid from the World Bank, the African Development Fund, and other sources is directed largely at the improvement of agriculture, especially livestock production. Lack of financing, however, is stalling the development of a southern oil field and the construction of a proposed oil pipeline through Cameroon. # 5.50 240 1766 48 18 34 15 ? agriculture 85% (subsistence farming, herding, and fishing) # ? 198 218 cotton textiles, meat packing, beer brewing, natron (sodium carbonate), soap, cigarettes, construction materials # 5 0.03 80 14 cotton, sorghum, millet, peanuts, rice, potatoes, manioc (tapioca); cattle, sheep, goats, camels # 259 cotton, cattle, textiles # Portugal 30%, Germany 18%, South Africa 16%, France 7% # 301 machinery and transportation equipment 39%, industrial goods 20%, petroleum products 13%, foodstuffs 9%; textiles; note - excludes military equipment # France 34%, Cameroon 24%, Nigeria 7%, US 6% # 875 $125 million committed by Taiwan (August 1997); $30 million committed by African Development Bank # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes # 608.36 calendar year 5000 fair system of radiotelephone communication stations # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 6 1 0 ? 1 7000 ? # # # # 32700 262 km # 32,438 km (1995 est.) # 2000 ? ? ? none # ? ? ? ? # 53 6 1 2 2 21 1 47 ? ? 16 ? 10 ? Armed Forces (includes Ground Force, Air Force, and Gendarmerie), Republican Guard, Police # 20 years of age # 1645295 852705 68343 74000000 11.10 demarcation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria # ? # @Chile 0 Dulce Patria recibe los votos con que Chile en tus aras jur≤ que, o la tumba serßs de los libres, o el asilo contra la opresi≤n. 1.-Ha cesado, la lucha sangrienta ya es hermano, el que ayer opresor; del vasallo borramos la afrenta, combatiendo en el campo de honor. El que ayer doblegabase esclavo, hoy ya libre y triunfante se vΘ; Libertad es la herencia del bravo; la victoria se humilla a su piΘ. 2.-Alza, Chile, sin mancha la frente; conquistastes tu nombre en la lid; Siempre noble, constante, valiente te encontraron, los hijos del Cid. Que tus libres, tranquilos coronen a las artes, la industria, la paz y de triunfos cantares entonen que amedrenten al dΘspota audaz. 3.-Vuestros nombres valientes soldados, que habeis sido de Chile el sostΘn, nuestros pechos los llevan grabados... Lo sabrßn nuestros hijos tambiΘn. Sean ellos el grito de muerte que lancemos marchando a lidiar y sonando en la boca del fuerte, hagan siempre al tirano temblar. 4.Si pretende el ca±on extranjero nuestros pueblos osados invadir, desnudemos al punto el acero y sepamos vencer o morir. Con su sangre el altivo Araucano, nos leg≤ por herencia el valor, y no tiembla, la espada en la mano defendiendo de Chile el honor. 5.-Puro Chile es tu cielo azulado, puras brisas te cruzan tambiΘn, y tu campo de flores bordado, es la copia feliz del EdΘn. Majestuosa es la blanca monta±a que te di≤ por baluarte el Se±or y ese mar que tranquilo te ba±a, te promete un futuro esplendor. 6.-Esas galas, oh Patria, esas flores que tapizan tu suelo feraz, no las pisen jamßs invasores; con sus sombras, las cubra la paz. Nuestros pechos serßn tu baluarte, con tu nombre sabremos vencer o tu noble, glorioso estandarte nos verß combatiendo, caer. # About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indians settled in fertile valleys and along the coast of what is now Chile. The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the area's remoteness prevented extensive settlement. <P> In 1541, the Spanish, under Pedro de Valdivia, encountered hundreds of thousands of Indians from various cultures in the area that modern Chile now occupies. These cultures supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. <P> The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand--heir to the deposed king--was formed on September 18, 1810. Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during what was called the Reconquista led to a prolonged struggle under Bernardo O'Higgins, Chile's most renowned patriot. Chilean independence was formally proclaimed on February 12, 1818. <P> The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, family politics, and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. The system of presidential power eventually predominated, but wealthy landowners continued to control Chile. <P> Toward the end of the 19th century, government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by persistently suppressing the Mapuche Indians. In 1881, it signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879-83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. <P> Chile established a parliamentary-style democracy in the late 19th century, which tended to protect the interests of the ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. Continuing political and economic instability resulted in the quasi-dictatorial rule of General Carlos Ibanez (1924-32). <P> When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support developed. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932-52), the state increased its role in the economy. <P> The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei-Montalva (father of the current president) by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty," the Frei Administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. <P> In 1970, Dr. Salvador Allende, a Marxist and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the "Popular Unity" (UP) coalition of Socialists, Communists, Radicals, and dissident Christian Democrats, was elected by a narrow margin. His program included the nationalization of most remaining private industries and banks, massive land expropriation, and collectivization. Allende's proposal also included the nationalization of Chile's major copper mines. Elected with only 36% of the vote and by a plurality of only 36,000 votes, Allende never enjoyed majority support in the Chilean Congress or broad popular support. Domestic production declined, severe shortages of consumer goods, food, and manufactured products were widespread and inflation reached 1,000% per annum. Mass demonstrations, recurring strikes, violence by both government supporters and opponents, and widespread rural unrest aided by the C.I.A. ensued in response to the general deterioration of the economy. By 1973, Chilean society had split into two hostile camps. A military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. The C.I.A. publicly admitted it has helped this coup. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace, Allende reportedly committed suicide. Chile was ruled by a military regime headed by General Augusto Pinochet until 1990. The first years of the regime were marked by serious human rights violations. In its later years, however, the regime gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade-union activity. <P> In contrast to its authoritarian political rule, the military government pursued decidedly "laissez faire" economic policies. During its 16 years in power, Chile moved away from economic statism toward a largely free-market economy and that fostered an increase in domestic and foreign private investment. <P> General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as President in a national plebiscite in 1988. In December 1989, Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, running as the candidate of a multi-party, center-left coalition, was elected president. In the 1993 election, Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Christian Democratic Party was elected president for a 6-year term and took office in March 1994. In november 1998, Pinochet was arrested in United Kingdom. # RCH Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean and South Pacific Ocean, between Argentina and Peru # 756950 748800 8150 6171 Argentina 5,150 km, Bolivia 861 km, Peru 160 km # 6435 24 200 nm # 200 ? 12 temperate; desert in north; cool and damp in south # low coastal mountains; fertile central valley; rugged Andes in east # Pacific Ocean 0 m Cerro Aconcagua 6,962 m copper, timber, iron ore, nitrates, precious metals, molybdenum # 5 0 18 22 55 12650 severe earthquakes; active volcanism; tsunamis # air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage; deforestation contributing to loss of biodiversity; soil erosion; desertification # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # strategic location relative to sea lanes between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage); Atacama Desert is one of world's driest regions # 14787781 28 2134701 2043112 65 4768366 4811403 7 426924 603275 1.27 18.28 5.55 0 1.05 1.04 0.99 0.71 ? 10.39 75.16 72.01 78.48 2.30 Chilean(s) Chilean white and white-Amerindian 95%, Amerindian 3%, other 2% # Roman Catholic 89%, Protestant 11%, Jewish # Spanish # age 15 and over can read and write # 95.20 95.40 95 Republic of Chile Chile Republica de Chile # Chile .cl republic Santiago 13 regions (regiones, singular - region); Aisen del General Carlos Ibanez del Campo, Antofagasta, Araucania, Atacama, Bio-Bio, Coquimbo, Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins, Los Lagos, Magallanes y de la Antartica Chilena, Maule, Region Metropolitana, Tarapaca, Valparaiso note: the US does not recognize claims to Antarctica # ? # Independence Day, 18 September (1810) 11 September 1980, effective 11 March 1981; amended 30 July 1989 # based on Code of 1857 derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by French and Austrian law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal and compulsory # President Eduardo FREI Ruiz-Tagle (since 11 March 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Eduardo FREI Ruiz-Tagle (since 11 March 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet appointed by the president # president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 11 December 1993 (next to be held NA December 1999) # Eduardo FREI Ruiz-Tagle elected president; percent of vote - Eduardo FREI Ruiz-Tagle (PDC) 58%, Arturo ALESSANDRI 24.4%, other 17.6% # bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of the Senate or Senado (48 seats, 38 elected by popular vote; members serve eight-year terms - one-half elected every four years) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (120 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # Senate - last held 11 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2001); Chamber of Deputies - last held 11 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2001) # Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Coalition of Parties for Democracy 20 (PDC 14, PS 4, PPD 2), Union for the Progress of Chile 17 (RN 7, UDI 10), independent 10; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - Coalition of Parties for Democracy 50.55% (PDC 22.98%, PS 11.10%, PPD 12.55%, PRSD 3.13%), Union for the Progress of Chile 36.23% (RN 16.78%, UDI 14.43%); seats by party - Coalition of Parties for Democracy 70 (PDC 39, PPD 16, PRSD 4, PS 11), Union for the Progress of Chile 46 (RN 24, UDI 21, Party of the South 1), right-wing independents 4 # Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges are appointed by the president and ratified by the Senate from lists of candidates provided by the court itself; the president of the Supreme Court is elected by the 21-member court # Coalition of Parties for Democracy or CPD consists mainly of: Christian Democratic Party or PDC [Enrique KRAUSS]; Socialist Party or PS [Camilo ESCALONA]; Party for Democracy or PPD [Sergio BITAR]; Radical Social Democratic Party or PRSD [Anselmo SULE]; Union for the Progress of Chile or UPP consists mainly of two parties: National Renewal or RN [Alberto ESPINA]; Independent Democratic Union or UDI [Jovino NOVOA] # ? # APEC, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMOGIP, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center; design was based on the US flag # Chile has a prosperous, essentially free market economy. Civilian governments - which took over from the military in March 1990 - have continued to reduce the government's role in the economy while shifting the emphasis of public spending toward social programs. Growth in real GDP averaged more than 7.0% in 1991-1997, and inflation is nearing a 40-year low. Chile's currency and foreign reserves also are strong, as sustained foreign capital inflows - including significant direct investment - have more than offset current account deficits and public debt buybacks. President FREI, who took office in March 1994, has placed improving Chile's education system and developing foreign export markets at the top of his economic agenda. Despite this progress, the Chilean economy remains largely dependent on a few sectors - particularly copper mining, fishing, and forestry. Success in meeting the government's goal of sustained annual economic growth of 5% depends largely on world prices for these commodities, continued foreign investor confidence, and the government's ability to maintain a conservative fiscal stance. In 1996, Chile became an associate member of Mercosur and concluded a Free Trade Agreement with Canada. # 7.10 5020 74235 8 33 59 6 5700000 services 38.3% (includes government 12%), industry and commerce 33.8%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 19.2%, mining 2.3%, construction 6.4% (1990) # 6.10 17000 17000 copper, other minerals, foodstuffs, fish processing, iron and steel, wood and wood products, transport equipment, cement, textiles # 4.20 5.50 24500 1730 wheat, corn, grapes, beans, sugar beets, potatoes, fruit; beef, poultry, wool; timber; 1991 fish catch of 6.6 million metric tons # 16900.00 copper 37%, other metals and minerals 8.2%, wood products 7.1%, fish and fishmeal 9.8%, fruits 8.4% (1994) # EU 25%, US 15%, Asia 34%, Latin America 20% (1995 est.) # 18200 capital goods 25.2%, spare parts 24.8%, raw materials 15.4%, petroleum 10%, foodstuffs 5.7% (1994) # EU 18%, US 25%, Asia 16%, Latin America 26% (1995 est.) # 26700 ODA, $50.3 million (1996 est.) # ? # 1 Chilean peso (Ch$) = 100 centavos # 452.60 calendar year 1500000 extensive microwave radio relay links; domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 179 614 11 ? 11 2850000 6782 3,743 km 1.676-m gauge (1,653 km electrified) # # 116 km 1.067-m gauge; 2,923 km 1.000-m gauge (40 km electrified) (1995) # # 79800 11,012 km # 68,788 km (1996 est.) # 725 755 785 320 Antofagasta, Arica, Chanaral, Coquimbo, Iquique, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas, San Antonio, San Vicente, Talcahuano, Valparaiso # 39 473173 770619 bulk 12, cargo 9, chemical tanker 4, container 2, liquefied gas tanker 1, oil tanker 4, passenger 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 3, vehicle carrier 2 (1997 est.) # 380 52 5 5 18 18 6 328 1 4 15 74 234 ? Army of the Nation, National Navy (includes Naval Air, Coast Guard, and Marines), Air Force of the Nation, Carabineros of Chile (National Police), Investigations Police # 19 years of age # 3919465 2909927 128442 2800000000 3.50 short section of the southeastern boundary with Argentina is indefinite; Bolivia has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Bolivia over Rio Lauca water rights; territorial claim in Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) partially overlaps Argentine and British claims # a minor transshipment country for cocaine destined for the US and Europe; booming economy has made it more attractive to traffickers seeking to launder drug profits # @China 0 Latin Transliteration Qilai! Buyuan zuo nuli de renmen, Ba women de xuerou zhucheng women xin de changcheng. Zhonghua Minzu dao liao zui weixian de shihou, Meigeren beipo zhe fachu zuihou de housheng. Qilai! Qilai! Qilai! Women wanzhong yixin, Mao zhe diren de paohuo, Qianjin! Mao zhe diren de paohuo, Qianjin! Qianjin! Qianjin! Jin! # Dynastic Period <P> China is the oldest continuous major world civilization, with records dating back about 3,500 years. Successive dynasties developed a system of bureaucratic control which gave the agrarian-based Chinese an advantage over neighboring nomadic and hill cultures. Chinese civilization was further strengthened by the development of a Confucian state ideology and a common written language that bridged the gaps among the country's many local languages and dialects. Whenever China was conquered by nomadic tribes, as it was by the Mongols in the 13th century, the conquerors sooner or later adopted the ways of the "higher" Chinese civilization and staffed the bureaucracy with Chinese. <P> The last dynasty was established in 1644, when the nomadic Manchus overthrew the native Ming dynasty and established the Qing (Ch'ing) dynasty with Beijing as its capital. At great expense in blood and treasure, the Manchus over the next half century gained control of many border areas, including Xinjiang, Yunnan, Tibet, Mongolia, and Taiwan. The success of the early Qing period was based on the combination of Manchu martial prowess and traditional Chinese bureaucratic skills. <P> During the 19th century, Qing control weakened, and prosperity diminished. China suffered massive social strife, economic stagnation, explosive population growth, and Western penetration and influence. The Taiping and Nian rebellions, along with a Russian-supported Muslim separatist movement in Xinjiang, drained Chinese resources and almost toppled the dynasty. Britain's desire to continue its illegal opium trade with China collided with imperial edicts prohibiting the addictive drug, and the First Opium War erupted in 1840. China lost the war; subsequently, Britain and other Western powers, including the United States, forcibly occupied "concessions" and gained special commercial privileges. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain in 1842 under the Treaty of Nanking, and in 1898, when the Opium Wars finally ended, Britain executed a 99-year lease of the New Territories, significantly expanding the size of the Hong Kong colony. <P> As time went on, the Western powers, wielding superior military technology, gained more economic and political privileges. Reformist Chinese officials argued for the adoption of Western technology to strengthen the dynasty and counter Western advances, but the Qing court played down both the Western threat and the benefits of Western technology. <P> Early 20th Century China <P> Frustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform, young officials, military officers, and students--inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen--began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and creation of a republic. A revolutionary military uprising on October 10, 1911, led to the abdication of the last Qing monarch. As part of a compromise to overthrow the dynasty without a civil war, the revolutionaries and reformers allowed high Qing officials to retain prominent positions in the new republic. One of these figures, General Yuan Shikai, was chosen as the republic's first president. Before his death in 1916, Yuan unsuccessfully attempted to name himself emperor. His death left the republican government all but shattered, ushering in the era of the "warlords" during which China was ruled and ravaged by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders. <P> In the 1920s, Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in south China and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With Soviet assistance, he organized the Kuomintang (KMT or "Chinese Nationalist People's Party"), and entered into an alliance with the fledgling Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After Sun's death in 1925, one of his proteges, Chiang Kai-shek, seized control of the KMT and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CCP and executed many of its leaders. The remnants fled into the mountains of eastern China. In 1934, driven out of their mountain bases, the CCP's forces embarked on a "Long March" across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shaanxi Province. <P> During the "Long March," the Communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung). The bitter struggle between the KMT and the CCP continued openly or clandestinely through the 14-year long Japanese invasion (1931-45), even though the two parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese invaders in 1937. The war between the two parties resumed after the Japanese defeat in 1945. By 1949, the CCP occupied most of the country. <P> Chiang Kai-shek fled with the remnants of his KMT government and military forces to Taiwan, where he proclaimed Taipei to be China's "provisional capital" and vowed to reconquer the Chinese mainland. The KMT authorities on Taiwan still call themselves the "Republic of China." <P> The People's Republic of China <P> In Beijing, on October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China. The new government assumed control of a people exhausted by two generations of war and social conflict, and an economy ravaged by high inflation and disrupted transportation links. A new political and economic order modeled on the Soviet example was quickly installed. <P> In the early 1950s, China undertook a massive economic and social reconstruction. The new leaders gained popular support by curbing inflation, restoring the economy, and rebuilding many war-damaged industrial plants. The CCP's authority reached into almost every phase of Chinese life. Party control was assured by large, politically loyal security and military forces; a government apparatus responsive to party direction; and ranks of party members in labor, women's, and other mass organizations. <P> The "Great Leap Forward" and the Sino-Soviet Split <P> In 1958, Mao broke with the Soviet model and announced a new economic program, the "Great Leap Forward," aimed at rapidly raising industrial and agricultural production. Giant cooperatives (communes) were formed, and "backyard factories" dotted the Chinese landscape. The results were disastrous. Normal market mechanisms were disrupted, agricultural production fell behind, and China's people exhausted themselves producing what turned out to be shoddy, unsalable goods. Within a year, starvation appeared even in fertile agricultural areas. From 1960 to 1961, the combination of poor planning during the Great Leap Forward and bad weather resulted in famine. <P> The already strained Sino-Soviet relationship deteriorated sharply in 1959, when the Soviets started to restrict the flow of scientific and technological information to China. The dispute escalated, and the Soviets withdrew all of their personnel from China in August 1960. In 1960, the Soviets and the Chinese began to have disputes openly in international forums. <P> The Cultural Revolution <P> In the early 1960s, State President Liu Shaoqi and his protege, Party General Secretary Deng Xiaoping, took over direction of the party and adopted pragmatic economic policies at odds with Mao's revolutionary vision. Dissatisfied with China's new direction and his own reduced authority, Party Chairman Mao launched a massive political attack on Liu, Deng, and other pragmatists in the spring of 1966. The new movement, the "Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution," was unprecedented in Communist history. For the first time, a section of the Chinese Communist leadership sought to rally popular opposition against another leadership group. China was set on a course of political and social anarchy which lasted the better part of a decade. <P> In the early stages of the Cultural Revolution, Mao and his "closest comrade in arms," National Defense Minister Lin Biao, charged Liu, Deng, and other top party leaders with dragging China back toward capitalism. Radical youth organizations, called Red Guards, attacked party and state organizations at all levels, seeking out leaders who would not bend to the radical wind. In reaction to this turmoil, some local People's Liberation Army (PLA) commanders and other officials maneuvered to outwardly back Mao and the radicals while actually taking steps to rein in local radical activity. <P> Gradually, Red Guard and other radical activity subsided, and the Chinese political situation stabilized along complex factional lines. The leadership conflict came to a head in September 1971, when Party Vice Chairman and Defense Minister Lin Biao reportedly tried to stage a coup against Mao; Lin Biao allegedly later died in a plane crash in Mongolia. <P> In the aftermath of the Lin Biao incident, many officials criticized and dismissed during 1966-69 were reinstated. Chief among these was Deng Xiaoping, who reemerged in 1973 and was confirmed in 1975 in the concurrent posts of Politburo Standing Committee member, PLA Chief of Staff, and Vice Premier. <P> The ideological struggle between more pragmatic, veteran party officials and the radicals re-emerged with a vengeance in late 1975. Mao's wife, Jiang Qing, and three close Cultural Revolution associates (later dubbed the "Gang of Four") launched a media campaign against Deng. In January of 1976, Premier Zhou Enlai, a popular political figure, died of cancer. On April 5, Beijing citizens staged a spontaneous demonstration in Tiananmen Square in Zhou's memory, with strong political overtones in support of Deng. The authorities forcibly suppressed the demonstration. Deng was blamed for the disorder and stripped of all official positions, although he retained his party membership. <P> The Post-Mao Era <P> Mao's death in September 1976 removed a towering figure from Chinese politics and set off a scramble for succession. Former Minister of Pubic Security Hua Guofeng was quickly confirmed as Party Chairman and Premier. A month after Mao's death, Hua, backed by the PLA, arrested Jiang Qing and other members of the "Gang of Four." After extensive deliberations, the Chinese Communist Party leadership reinstated Deng Xiaoping to all of his previous posts at the 11th Party Congress in August 1977. Deng then led the effort to place government control in the hands of veteran party officials opposed to the radical excesses of the previous two decades. <P> The new, pragmatic leadership emphasized economic development and renounced mass political movements. At the pivotal December 1978 Third Plenum (of the 11th Party Congress Central Committee), the leadership adopted economic reform policies aimed at expanding rural income and incentives, encouraging experiments in enterprise autonomy, reducing central planning, and establishing direct foreign investment in China. The plenum also decided to accelerate the pace of legal reform, culminating in the passage of several new legal codes by the National People's Congress in June 1979. <P> After 1979, the Chinese leadership moved toward more pragmatic positions in almost all fields. The party encouraged artists, writers, and journalists to adopt more critical approaches, although open attacks on party authority were not permitted. In late 1980, Mao's Cultural Revolution was officially proclaimed a catastrophe. Hua Guofeng, a protege of Mao, was replaced as Premier in 1980 by reformist Sichuan party chief Zhao Ziyang and as party General Secretary in 1981 by the even more reformist Communist Youth League chairman Hu Yaobang. <P> Reform policies brought great improvements in the standard of living, especially for urban workers and for farmers who took advantage of opportunities to diversify crops and establish village industries. Literature and the arts blossomed, and Chinese intellectuals established extensive links with scholars in other countries. <P> At the same time, however, political dissent as well as social problems such as inflation, urban migration, and prostitution emerged. Although students and intellectuals urged greater reforms, some party elders increasingly questioned the pace and the ultimate goals of the reform program. In December of 1986, student demonstrators, taking advantage of the loosening political atmosphere, staged protests against the slow pace of reform, confirming party elders' fear that the current reform program was leading to social instability. Hu Yaobang, a protege of Deng and a leading advocate of reform, was blamed for the protests and forced to resign as CCP General Secretary in January 1987. Premier Zhao Ziyang was made General Secretary and Li Peng, former Vice Premier and Minister of Electric Power and Water Conservancy, was made Premier. <P> 1989 Student Movement and Tiananmen Square <P> After Zhao became the party General Secretary, the economic and political reforms he had championed came under increasing attack. His proposal in May 1988 to accelerate price reform led to widespread popular complaints about rampant inflation and gave opponents of rapid reform the opening to call for greater centralization of economic controls and stricter prohibitions against Western influence. This precipitated a political debate which grew more heated through the winter of 1988-89. <P> The death of Hu Yaobang on April 15, 1989, coupled with growing economic hardship caused by high inflation, provided the backdrop for a large scale protest movement by students, intellectuals, and other parts of a disaffected urban population. University students and other citizens in Beijing camped out at Tiananmen Square to mourn Hu's death and to protest against those who would slow reform. Their protests, which grew despite government efforts to contain them, called for an end to official corruption and for defense of freedoms guaranteed by the Chinese Constitution. Protests also spread through many other cities, including Shanghai and Guangzhou. <P> Martial law was declared on May 20, 1989. Late on July 3 and early on the morning of June 4, military units were brought into Beijing. They used armed force to clear demonstrators from the streets. There are no official estimates of deaths in Beijing, but most observers believe that casualties numbered in the hundreds. <P> After June 4, while foreign governments expressed horror at the brutal suppression of the demonstrators, the central government eliminated remaining sources of organized opposition, detained large numbers of protesters, and required political reeducation not only for students but also for large numbers of party cadre and government officials. <P> Following the resurgence of conservatives in the aftermath of June 4, economic reform slowed until given new impetus by Deng Xiaoping's dramatic visit to southern China in early 1992. Deng's renewed push for a market-oriented economy received official sanction at the 14th Party Congress later in the year as a number of younger, reform-minded leaders began their rise to top positions. Deng and his supporters argued that managing the economy in a way that increased living standards should be China's primary policy objective, even if "capitalist" measures were adopted. Subsequent to the visit, the Communist Party Politburo publicly issued an endorsement of Deng's policies of economic openness. Though not completely eschewing political reform, China has consistently placed overwhelming priority on the opening of its economy. <P> Third Generation of Leaders <P> Deng's health deteriorated in the years prior to his death in 1997. During that time, President Jiang Zemin and other members of his generation gradually assumed control of the day-to-day functions of government. This "third generation" leadership governs collectively with President Jiang at the center. <P> In March 1998, Jiang was re-elected President during the 9th National People's Congress. Premier Li Peng was constitutionally required to step down from that post. He was elected to the chairmanship of the National People's Congress. Zhu Rongji was selected to replace Li as Premier. <P> China is firmly committed to economic reform and opening to the outside world. The Chinese leadership has identified reform of state industries as a government priority. Government strategies for achieving that goal include large-scale privatization of unprofitable state-owned enterprises. The leadership has also downsized the government bureaucracy. # TJ Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam # 9596960 9326410 270550 22143.34 Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km # 14500 24 claim to shallow areas of East China Sea and Yellow Sea # ? ? 12 extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north # mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east # Turpan Pendi -154 m Mount Everest 8,848 m coal, iron ore, petroleum, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest) # 10 0 43 14 33 498720 frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts # air pollution (greenhouse gases, particulates) from the overwhelming use of high-sulfur coal as a fuel, produces acid rain which is damaging forests; water shortages experienced throughout the country, particularly in urban areas and in the north; future growth in water usage threatens to outpace supplies; water pollution from industrial effluents; much of the population does not have access to potable water; less than 10% of sewage receives treatment; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US) # 1236914658 26 169347516 149897253 68 431164591 404513208 6 38398920 43593170 0.83 15.73 6.99 -0.41 1.15 1.13 1.07 0.88 ? 45.46 69.59 68.32 71.06 1.80 Chinese (singular and plural) Chinese Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1% # Daoism (Taoism), Buddhism, Muslim 2%-3%, Christian 1% (est.) # Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic divisions entry) # age 15 and over can read and write # 81.50 89.90 72.70 People's Republic of China China Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo # Zhong Guo .cn Communist state Beijing 23 provinces (sheng, singular and plural), 5 autonomous regions* (zizhiqu, singular and plural), and 4 municipalities** (shi, singular and plural); Anhui, Beijing**, Chongqing**, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi*, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol*, Ningxia*, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai**, Shanxi, Sichuan, Tianjin**, Xinjiang*, Xizang* (Tibet), Yunnan, Zhejiang note: China considers Taiwan its 23rd province; see separate entry for the special administrative region of Hong Kong # ? # National Day, 1 October (1949) most recent promulgation 4 December 1982 # a complex amalgam of custom and statute, largely criminal law; rudimentary civil code in effect since 1 January 1987; new legal codes in effect since 1 January 1980; continuing efforts are being made to improve civil, administrative, criminal, and commercial law # 18 years of age; universal # President JIANG Zemin (since 27 March 1993) and Vice President HU Jintao (since 16 March 1998) # Premier ZHU Rongji (since 18 March 1998); Vice Premiers QIAN Qichen (since 29 March 1993), LI Lanqing (29 March 1993), WU Bangguo (since 17 March 1995), and WEN Jiabao (since 18 March 1998) # State Council appointed by the National People's Congress (NPC) # president and vice president elected by the National People's Congress for five-year terms; elections last held 16-18 March 1998 (next to be held NA March 2003); premier nominated by the president, confirmed by the National People's Congress # JIANG Zemin reelected president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,882 votes (36 delegates voted against him, 29 abstained, and 32 did not vote); HU Jintao elected vice president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,841 votes (67 delegates voted against him, 39 abstained, and 32 did not vote) # unicameral National People's Congress or Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (2,979 seats; members elected by municipal, regional, and provincial people's congresses to serve five-year terms) # last held NA December-NA February 1998 (next to be held late 2002-NA March 2003) # percent of vote - NA; seats - NA # Supreme People's Court, judges appointed by the National People's Congress # Chinese Communist Party (CCP), JIANG Zemin, General Secretary of the Central Committee; eight registered small parties controlled by CCP # ? # AfDB, APEC, AsDB, BIS (pending member), CCC, ESCAP, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (observer), PCA, UN, UN Security Council, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) # red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner # Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been trying to move the economy from a sluggish Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. The result has been a quadrupling of GDP since 1978. Agricultural output doubled in the 1980s, and industry also posted major gains, especially in coastal areas near Hong Kong and opposite Taiwan, where foreign investment helped spur output of both domestic and export goods. On the darker side, the leadership has often experienced in its hybrid system the worst results of socialism (bureaucracy, lassitude, corruption) and of capitalism (windfall gains and stepped-up inflation). Beijing thus has periodically backtracked, retightening central controls at intervals. In 1992-97 annual growth of GDP accelerated, particularly in the coastal areas - averaging about 10% annually according to official figures. In late 1993 China's leadership approved additional long-term reforms aimed at giving still more play to market-oriented institutions and at strengthening the center's control over the financial system; state enterprises would continue to dominate many key industries in what was now termed "a socialist market economy." In 1995-97 inflation dropped sharply, reflecting tighter monetary policies and stronger measures to control food prices. At the same time, the government struggled to (a) collect revenues due from provinces, businesses, and individuals; (b) reduce corruption and other economic crimes; and (c) keep afloat the large state-owned enterprises, most of which had not participated in the vigorous expansion of the economy and many of which have been losing the ability to pay full wages and pensions. From 60 to 100 million surplus rural workers are adrift between the villages and the cities, many subsisting through part-time low-paying jobs. Popular resistance, changes in central policy, and loss of authority by rural cadres have weakened China's population control program, which is essential to maintaining growth in living standards. Another long-term threat to continued rapid economic growth is the deterioration in the environment, notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table especially in the north. China continues to lose arable land because of erosion and economic development; furthermore, the regime gives insufficient priority to agricultural research. The next few years may witness increasing tensions between a highly centralized political system and an increasingly decentralized economic system. Rapid economic growth likely will continue but at a declining rate. Hong Kong's reversion on 1 July 1997 to Chinese administration will strengthen the already close ties between the two economies. # 8.80 860 1063747 20 49 31 2.80 623900000 agriculture and forestry 53%, industry and commerce 26%, construction and mining 7%, social services 4%, other 10% (1995) # 4 ? ? iron and steel, coal, machine building, armaments, textiles and apparel, petroleum, cement, chemical fertilizers, footwear, toys, food processing, autos, consumer electronics, telecommunications # 13 250 1135000 1100 rice, wheat, potatoes, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, other fibers, oilseed; pork and other livestock products; fish # 182700 electrical machinery, clothing, footwear, toys, mineral fuels, leather, plastics, fabrics (1997) # Hong Kong, US, Japan, South Korea, Germany, Netherlands (1997) # 142400.00 mechanical appliances, electrical machinery, mineral fuels, plastics, iron and steel, fabrics, cotton and yarn (1997) # Japan, Taiwan, US, South Korea, Hong Kong, Germany, Singapore (1997) # 131000.00 ODA, $1.977 billion (1993) # ? # 1 yuan (¥) = 10 jiao # 8.28 calendar year 89000000 interprovincial fiber-optic trunk lines and cellular telephone systems have been installed; a domestic satellite system with 55 earth stations is in place # satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean Region) and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean Regions); several international fiber-optic links to Japan, South Korea, and Hong Kong # 274 ? 0 216500000 202 75000000 64900 # 61,300 km 1.435-m gauge (10,400 km electrified; 18,540 km double track) # 3,600 km 0.750-m gauge local industrial lines (1998 est.) # # 1180000 241,300 km # 938,700 km (1998 est.) # 138600 9070 560 9383 Dalian, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Haikou, Huangpu, Lianyungang, Nanjing, Nantong, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shantou, Tianjin, Xiamen, Xingang, Yantai, Zhanjiang # 1708 16139185 24154260 barge carrier 2, bulk 313, cargo 858, chemical tanker 15, combination bulk 10, container 118, liquefied gas tanker 13, multifunction large-load carrier 5, oil tanker 231, passenger 6, passenger-cargo 45, refrigerated cargo 25, roll-on/roll-off cargo 24, short-sea passenger 43 # 206 192 18 65 90 13 6 14 ? ? 8 5 1 ? People's Liberation Army (PLA), which includes the Ground Forces, Navy (includes Marines and Naval Aviation), Air Force, Second Artillery Corps (the strategic missile force), People's Armed Police (internal security troops, nominally subordinate to Ministry of Public Security, but included by the Chinese as part of the "armed forces" and considered to be an adjunct to the PLA in wartime) # 18 years of age # 359057859 197553118 9553823 1998 ? boundary with India in dispute; two disputed sections of the boundary with Russia remain to be settled; most of the boundary with Tajikistan in dispute; 33-km section of boundary with North Korea in the Paektu-san (mountain) area is indefinite; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary dispute with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai), as does Taiwan; sections of land border with Vietnam are indefinite # major transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle; growing domestic drug abuse problem # @Christmas Island Australia ? # In the Indian Ocean, 360 km south of Java. Administered by Singapore from 1900 until 1958, now by Australia. # AUS Southeastern Asia, island in the Indian Ocean, south of Indonesia # 135 135 0 ? ? # 138.90 12 ? # ? 200 3 tropical; heat and humidity moderated by trade winds # steep cliffs along coast rise abruptly to central plateau # Indian Ocean 0 m Murray Hill 361 m phosphate # ? ? ? ? 100 ? the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard # NA # NA # NA # located along major sea lanes of Indian Ocean # 2195 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 7.77 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Christmas Islander(s) Christmas Island Chinese 61%, Malay 25%, European 11%, other 3%, no indigenous population # Buddhist 55%, Christian 15%, Muslim 10%, other 20% (1991) # English # ? # ? ? ? Territory of Christmas Island Christmas Island ? # ? .? NA The Settlement none (territory of Australia) # ? # NA Christmas Island Act of 1958 # under the authority of the governor general of Australia and Australian law # ? # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by the Australian governor general # Administrator (acting) Graham NICHOLLS (since NA) # ? # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia and represents the queen and Australia # ? # unicameral Christmas Island Shire Council (9 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve one-year terms) # last held NA December 1996 (next to be held NA December 1997) # percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 9 # Supreme Court # none # ? # none # the flag of Australia is used # Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the Australian Government closed the mine. In 1990, the mine was reopened by private operators. Australian-based Casinos Austria International Ltd. built a $45 million casino on Christmas Island. # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? tourism 400 people, mining 100 people # ? ? ? tourism, phosphate extraction (near depletion) # ? ? ? ? NA # ? phosphate # Australia, NZ # ? consumer goods # principally Australia # ? ? # ? # 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents # 1.53 1 July - 30 June ? NA # NA # 1 0 0 500 1 350 ? # # # # ? NA km # NA km # ? ? ? ? Flying Fish Cove # ? ? ? ? # 1 1 ? ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Clipperton Island France ? # # Middle America, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, 1,120 km southwest of Mexico # 7 7 0 ? ? # 11.10 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical, humid, average temperature 20-32 degrees C, rains May-October # coral atoll # Pacific Ocean 0 m Rocher Clipperton 29 m none # 0 0 0 0 100 0 subject to tornadoes # NA # NA # NA # reef about 8 km in circumference # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? none Clipperton Island none # Ile Clipperton .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # NA # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of France is used # Although 115 species of fish have been identified in the territorial waters of Clipperton Island, the only economic activity is a tuna fishing station. # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Cocos (Keeling) Islands Australia ? # # Southeastern Asia, group of islands in the Indian Ocean, south of Indonesia, about one-half of the way from Australia to Sri Lanka # 14 14 0 ? ? # 2.60 ? ? # ? 200 3 pleasant, modified by the southeast trade wind for about nine months of the year; moderate rainfall # flat, low-lying coral atolls # Indian Ocean 0 m unnamed location 5 m fish # ? ? ? ? 100 ? cyclones may occur in the early months of the year # fresh water resources are limited to rainwater accumulations in natural underground reservoirs # NA # NA # two coral atolls thickly covered with coconut palms and other vegetation # 637 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? -0.21 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Cocos Islander(s) Cocos Islander Europeans, Cocos Malays # Sunni Muslim 57%, Christian 22%, other 21% (1981 est.) # English, Malay # ? # ? ? ? Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands Cocos (Keeling) Islands ? # ? .cc NA West Island none (territory of Australia) # ? # NA Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act of 1955 # based upon the laws of Australia and local laws # NA # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by the Australian governor general # Administrator (acting) Maureen ELLIS (since NA) # NA # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia and represents the queen and Australia # ? # unicameral Cocos (Keeling) Islands Shire Council (NA seats) # ? # ? # Supreme Court # none # ? # WMO # the flag of Australia is used # Grown throughout the islands, coconuts are the sole cash crop. Copra and fresh coconuts are the major export earners. Small local gardens and fishing contribute to the food supply, but additional food and most other necessities must be imported from Australia. # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? copra products and tourism # ? ? ? ? vegetables, bananas, pawpaws, coconuts # ? copra # Australia # ? foodstuffs # Australia # ? ? # ? # 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents # 1.53 1 July - 30 June ? NA # telephone, telex, and facsimile communications with Australia and elsewhere via satellite; 1 satellite earth station of NA type # 1 0 0 300 0 ? ? # # # # ? NA km # NA km # ? ? ? ? none; lagoon anchorage only # ? ? ? ? # 1 1 ? ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Colombia 0 Coro: Oh gloria inmarcesible ! Oh J·bilo inmortal ! En surcos de dolores El bien germina ya ! Ces≤ la horrible noche ! la libertad sublime derrama las auroras de su invencible luz. La humanidad entera, que entre cadenas gime, comprende las palabras del que muri≤ en la cruz. Independencia grita el mundo americano; se ba±a en sangre de hΘroes la tierra de Col≤n. Pero este gran principio: el Rey no es soberano, resuena, y los que sufren bendicen su pasi≤n. Del Orinoco el cauce se colma de despojos; de sangre y llanto un rφo se mira allφ correr. En Bßrbula no saben las almas ni los ojos, si admiraci≤n o espanto sentir o padecer. A orillas del caribe hambriento un pueblo lucha, Horrores prefiriendo a pΘrfida salud. Oh, sφ de Cartagena la abnegaci≤n es mucha, y escombros de la muerte desprecia su virtud. De Boyacß en los campos el genio de la gloria con cada espiga un hΘroe invicto coron≤. Soldados sin coraza ganaron la victoria; su varonil aliento de escudo les sirvi≤. Bolivar cruza el Ande que riega dos ocΘanos; espadas cual centellas fulguran en junφn. Centauros indomables descienden a los llanos, y empieza a presentirse de la epopeya el fin. La trompa victoriosa en Ayacucho truena; y en cada triunfo crece su formidable son. En su expansivo empuje la libertad se estrena, del cielo americano formando un pabell≤n. La virgen sus cabellos arranca en agonφa y de su amor viuda los cuelga del ciprΘs. Lamenta su esperanza que cubre loza frφa, pero glorioso orgullo circunda su alba tez. La patria asφ se forma term≤pilas brotando; constelaci≤n de cφclopes su noche ilumin≤. La flor estremecida, mortal el viento hallando, debajo los laureles seguridad busc≤. Mas no es completa gloria vencer en la batalla, que el brazo que combate lo anima la verdad. La independencia sola al gran clamor no acalla; si el sol alumbra a todos, justicia es libertad. Del hombre los derechos Nari±o predicando, el alma de la lucha profΘtico ense±≤. Ricaurte en San Mateo en ßtomos volando, deber antes que vida con llamas escribi≤. # During the pre-Columbian period, the area now known as Colombia was inhabited by indigenous people who were primitive hunters or nomadic farmers. The Chibchas, who lived in the Bogota region, dominated the various Indian groups. Spaniards first sailed along the north coast of Colombia as early as 1500, but their first permanent settlement, at Santa Marta, was not established until 1525. In 1549, the area was established as a Spanish colony with the capital at Santa fe de Bogota. In 1717, Bogota became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, which included what is now Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. The city became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City. <P> On July 20, 1810, the citizens of Bogota created the first representative council to defy Spanish authority. Total independence was proclaimed in 1813, and in 1819 the Republic of Greater Colombia was formed. <P> The Republic <P> After the defeat of the Spanish army, the republic included all the territory of the former viceroyalty. Simon Bolivar was elected its first President and Francisco de Paula Santander, Vice President. Two political parties that grew out of conflicts between the followers of Bolivar and Santander--the Conservatives and the Liberals--have dominated Colombian politics. Bolivar's supporters, who later formed the nucleus of the Conservative Party, advocated a strong centralized government, alliance with the Roman Catholic Church, and a limited franchise. Santander's followers, forerunners of the Liberals, wanted a decentralized government, state rather than church control over education and other civil matters, and a broadened suffrage. <P> Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, each party held the presidency for roughly equal periods of time. Colombia, unlike many Latin American countries, maintained a tradition of civilian government and regular, free elections. The military has seized power three times in Colombia's history: in 1830, when Ecuador and Venezuela withdrew from the republic (Panama did not become independent until 1903); in 1854; and in 1953-57. In the first two instances, civilian rule was restored within 1 year. <P> Notwithstanding the country's commitment to democratic institutions, Colombia's history has been characterized by periods of widespread, violent conflict. Two civil wars resulted from bitter rivalry between the Conservative and Liberal parties. The War of a Thousand Days (1899-1902) cost an estimated 100,000 lives, and up to 300,000 people perished during "La Violencia" (The Violence) of the late 1940s and 1950s. <P> A military coup in 1953 brought Gen. Gustavo Rojas Pinilla to power. Initially, Rojas enjoyed considerable popular support, due largely to his success in reducing "La Violencia." When he did not restore democratic rule, however, he was overthrown by the military in 1957 with the backing of both political parties, and a provisional government was installed. <P> The National Front <P> In July 1957, former Conservative President Laureano Gomez (1950-53) and former Liberal President Alberto Lleras Camargo (1945-46) issued the "Declaration of Sitges," in which they proposed a "National Front" whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. Through regular elections, the presidency would alternate between the two parties every 4 years; the parties also would have parity in all other elective and appointive offices. <P> The National Front ended "La Violencia." National Front administrations instituted far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress, an inter-American program of economic assistance which began in 1961 with major financial backing by the United States. The National Front government made efforts to resolve problems of inflation, unemployment, and inequitable income distribution while cutting government expenses. <P> Although the parity system established by the Sitges agreement was terminated in 1978, the 1886 Colombian constitution (in effect until 1991) required that the losing political party be given adequate and equitable participation in the government. Although the 1991 constitution does not have that requirement, subsequent administrations have included opposition parties in the government. <P> Post-National Front Years <P> Between 1978 and 1982, the government focused on ending the limited, but persistent, Cuban-backed insurgency that sought to undermine Colombia's traditional democratic system. The success of the government's efforts enabled it to lift the state-of-siege decree that had been in effect for most of the previous 30 years. <P> In 1984, President Belisario Betancur, a Conservative who won 47% of the popular vote, negotiated a cease-fire that included the release of many guerrillas imprisoned during the effort to overpower the insurgents. The cease-fire ended when Democratic Alliance/M-19 (AD/M-19) guerrillas resumed fighting in 1985. <P> A vicious attack on the Palace of Justice in Bogota by the AD/M-19 on November 6-7, 1985, and its violent suppression by the Army, shocked Colombia and the entire world. Of the 115 people killed, 11 were Supreme Court justices. Although the government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the largest guerrilla group, renewed their truce in March 1986, peace with the AD/M-19 and dissident factions of other guerrilla groups seemed remote as Betancur left office. <P> The next administrations had to contend both with the guerrillas and with the narcotics traffickers, who operated with relative impunity within Colombia. Narco-terrorists assassinated three presidential candidates before Cesar Gaviria Trujillo was elected in 1990. Since the death of Medellin cartel leader Pablo Escobar in a shoot-out in December 1993, indiscriminate acts of violence associated with that organization have abated. <P> President Ernesto Samper assumed office in August 1994. Samper vowed to continue many of the economic and foreign policy goals of the Gaviria Administration, while also placing greater emphasis on addressing social inequities and eliminating poverty. However, a political crisis relating to contributions from drug traffickers to Samper's 1994 presidential campaign diverted attention from these social programs, thus slowing, and in some cases, halting progress. # CO Northern South America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Panama and Venezuela, and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between Ecuador and Panama # 1138910 1038700 100210 7408 Brazil 1,643 km, Ecuador 590 km, Panama 225 km, Peru 2,900 km, Venezuela 2,050 km # 3208 ? 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # 200 ? 12 tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands # flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains # Pacific Ocean 0 m Nevado del Huila 5,750 m petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds # 4 1 39 48 8 5300 highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts # deforestation; soil damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions # Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping # only South American country with coastlines on both North Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea # 38580949 33 6474927 6321404 62 11725078 12333982 5 780486 945072 1.89 24.93 5.69 -0.34 1.03 1.02 0.95 0.83 ? 25.44 70.06 66.15 74.11 2.90 Colombian(s) Colombian mestizo 58%, white 20%, mulatto 14%, black 4%, mixed black-Amerindian 3%, Amerindian 1% # Roman Catholic 95% # Spanish # age 15 and over can read and write # 91.30 91.20 91.40 Republic of Colombia Colombia Republica de Colombia # Colombia .co republic; executive branch dominates government structure Bogota 32 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento) and 1 capital district* (distrito capital); Amazonas, Antioquia, Arauca, Atlantico, Bolivar, Boyaca, Caldas, Caqueta, Casanare, Cauca, Cesar, Choco, Cordoba, Cundinamarca, Guainia, Guaviare, Huila, La Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Narino, Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Quindio, Risaralda, San Andres y Providencia, Distrito Capital de Santa Fe de Bogota*, Santander, Sucre, Tolima, Valle del Cauca, Vaupes, Vichada # ? # Independence Day, 20 July (1810) 5 July 1991 # based on Spanish law; a new criminal code modeled after US procedures was enacted in 1992-93; judicial review of executive and legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal # President Andres PASTRANA (since NA may 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Andres PASTRANA (since NA may 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet # president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held NA May 1998; vice president elected by popular vote for a four-year term in a new procedure that replaces the traditional designation of vice presidents by newly elected presidents # NA # bicameral Congress or Congreso consists of the Senate or Senado (102 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and the House of Representatives or Camara de Representantes (161 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # Senate - last held March 1998); House of Representatives - last held March 1998 # Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA # Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justical), highest court of criminal law, judges are selected from the nominees of the Higher Council of Justice for eight-year terms; Council of State, highest court of administrative law, judges are selected from the nominees of the Higher Council of Justice for eight-year terms; Constitutional Court, guards integrity and supremacy of the constitution, rules on constitutionality of laws, amendments to the constitution, and international treaties # Liberal Party or PL [Emilio LEBOLO Castellanos]; Conservative Party or PC [Hugo ESCOBAR Sierra]; New Democratic Force or NDF [Andres PASTRANA Arango]; Democratic Alliance M-19 or AD/M-19 is a coalition of small leftist parties and dissident liberals and conservatives; Patriotic Union (UP) is a legal political party formed by Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and Colombian Communist Party (PCC) # ? # AG, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G- 3, G-11, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, MINUGUA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double-width), blue, and red; similar to the flag of Ecuador, which is longer and bears the Ecuadorian coat of arms superimposed in the center # Columbia is recovering from a short recession that began in late 1996 - resulting from tight monetary policy to drive down inflation, declining business confidence related to President SAMPER's political difficulties, and a slowdown in exports stemming from an appreciation of the peso and a recession in neighboring Venezuela. Although 1997's 3.1% GDP growth rate represented an improvement over 1996, it ranked among the lowest in Latin America and was substantially lower than the average annual growth rate exceeding 4% that Colombia posted for several decades prior to SAMPER's election. Colombia's next president will inherit a variety of economic problems. Most notably, the unemployment rate is at its highest level this decade, risks for the export sector and foreign investors are rising as a result of increasing guerrilla violence and a volatile exchange rate, and the fiscal deficit has more than tripled since 1994. # 3.10 2280 87965 19 26 55 17.70 16800000 services 46%, agriculture 30%, industry 24% (1990) # 12.20 26000 30000 textiles, food processing, oil, clothing and footwear, beverages, chemicals, cement; gold, coal, emeralds # -1.20 10.78 47000 1307 coffee, cut flowers, bananas, rice, tobacco, corn, sugarcane, cocoa beans, oilseed, vegetables; forest products; shrimp farming # 11400.00 petroleum, coffee, coal, bananas, fresh cut flowers # US 39%, EC 25.7%, Japan 2.9%, Venezuela 8.5% (1992) # 13500 industrial equipment, transportation equipment, consumer goods, chemicals, paper products # US 36%, EC 18%, Brazil 4%, Venezuela 6.5%, Japan 8.7% (1992) # 17100.00 ODA, $30 million (1993) # ? # 1 Colombian peso (Col$) = 100 centavos # 1345 calendar year 1890000 nationwide microwave radio relay system; domestic satellite system with 11 earth stations # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 413 217 28 ? 33 5500000 3386 # 150 km 1.435-m gauge (connects Cerrejon coal mines to maritime port at Bahia Portete) # 3,236 km 0.914-m gauge (1,830 km in use) (1995) # # 107000 12,733 km # 94,267 km (1996 est.) # 14300 3585 1350 830 Barranquilla, Buenaventura, Cartagena, Leticia, Puerto Bolivar, San Andres, Santa Marta, Tumaco, Turbo # 19 70775 94677 bulk 5, cargo 8, container 1, multi-function large load carrier 2, oil tanker 3 (1997 est.) # 1136 86 2 10 36 31 7 1050 ? 1 65 348 636 ? Army (Ejercito Nacional), Navy (Armada Nacional, includes Marines and Coast Guard), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Colombiana), National Police (Policia Nacional) # 18 years of age # 10229023 6862893 352204 2000000000 2.80 maritime boundary dispute with Venezuela in the Gulf of Venezuela; territorial disputes with Nicaragua over Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia and Quita Sueno Bank # illicit producer of coca, opium poppies, and cannabis; cultivation of coca in 1997 - 79,500 hectares, an 18% increase over 1996; potential production of cocaine in 1997 - 125 metric tons, a 14% increase over 1996; cultivation of opium in 1997 - 6,600 hectares, a 5% increase over 1996; potential production of opium in 1997 - 66 metric tons, a 5% increase over 1996; the world's largest processor of coca derivatives into cocaine; supplier of cocaine to the US and other international drug markets; active aerial eradication program seeks to virtually eliminate coca and opium crops # @Comoros 0 Udzima wa ya Masiwa Latin Transliteration from the Shimasiwa I beramu isi pepeza i nadi ukombozi piya i daula ivenuha tasiba bu ya i dini voya trangaya hunu Komoriya NarikΘni namahaba ya huveindza ya masiwa yatru wasiwa Komoro damu ndzima wasiwa Komoro dini ndzima Ya masiwa radzali wa ya masiwa yarileya Mola neari sayidiya Narikeni ha niya riveindze uwataniya Mahaba ya dine na duniya. I beramu isi pepeza rangu mwesi sita wa Zuiye i daula ivenuha zisiwa zatru zi pangwi ha Maore na Nzuani, Mwalina Ngaziya Narikeni namahaba ya huveindza ya masiwa I beraba ya huveindzor ya masiwa. Original French Words Au faεte le Drapeau flotte Apelle a lα LibertΘ totale. La nation apparaεt, Force d'une meme religion au sein des Comores. Vivons dans l'amour rΦciproque dans nos εles, Les Comoriens issue de mΩme sang, Nous embrassons la mΩme idΘologie rΘligieuse. Les εles o∙ nous somme nΘs!! Les εles qui nous ont prodiguΘs la bonne Θducation. Dieu ya apportΘ son aide. Conservons notre unitΘ pour l'amour de la patrie, Amour pour la rΘligion Et pour l'Θvolution. Au faεte le Drapeau flotte Depuis le 6 du mois de Juillet La nation apparaεt, Les εles devenues souveraines; Maore - N'Dzouani - Mouwali - et N'Gazidja. Gardons notre amour pour les εles. # Over the centuries, the islands were invaded by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf, Indonesia, and Madagascar. Portuguese explorers visited the archipelago in 1505. "Shirazi" Arab migrants introduced Islam at about the same time. Between 1841 and 1912, France established colonial rule over Grande Comore, Anjouan, Mayotte, and Moheli and placed the islands under the administration of the governor general of Madagascar. Later, French settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. After World War II, the islands became a French overseas territory and were represented in France's National Assembly. Internal political autonomy was granted in 1961. Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for Comoros to become independent in 1978. On July 6, 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring unilateral independence. The deputies of Mayotte abstained. As a result, the Comorian Government has effective control over only Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli. Mayotte remains under French administration. # ? Southern Africa, group of islands in the Mozambique Channel, about two-thirds of the way between northern Madagascar and northern Mozambique # 2170 2170 0 ? ? # 340 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical marine; rainy season (November to May) # volcanic islands, interiors vary from steep mountains to low hills # Indian Ocean 0 m Mount Kartala 2,360 m NEGL # 35 10 7 18 30 ? cyclones possible during rainy season (December to April); Mount Kartala on Grand Comore is an active volcano # soil degradation and erosion results from crop cultivation on slopes without proper terracing; deforestation # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection # none of the selected agreements # important location at northern end of Mozambique Channel # 545528 43 116345 115886 54 146655 150612 3 7644 8386 3.10 40.52 9.52 0 1.03 1 0.97 0.91 ? 84.54 60.36 57.95 62.84 5.48 Comoran(s) Comoran Antalote, Cafre, Makoa, Oimatsaha, Sakalava # Sunni Muslim 86%, Roman Catholic 14% # Arabic (official), French (official), Comoran (a blend of Swahili and Arabic) # age 15 and over can read and write # 57.30 64.20 50.40 Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros Comoros Republique Federale Islamique des Comores # Comores .km independent republic Moroni three islands; Grande Comore (Njazidja), Anjouan (Nzwani), and Moheli (Mwali) note: there are also four municipalities named Domoni, Fomboni, Moroni, and Mutsamudu # ? # Independence Day, 6 July (1975) 20 October 1996 # French and Muslim law in a new consolidated code # 18 years of age; universal # President Tadjiddine Ben Said MASSOUNDE # Prime Minister Abbas DJOUSSOUF # Council of Ministers appointed by the president # president elected by popular vote to a five-year term; election last held 16 March 1996 (next to be held NA March 2001); prime minister appointed by the president # Mohamed TAKI Abdulkarim elected president; share of vote - 64% # bicameral legislature consists of the Senate (15 seats; members selected by regional councils for six-year terms) and a Federal Assembly or Assemblee Federale (43 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # last held 1 and 8 December 1996 (next to be held NA December 2000) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RND 39, RND candidate running as independent 1, FNJ 3 # Supreme Court or Cour Supremes, two members are appointed by the president, two members are elected by the Federal Assembly, one by the Council of each island, and former presidents of the republic # Rassemblement National pour le Development or RND [Mohamed TAKI Abdulkarim], party of the government; Front National pour la Justice or FNJ, Islamic party in opposition note: under a new constitution ratified in October 1996, a two party system was established; President Mohamed TAKI Abdulkarim called for all parties to dissolve and join him in creating the RND; the constitution stipulates that only parties that win six seats in the Federal Assembly (two from each island) are permitted to be in opposition, but if no party accomplishes that the second most successful party will be in opposition; in the elections of December 1996 the FNJ appeared to qualify as opposition # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AFESD, AL, CCC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, InOC, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WTrO (applicant) # green with a white crescent in the center of the field, its points facing downward; there are four white five-pointed stars placed in a line between the points of the crescent; the crescent, stars, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam; the four stars represent the four main islands of the archipelago - Mwali, Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mayotte (a territorial collectivity of France, but claimed by Comoros); the design, the most recent of several, is described in the constitution approved by referendum on 7 June 1992 # One of the world's poorest countries, Comoros is made up of three islands that have inadequate transportation links, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labor force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high unemployment, and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture, including fishing, hunting, and forestry, is the leading sector of the economy. It contributes 40% to GDP, employs 80% of the labor force, and provides most of the exports. The country is not self-sufficient in food production; rice, the main staple, accounts for the bulk of imports. The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote tourism, and to reduce the high population growth rate. Continued foreign support is essential if the goal of 4% annual GDP growth is to be maintained in the late 1990s. # 3.50 400 218 40 14 46 3.50 144500 agriculture 80%, government 3% # 20 55 71 tourism, perfume distillation, textiles, furniture, jewelry, construction materials, soft drinks # -6.50 0.01 31 38 vanilla, cloves, perfume essences, copra, coconuts, bananas, cassava (tapioca) # 11.40 vanilla, ylang-ylang, cloves, perfume oil, copra # France 54%, Germany 18%, US 18% # 70 rice and other foodstuffs, consumer goods; petroleum products, cement, transport equipment # France 60%, South Africa 10%, Kenya 5%, Singapore 4% # 219 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Comoran franc (CF) = 100 centimes # 456.27 calendar year 4000 HF radiotelephone communications and microwave radio relay # HF radiotelephone communications to Madagascar and Reunion # 2 1 0 78000 0 200 ? # # # # 880 673 km # 207 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Fomboni, Moroni, Mutsamudu # ? ? ? ? # 4 4 ? 1 ? 3 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Comoran Security Force # ? # 129095 76991 ? 3000000 ? claims French-administered Mayotte # ? # @Congo, Democratic Republic of the 0 Zairois dans la paix retrouvee Peuple uni, nous sommes Zairois En avant fier et plein de dignite Peuple grand, peuple libre a jamais Tricolore enflamme nous du feu sacre Pour batir notre pays toujours plus beau Autour d'un fleuve majeste Autour d'un fleuve majeste Tricolore au vent ravive l'ideal Qui nous relie aux aieux a nos enfants Paix, justice et travail Paix, justice et travail # Pygmies may have been the earliest inhabitants of Democratic republic of Congo, followed by Bantus. Portuguese explorers visited the country in the 15th century. The Congo Free State was established in 1885, with Leopold II of Belgium as absolute monarch. It became the Belgian Congo colony in 1908. Independence was gained as the Republic of Congo in 1960, followed by civil war until 1963. The country changed its name to the Republic of Zaire in 1971. Marshal MOBUTU was president from 24 November 1965 until forced into exile on 17 May 1997 when his government was overturned in a coup by Gen. Laurent-DESIRE KABILA, who immediately assumed sole governing authority # ZRE Central Africa, northeast of Angola # 2345410 2267600 77810 10271 Angola 2,511 km, Burundi 233 km, Central African Republic 1,577 km, Republic of the Congo 2,410 km, Rwanda 217 km, Sudan 628 km, Uganda 765 km, Zambia 1,930 km # 37 ? ? # ? ? 12 tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler and wetter in eastern highlands; north of Equator - wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of Equator - wet season November to March, dry season April to October # vast central basin is a low-lying plateau; mountains in east # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Margherita Peak (Mount Stanley) 5,110 m cobalt, copper, cadmium, petroleum, industrial and gem diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, germanium, uranium, radium, bauxite, iron ore, coal, hydropower potential, timber # 3 0 7 77 13 100 periodic droughts in south; volcanic activity # poaching threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; deforestation; refugees who arrived in mid-1994 were responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching in the eastern part of the country (most of those refugees were repatriated in November and December 1996) # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # Environmental Modification # straddles Equator; very narrow strip of land that controls the lower Congo river and is only outlet to South Atlantic Ocean; dense tropical rain forest in central river basin and eastern highlands # 49000511 48 11829386 11766829 49 11778121 12339837 3 557095 729243 2.99 46.77 15.20 -1.63 1.03 1 0.95 0.76 ? 101.60 49.31 47.27 51.40 6.51 Congolese (singular and plural) Congolese or Congo over 200 African ethnic groups of which the majority are Bantu; the four largest tribes - Mongo, Luba, Kongo (all Bantu), and the Mangbetu-Azande (Hamitic) make up about 45% of the population # Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 20%, Kimbanguist 10%, Muslim 10%, other syncretic sects and traditional beliefs 10% # French (official), Lingala (a lingua franca trade language), Kingwana (a dialect of Kiswahili or Swahili), Kikongo, Tshiluba # age 15 and over can read and write in French, Lingala, Kingwana, or Tshiluba # 77.30 86.60 67.70 Democratic Republic of the Congo none Republique Democratique du Congo # none .cd dictatorship; presumably undergoing a transition to representative Kinshasa 10 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and one city* (ville); Bandundu, Bas-Congo, Equateur, Kasai-Occidental, Kasai-Oriental, Katanga, Kinshasa*, Maniema, Nord-Kivu, Orientale, Sud-Kivu # ? # anniversary of independence from Belgium, 30 June (1960) 24 June 1967, amended August 1974, revised 15 February 1978, amended April 1990; transitional constitution promulgated in April 1994; following successful rebellion the new government announced on 29 May 1997 a two-year time table of constitutional reform # based on Belgian civil law system and tribal law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal and compulsory # Laurent Desire KABILA (since 17 May 1997); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government # Laurent Desire KABILA (since 17 May 1997); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government # National Executive Council; KABILA's cabinet was appointed by him and has no prime minister # before Laurent Desire KABILA seized power, the president was elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 29 July 1984 (next was to be held in May 1997); formerly, the prime minister was elected by the High Council of the Republic; note - the term of the former government expired in 1991, elections were not held, and former president MOBUTU continued in office until his government was militarily defeated by KABILA on 17 May 1997 # MOBUTU Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga reelected president in 1984 without opposition note: Marshal MOBUTU Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga was president from 24 November 1965 until forced into exile on 16 May 1997 when his government was overturned militarily by Laurent Desire KABILA, who immediately assumed governing authority; in his 29 May 1997 inaugural address, President KABILA announced a two-year time table for political reform leading to elections by April 1999 # legislative activity has been suspended pending the establishment of KABILA's promised constitutional reforms and the elections to be held by April 1999 # the country's first multi-party presidential and legislative elections had been scheduled for May 1997 but were not held; instead KABILA overthrew the MOBUTO government and seized control of the country # ? # Supreme Court (Cour Supreme) # sole legal party until January 1991 - Popular Movement of the Revolution or MPR; other parties include Union for Democracy and Social Progress or UDPS [Etienne TSHISEKEDI wa Mulumba]; Democratic Social Christian Party or PDSC [Andre BO-BOLIKO]; Union of Federalists and Independent Republicans or UFERI [Gabriel KYUNGU wa Kumwunzu]; Unified Lumumbast Party or PALU [Antoine GIZENGA] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO # light blue with a large yellow five-pointed star in the center and a columnar arrangement of six small yellow five-pointed stars along the hoist side # The economy of Democratic Republic of the Congo - a nation endowed with vast potential wealth - has declined significantly since the mid-1980s. The new government has instituted a tight fiscal policy that has curbed inflation and currency depreciation. Plans are underway to introduce a new national currency. Most formal transactions are conducted in hard currency but a barter economy flourishes in all but the largest cities. Most individuals and families survive through subsistence farming or petty trade. International investors show renewed interest, especially in the mining and telecommunications sectors. However, poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption and lack of transparency in government economic policy remain a brake on investment and growth. A number of IMF and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan. # 1.50 110 5390 59 15 26 ? 14510000 agriculture 65%, industry 16%, services 19% (1991 est.) # ? 269 244 mining, mineral processing, consumer products (including textiles, footwear, cigarettes, processed foods and beverages), cement, diamonds # ? 2.83 5220 95 coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber, tea, quinine, cassava (tapioca), palm oil, bananas, root crops, corn, fruits; wood products # 1900.00 diamonds, copper, coffee, cobalt, crude oil # Belgium, US, France, Germany, Italy, UK, Japan, South Africa # 1100 consumer goods, foodstuffs, mining and other machinery, transport equipment, fuels # Belgium, South Africa, US, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK # 13800 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 zaire (Z) = 100 makuta # 115000 calendar year 34000 barely adequate wire and microwave radio relay service in and between urban areas; domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 10 4 0 3870000 18 55000 5138 # # 3,987 km 1.067-m gauge (858 km electrified); 125 km 1.000-m gauge; 1,026 km 0.600-m gauge # # 145000 2,500 km # 142,500 km (1993 est.) # 15000 ? 390 ? Banana, Boma, Bukavu, Bumba, Goma, Kalemie, Kindu, Kinshasa, Kisangani, Matadi, Mbandaka # ? ? ? ? # 234 24 4 3 15 2 94 210 ? ? 20 96 ? ? Army, Navy, Air Force # ? # 10543138 5366937 ? ? ? Democratic Republic of the Congo-Tanzania-Zambia tripoint in Lake Tanganyika may no longer be indefinite since it has been informally reported that the indefinite segment of the Democratic Republic of the Congo-Zambia boundary has been settled; long segment of the boundary with Republic of the Congo along the Congo river is indefinite (no division of the river or its islands has been made) # illicit producer of cannabis, mostly for domestic consumption # @Congo, Republic of the 0 (since 1991) En ce jour, le soleil se lΦve Et notre Congo resplendit Une longue nuit s'achΦve Un grand bonheur a surgi Chantons tous avec ivresse Le chante de la libertΘ. CHORUS Congolais debout fiΦrement partout Proclamons l'union de notre nation Oublions ce qui nous divise Soyons plus unis que jamais Vivons pour notre devise UnitΘ, Travail, ProgrΦs. (repeat previous two lines) Des forΩts jusqu'α la savane Des savanes jusqu'α la mer Un seul peuple une seule Γme Un seul coeur ardent et fier Luttons tous tant que nous sommes Pour notre vieux pays noir. CHORUS Et s'il nous faut mourir en somme Qu'importe pulsque nos enfants Partout pourront dire comme On triomphe en combatant Et dans le moindre village Chantent sous nos trois couleurs. CHORUS # Diego Cam, a Portuguese explorer, visited the Congo estuary in 1482. Slave-trading flourished along the coast in the 16th century. The French gradually became more influential in the area, and in 1885 they established control of the land to the west of the Congo and Oubangi. Congo became part of French Equatorial Africa in 1910. France granted internal self-rule in 1958, and independence was gained on 15 August 1960. In 1996 the Central African Republic experienced three mutinies by dissident elements of the armed forces which demanded back pay as well as political and military reforms; continuing violence in 1997 between the government and rebel military and civilian groups over pay issues, living conditions, and lack of opposition party representation in the government has destroyed many businesses in the capital, reducing tax revenues and exacerbating the government's problems in meeting expenses # RPC Western Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Angola and Gabon # 342000 341500 500 5504 Angola 201 km, Cameroon 523 km, Central African Republic 467 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,410 km, Gabon 1,903 km # 169 ? ? # ? ? 200 tropical; rainy season (March to June); dry season (June to October); constantly high temperatures and humidity; particularly enervating climate astride the Equator # coastal plain, southern basin, central plateau, northern basin # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mount Berongou 903 m petroleum, timber, potash, lead, zinc, uranium, copper, phosphates, natural gas # 0 0 29 62 9 10 seasonal flooding # air pollution from vehicle emissions; water pollution from the dumping of raw sewage; tap water is not potable; deforestation # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 # Desertification, Law of the Sea # about 70% of the population lives in Brazzaville, Pointe Noire, or along the railroad between them # 2658123 43 569382 563327 54 700507 734447 3 36383 54077 2.21 38.50 16.45 0 1.03 1.01 0.95 0.67 ? 102.69 47.07 45.29 48.89 4.98 Congolese (singular and plural) Congolese or Congo Kongo 48%, Sangha 20%, M'Bochi 12%, Teke 17%, Europeans NA%; note - Europeans estimated at 8,500, mostly French, before the 1997 civil war; may be half of that in 1998, following the widespread destruction of foreign businesses in 1997 # Christian 50%, animist 48%, Muslim 2% # French (official), Lingala and Monokutuba (lingua franca trade languages), many local languages and dialects (of which Kikongo has the most users) # age 15 and over can read and write # 74.90 83.10 67.20 Republic of the Congo none Republique du Congo # none .cg republic Brazzaville 9 regions (regions, singular - region) and 1 commune*; Bouenza, Brazzaville*, Cuvette, Kouilou, Lekoumou, Likouala, Niari, Plateaux, Pool, Sangha # ? # Congolese National Day, 15 August (1960) new constitution approved by referendum March 1992 but is now being redrafted by President SASSOU-NGUESSO # based on French civil law system and customary law # 18 years of age; universal # President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO (inaugurated on 25 October 1997) # prime minister (vacant) appointed from the majority party by the president # Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 16 August 1992 (next was to be held 27 July 1997 but will be delayed for several years pending the drafting of a new constitution which will change term to seven years) # Pascal LISSOUBA elected president; percent of vote - Pascal LISSOUBA 61%, Bernard KOLELAS 39% # bicameral parliament consists of an Assemblee Nationale or National Assembly (125 seats, members are elected by direct popular vote for five-year terms) and a Senat or Senate (60 seats, members are elected by direct popular vote for six-year terms); note - the National Assembly which was elected on 3 October 1993 was dissolved; it has been replaced by a transitional advisory parliament of 75 members named by the National Reconciliation Forum of January 1998 # National Assembly - last held 3 October 1993 (next to be held NA); Senate - last held November 1996 (next to be held NA) # National Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - UPADS 64, URD/PCT 58, others 3; Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - UPADS 23, MCDDI 14, RDD 8, RDPS 5, PCT 2, others 8 # Supreme Court (Cour Supreme) # the most important of the many political parties are Congolese Labor Party or PCT [Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO, president]; Association for Democracy and Development or RDD [Joachim YHOMBI-OPANGO, president]; Association for Democracy and Social Progress or RDPS [Jean-Pierre Thystere TCHICAYA, president]; Congolese Movement for Democracy and Integral Development or MCDDI [Michel MAMPOUYA, leader]; Pan-African Union for Social Development or UPADS [Martin MBERI, leader]; Union of Democratic Forces or UFD [Sebastian EBAO, leader]; Union for Democratic Renewal or URD; Union for Development and Social Progress or UDPS [Jean-Michael BOKAMBA-YANGOUMA, leader] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO # divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a yellow band; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is red; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia # The economy is a mixture of village agriculture and handicrafts, an industrial sector based largely on oil, support services, and a government characterized by budget problems and overstaffing. Oil has supplanted forestry as the mainstay of the economy, providing about 90% of government revenues and exports. In the early 1980s, rapidly rising oil revenues enabled the government to finance large-scale development projects with GDP growth averaging 5% annually, one of the highest rates in Africa. Subsequently, falling oil prices cut GDP growth by half. Moreover, the government has mortgaged a substantial portion of its oil earnings, contributing to the government's shortage of revenues. The 12 January 1994 devaluation of Franc Zone currencies by 50% resulted in inflation of 61% in 1994 but inflation has subsided since. Economic reform efforts continue with the support of international organizations, notably the World Bank and the IMF. # 4 660 1754 11.40 35.20 53.40 3 ? ? # ? 870 970 petroleum extraction, cement kilning, lumbering, brewing, sugar milling, palm oil, soap, cigarette making # ? 0.12 438 220 cassava (tapioca) accounts for 90% of food output, sugar, rice, corn, peanuts, vegetables, coffee, cocoa; forest products # 1200 crude oil 90%, lumber, plywood, sugar, cocoa, coffee, diamonds # Belgium-Luxembourg 24.3%, Taiwan 20.2%, US 14.9%, Italy 14.8% (1995 est.) # 670 intermediate manufactures, capital equipment, construction materials, foodstuffs, petroleum products # France 31.2%, Netherlands 24.6%, Italy 11.4%, US 6.9% (1995 est.) # 5300 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes # 608.36 calendar year 18000 primary network consists of microwave radio relay and coaxial cable # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 4 1 0 ? 4 8500 795 # # 795 km 1.067-m gauge (1995 est.) # # 12800 1,242 km # 11,558 km (1996 est.) # 1120 25 ? ? Brazzaville, Impfondo, Ouesso, Oyo, Pointe-Noire # 1 2918 4100 ? # 37 4 1 ? 3 15 10 33 ? ? 8 ? ? ? Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force, National Police # 20 years of age # 623924 317997 27354 110000000 3.80 long segment of the boundary with Democratic Republic of the Congo along the Congo River is indefinite (no division of the river or its islands has been made) # ? # @Cook Islands New Zealand ? # A group of islands in the SW Pacific, 2816 km to 3782 km northeast of New Zealand. They are widely scattered, extending from latitude 8░ to 23░ S and from longitude 156░ to 167░ W. Consists of two island groups, the Lower Cooks and the Northern Cooks. First sighted by Spanish navigator Alvaro de Mendana in 1595 # NZ Oceania, group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand # 240 240 0 ? ? # 120 ? 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin # 200 ? 12 tropical; moderated by trade winds # low coral atolls in north; volcanic, hilly islands in south # Pacific Ocean 0 m Te Manga 652 m NEGL # 9 13 ? ? 78 ? typhoons (November to March) # NA # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea # NA # ? # 19989 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 1.06 22.52 5.20 -6.71 ? ? ? ? ? 24.70 71.14 69.20 73.10 3.19 Cook Islander(s) Cook Islander Polynesian (full blood) 81.3%, Polynesian and European 7.7%, Polynesian and non-European 7.7%, European 2.4%, other 0.9% # Christian (majority of populace are members of the Cook Islands Christian Church) # English (official), Maori # ? # ? ? ? none Cook Islands ? # ? .ck self-governing parliamentary democracy Avarua none # ? # Constitution Day, 4 August 4 August 1965 # based on New Zealand law and English common law # NA years of age; universal adult # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Apenera SHORT (since NA); New Zealand High Commissioner Jon JONESSEN (since NA January 1998), representative of New Zealand # Prime Minister Sir Geoffrey A. HENRY (since 1 February 1989); Deputy Prime Minister Inatio AKARURU (since 1 February 1989) # Cabinet chosen by the prime minister; collectively responsible to Parliament # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; the queen's representative is appointed by the queen; the New Zealand high commissioner is appointed by the New Zealand Government; following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats usually becomes prime minister # ? # unicameral Parliament (25 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held 6 March 1994 (next to be held by NA 1999) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Cook Islands Party 20, Democratic Party 3, Democratic Alliance Party 2 note: the House of Arikis (chiefs) advises on traditional matters, but has no legislative powers # High Court # Cook Islands Party, Geoffrey HENRY; Democratic Party, Sir Thomas DAVIS; Democratic Alliance Party, Norman GEORGE # ? # AsDB, ESCAP (associate), FAO, ICAO, ICFTU, IFAD, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UNESCO, WHO, WMO # blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large circle of 15 white five-pointed stars (one for every island) centered in the outer half of the flag # Like many other South Pacific island nations, the Cook Islands' economic development is hindered by the isolation of the country from foreign markets, lack of natural resources, periodic devastation from natural disasters, and inadequate infrastructure. Agriculture provides the economic base with major exports made up of copra and citrus fruit. Manufacturing activities are limited to fruit-processing, clothing, and handicrafts. Trade deficits are made up for by remittances from emigrants and by foreign aid, overwhelmingly from New Zealand. In 1996, the government declared bankruptcy, citing a $120 million public debt. Efforts to exploit tourism potential and expanding the mining and fishing industries have not been enough to adequately deal with the financial crisis. In an effort to stem further erosion of the economy, the government slashed public service salaries by 50%, condensed the number of government ministries from 52 to 22, reduced the number of civil servants by more than half, began selling government assets, and closed all overseas diplomatic posts except for the one in New Zealand. # ? 4730 95 17 6 77 2.60 6601 agriculture 29%, government 27%, services 25%, industry 15%, other 4% (1981) # ? ? ? fruit processing, tourism # ? 0.01 15 775 copra, citrus, pineapples, tomatoes, beans, pawpaws, bananas, yams, taro, coffee # 4.20 copra, fresh and canned citrus fruit, coffee; fish; pearls and pearl shells; clothing # NZ 80%, Japan, Hong Kong (1993) # 85 foodstuffs, textiles, fuels, timber, capital goods # NZ 49%, Italy, Australia (1993) # 160 roughly $16 million annually, 1985-95, with New Zealand furnishing 88% of the total # ? # 1 New Zealand dollar (NZ$) = 100 cents # 1.73 1 April - 31 March 4180 the individual islands are connected by a combination of satellite earth stations, microwave systems, and VHF and HF radiotelephone; within the islands, service is provided by small exchanges connected to subscribers by open wire, cable, and fiber-optic cable # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean) # 1 1 1 13000 1 3500 ? # # # # 187 35 km # 152 km (1980 est.) # ? ? ? ? Avarua, Avatiu # 1 1464 2181 ? # 7 1 ? ? 1 3 ? 6 ? ? 3 ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Coral Sea Islands Australia ? # # Oceania, islands in the Coral Sea, northeast of Australia # 3 3 0 ? ? # 3095 ? ? # ? 200 3 tropical # sand and coral reefs and islands (or cays) # Pacific Ocean 0 m unnamed location on Cato Island 6 m NEGL # 0 0 0 0 100 0 occasional, tropical cyclones # no permanent fresh water resources # NA # NA # important nesting area for birds and turtles # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? Coral Sea Islands Territory Coral Sea Islands ? # ? .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # the laws of Australia, where applicable, apply # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of Australia is used # no economic activity # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Costa Rica 0 Noble patria tu hermosa bandera expresi≤n de tu vida nos da bajo el lφmpido azul de tu cielo blanca y pura descansa la paz En la lucha tenaz, de fecunda labor que enrojece del hombre la faz conquistaron tus hijos labriegos, sencillos eterno prestigio, estima y honor eterno prestigio, estima y honor Salve oh tierra gentil Salve oh madre de amor Cuando alguno pretenda tu gloria manchar verßs a tu pueblo valiente y viril la tosca herramienta en arma trocar Noble patria tu pr≤digo suelo dulce abrigo y sustento nos da bajo el lφmpido azul de tu cielo vivan siempre el trabajo y la paz # Guaymi indians inhabited Costa Rica when Columbus 'discovered' it in 1502, on his fourth and last voyage to the New World. Settlement of Costa Rica began in 1522. For nearly three centuries, Spain administered the region as part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala under a military Governor. The Spanish optimistically called the country "Rich Coast." Finding little gold or other valuable minerals in Costa Rica, however, the Spanish turned to agriculture. <P> The small landowners' relative poverty, the lack of a large indigenous labor force, the population's ethnic and linguistic homogeneity, and Costa Rica's isolation from the Spanish colonial centers in Mexico and the Andes all contributed to the development of an autonomous and individualistic agrarian society. An egalitarian tradition also arose; this tradition survived the widened class distinctions brought on by the 19th century introduction of banana and coffee cultivation and consequent accumulations of wealth. <P> In 1821, Costa Rica joined other Central American provinces in a joint declaration of independence from Spain. Although the newly independent provinces formed a Federation, border disputes broke out among them, adding to the region's turbulent history and conditions. Costa Rica's northern Guanacaste Province was annexed from Nicaragua in one such regional dispute. In 1838, long after the Central American Federation ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign. <P> An era of peaceful democracy in Costa Rica began in 1899 with elections considered the first truly free and honest ones in the country's history. This began a trend continued until today with only two lapses: in 1917-19, Federico Tinoco ruled as a dictator, and, in 1948, Jose Figueres led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election. <P> With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day civil war resulting from this uprising was the bloodiest event in 20th century Costa Rican history, but the victorious junta drafted a constitution guaranteeing free elections with universal suffrage and the abolition of the army. Figueres became a national hero, winning the first election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 11 presidential elections, the latest in 1998. # CR Middle America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Nicaragua and Panama # 51100 50660 440 639 Nicaragua 309 km, Panama 330 km # 1290 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; dry season (December to April); rainy season (May to November) # coastal plains separated by rugged mountains # Pacific Ocean 0 m Cerro Chirripo 3,810 m hydropower potential # 6 5 46 31 12 1200 occasional earthquakes, hurricanes along Atlantic coast; frequent flooding of lowlands at onset of rainy season; active volcanoes # deforestation, largely a result of the clearing of land for cattle ranching; soil erosion # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands # Marine Life Conservation # ? # 3604642 34 620496 591299 61 1120118 1093099 5 82893 96737 1.95 22.89 4.15 0.72 1.05 1.05 1.02 0.86 ? 13.10 75.93 73.50 78.48 2.81 Costa Rican(s) Costa Rican white (including mestizo) 96%, black 2%, Amerindian 1%, Chinese 1% # Roman Catholic 95% # Spanish (official), English spoken around Puerto Limon # age 15 and over can read and write # 94.80 94.70 95 Republic of Costa Rica Costa Rica Republica de Costa Rica # Costa Rica .cr democratic republic San Jose 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, Limon, Puntarenas, San Jose # ? # Independence Day, 15 September (1821) 9 November 1949 # based on Spanish civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal and compulsory # President Miguel Angel RODRIGEUZ (since 8 May 1998); First Vice President Astrid FISCHEL (since 8 May 1998), Second Vice President Elizabeth ODIO (since 8 May 1998); note - president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Miguel Angel RODRIGUEZ (since 8 May 1998); First Vice President Astrid FISCHEL (since 8 May 1998), Second Vice President Elizabeth ODIO (since 8 May 1998); note - president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet selected by the president # president and vice presidents elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 1 February 1998 (next to be held NA February 2002) # Miguel Angel RODRIGUEZ elected president; percent of vote - Miguel Angel RODRIGUEZ (PUSC) 46.6%, Jose Miguel CORRALES (PLN) 44.6% # unicameral Legislative Assembly or Asamblea Legislativa (57 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms) # last held 1 February 1998 (next to be held NA February 2002) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUSC 27, PLN 23, minority parties 7 # Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), justices are elected for eight-year terms by the Legislative Assembly # Social Christian Unity Party or PUSC [Miguel Angel RODRIGUEZ Echeverria]; National Liberation Party or PLN [Jose Miguel CORRALES Bolanos]; National Integration Party or PIN [Walter MUNOZ Cespedes]; National Independent Party or PNI [Jorge GONZALEZ Marten]; People United Party or PPU [Norma VARGAS Duarte]; National Christian Alliance Party or ANC [Alejandro MADRIGAL Benavides]; Democratic Force Party or PFD [Vladimir DE LA CRUZ de Lemos]; Libertarian Movement Party or PML [Federico MALAVASI Calvo]; Costa Rican Renovation Party or PRC [Sherman Thomas JACKSON]; New Democratic Party or PDN [Rodrigo GUTIERREZ Schwanhauser]; National Rescue Party or PRN [Marina VOLIO Brenes]; Democratic Party or PD [Alvaro GONZALEZ Espinoza]; Independent Party or PI [Yolanda GUTIERREZ Ventura] # ? # AG (observer), BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # five horizontal bands of blue (top), white, red (double width), white, and blue, with the coat of arms in a white disk on the hoist side of the red band # Costa Rica's basically stable and progressive economy depends especially on tourism and the export of bananas, coffee, and other agricultural products. Poverty has been substantially reduced over the past 15 years, and a strong social safety net has been put in place. Recent trends, however, have been disappointing. Economic growth slipped from 4.3% in 1994 to 2.5% in 1995, and to 0.9% in 1996, and then rebounded in 1997 to 3%. Inflation rose to 22.5% in 1995 from 13.5% in 1994, receded to 17.5% in 1996, then dropped to 11.2% in 1997. Unemployment appears moderate at 5.7%, but substantial underemployment continues. Furthermore, substantial government deficits have undermined efforts to maintain the quality of social services. The government thus faces a formidable set of problems: to curb inflation, reduce the deficit, encourage domestic savings, and improve public sector efficiency while increasing the role of the private sector, all this in harmony with IMF agreements. One important positive development - the infusion of more than $200 million in 1997 by microchip giant Intel and the anticipated attraction of other high-tech firms to Costa Rica will help stimulate growth and employment over the next several years. # 3 2640 9516 18 24 58 11.20 868300 industry and commerce 35.1%, government and services 33%, agriculture 27%, other 4.9% (1985 est.) # 5.70 1100 1340 food processing, textiles and clothing, construction materials, fertilizer, plastic products # 10.50 1.09 4530 1323 coffee, bananas, sugar, corn, rice, beans, potatoes; beef; timber (depletion of forest resources has resulted in declining timber output) # 2900.00 coffee, bananas, textiles, sugar # US, Germany, Italy, Guatemala, El Salvador, Netherlands, UK, France # 3400 raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum # US, Japan, Mexico, Guatemala, Venezuela, Germany # 3200.00 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Costa Rican colon (C) = 100 centimos # 243.55 calendar year 281042 NA # connected to Central American Microwave System; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 71 0 13 ? 18 340000 950 # # 950 km 1.067-m gauge (260 km electrified) # # 35597 6,051 km # 29,546 km (1996 est.) # 730 ? 176 ? Caldera, Golfito, Moin, Puerto Limon, Puerto Quepos, Puntarenas # ? ? ? ? # 158 27 ? 2 1 18 6 131 ? ? ? 31 100 ? Coast Guard, Air Section, Ministry of Public Security Force (Fuerza Publica); note - during 1996, the Ministry of Public Security reorganized and eliminated the Civil Guard, Rural Assistance Guard, and Frontier Guards as separate entities; they are now under the Ministry and operate on a geographic command basis performing ground security, law enforcement, counternarcotics, and national security (border patrol) functions; the constitution prohibits armed forces # 18 years of age # 964405 646873 35513 55000000 2 none # transshipment country for cocaine and heroin from South America; illicit production of cannabis on small, scattered plots # @Cote d'Ivoire 0 Cote d'Ivoire L'Abidjannaise (Song of Abidjan) Original French Words Sal√t O Terre d'EspΘrance Pays de l'HospitalitΘ Tes LΘgions remplies de vaillance Ont relevΘ ta DignitΘ Tes Fils chΦre C⌠te d'Ivoire Fiers artisans de ta grandeur Tous rassemblΘs pour ta gloire Te bΓtiront dans le bonheur Fiers Ivoiriens, Le Pays nous appelle Si nous avons dans la Paix RamenΘ la libertΘ Notre devoir sera d'Ωtre un modΦle De l'espΘrance promise α l'HumanitΘ En forgeant unis dans la Foi nouvelle La patrie de la vraie fraternitΘ English Translation We salute you, O Land of Hope Country of Hospitality; Your legions full of bravery Have enhanced your dignity. Dear C⌠te d'Ivoire, your sons, Proud builders of your greatness, All together and for your glory, Shall, in joy, build you up. Proud Ivorians The Country needs us. If, in Peace we have Brought liberty back, Our duty is to be a model Of the Hope promised to Humanity, In forging united in the new faith The fatherland of true brotherhood. # The early history of Cote d'Ivoire is virtually unknown, although it is thought that a neolithic culture existed there. France made its initial contact with Cote d'Ivoire in 1687, when missionaries landed at Assinie near the Gold Coast (now Ghana) border. Early contacts were limited to a few missionaries because of the inhospitable coastline and settlers' fear of the inhabitants. <P> In the 18th century, the country was invaded by two related Akan groups-the Agnis, who occupied the southeast, and the Baoules, who settled in the central section. In 1843-44, Admiral Bouet-Williaumez signed treaties with the kings of the Grand Bassam and Assinie regions, placing their territories under a French protectorate. French explorers, missionaries, trading companies, and soldiers gradually extended the area under French control inland from the lagoon region. However, pacification was not accomplished until 1915. <P> French Period <P> Cote d'Ivoire officially became a French colony in 1893. Captain Binger, who had explored the Gold Coast frontier, was named the first governor. He negotiated boundary treaties with Liberia and the United Kingdom (for the Gold Coast) and later started the campaign against Almany Samory, a Malinke chief, who fought against the French until 1898. <P> From 1904 to 1958, Cote d'Ivoire was a constituent unit of the Federation of French West Africa. It was a colony and an overseas territory under the Third Republic. Until the period following World War II, governmental affairs in French West Africa were administered from Paris. France's policy in West Africa was reflected mainly in its philosophy of "association," meaning that all Africans in Cote d'Ivoire were officially French "subjects" without rights to representation in Africa or France. <P> During World War II, the Vichy regime remained in control until 1943, when members of Gen. Charles De Gaulle's provisional government assumed control of all French West Africa. The Brazzaville conference in 1944, the first Constituent Assembly of the Fourth Republic in 1946, and France's gratitude for African loyalty during World War II led to far-reaching governmental reforms in 1946. French citizenship was granted to all African "subjects," the right to organize politically was recognized, and various forms of forced labor were abolished. <P> A turning point in relations with France was reached with the 1956 Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre), which transferred a number of powers from Paris to elected territorial governments in French West Africa and also removed remaining voting inequalities. <P> Independence <P> In December 1958, Cote d'Ivoire became an autonomous republic within the French community as a result of a referendum that brought community status to all members of the old Federation of French West Africa except Guinea, which had voted against association. Cote d'Ivoire became independent on August 7, 1960, and permitted its community membership to lapse. <P> Cote d'Ivoire's contemporary political history is closely associated with the career of Felix Houphouet-Boigny, President of the republic and leader of the "Parti Democratique de la Cote d'Ivoire" (PDCI) until his death on December 7, 1993. He was one of the founders of the "Rassemblement Democratique Africain" (RDA), the leading pre-independence inter-territorial political party in French West African territories (except Mauritania). <P> Houphouet-Boigny first came to political prominence in 1944 as founder of the "Syndicat Agricole Africain", an organization that won improved conditions for African farmers and formed a nucleus for the PDCI. After World War II, he was elected by a narrow margin to the first Constituent Assembly. Representing Cote d'Ivoire in the French National Assembly from 1946 to 1959, he devoted much of his effort to inter-territorial political organization and further amelioration of labor conditions. After his 13-year service in the French National Assembly, including almost 3 years as a minister in the French Government, he became Cote d'Ivoire's first Prime Minister in April 1959, and the following year was elected its first President. <P> In May 1959, Houphouet-Boigny reinforced his position as a dominant figure in West Africa by leading Cote d'Ivoire, Niger, Upper Volta (Burkina), and Dahomey (Benin) into the Council of the Entente, a regional organization promoting economic development. He maintained that the road to African solidarity was through step-by-step economic and political cooperation, recognizing the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of other African states. # CI Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Ghana and Liberia # 322460 318000 4460 3110 Burkina 584 km, Ghana 668 km, Guinea 610 km, Liberia 716 km, Mali 532 km # 515 ? 200 nm # 200 ? 12 tropical along coast, semiarid in far north; three seasons - warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), hot and wet (June to October) # mostly flat to undulating plains; mountains in northwest # Gulf of Guinea 0 m Mont Nimba 1,752 m petroleum, diamonds, manganese, iron ore, cobalt, bauxite, copper # 8 4 41 22 25 680 coast has heavy surf and no natural harbors; during the rainy season torrential flooding is possible # deforestation (most of the country's forests - once the largest in West Africa - have been cleared by the timber industry); water pollution from sewage and industrial and agricultural effluents # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # ? # 15446231 47 3629286 3590782 51 4049355 3842508 2 170120 164180 2.41 42.15 16.12 -1.96 1.03 1.01 1.05 1.03 ? 95.95 46.24 44.73 47.80 5.97 Ivorian(s) Ivorian Baoule 23%, Bete 18%, Senoufou 15%, Malinke 11%, Agni, foreign Africans (mostly Burkinabe and Malians, about 3 million), non-Africans 130,000 to 330,000 (French 30,000 and Lebanese 100,000 to 300,000) # Muslim 60%, Christian 12%, indigenous 25% (some of these are also numbered among the Christians and Muslims) # French (official), 60 native dialects with Dioula the most widely spoken # age 15 and over can read and write # 40.10 49.90 30 Republic of Cote d'Ivoire Cote d'Ivoire Republique de Cote d'Ivoire # Cote d'Ivoire .ci republic; multiparty presidential regime established 1960 Yamoussoukro 50 departments (DΘpartements, singular - DΘpartement); Abengourou, Abidjan, Aboisso, Adzope, Agboville, Agnibilekrou, Bangolo, Beoumi, Biankouma, Bondoukou, Bongouanou, Bouafle, Bouake, Bouna, Boundiali, Dabakala, Daloa, Danane, Daoukro, Dimbokro, Divo, Duekoue, Ferkessedougou, Gagnoa, Grand-Lahou, Guiglo, Issia, Katiola, Korhogo, Lakota, Man, Mankono, Mbahiakro, Odienne, Oume, Sakassou, San-Pedro, Sassandra, Seguela, Sinfra, Soubre, Tabou, Tanda, Tingrela, Tiassale, Touba, Toumodi, Vavoua, Yamoussoukro, Zuenoula note: Cote d'Ivoire may have a new administrative structure consisting of 56 departments; the following additional departments have been reported but not yet confirmed by the US Board on Geographic Names (BGN); Adiake', Ale'pe', Dabon, Grand Bassam, Jacqueville, Tiebussan # ? # National Day, 7 August 3 November 1960; has been amended numerous times, last time November 1990 # based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review in the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 21 years of age; universal # President Henri Konan BEDIE (since 7 December 1993); note - succeeded to the presidency following the death of President Felix HOUPHOUET-BOIGNY, who had served continuously since November 1960 # Prime Minister Daniel Kablan DUNCAN (since 10 December 1993) # Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 22 October 1995 (next to be held October 2000); prime minister appointed by the president # Henri Konan BEDIE elected president; percent of vote - Henri Konan BEDIE 96% # unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (175 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) # elections last held 27 November 1995 (next to be held November 2000) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDCI 150, RDR 13, FPI 12 # Supreme Court (Cour Supreme) # Democratic Party of the Cote d'Ivoire or PDCI [Henri Konan BEDIE]; Rally of the Republicans or RDR [Djeny KOBINA]; Ivorian Popular Front or FPI [Laurent GBAGBO]; Ivorian Worker's Party or PIT [Francis WODIE]; Ivorian Socialist Party or PSI [Morifere BAMBA]; over 20 smaller parties # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal vertical bands of orange (hoist side), white, and green; similar to the flag of Ireland, which is longer and has the colors reversed - green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is green (hoist side), white, and red; design was based on the flag of France # Cote d'Ivoire is among the world's largest producers and exporters of coffee, cocoa beans, and palm oil. Consequently, the economy is highly sensitive to fluctuations in international prices for these products and to weather conditions. Despite attempts by the government to diversify the economy, it is still largely dependent on agriculture and related activities, which engage roughly 85% of the population. After several years of lagging performance, the Ivorian economy began a comeback in 1994, due to improved prices for cocoa and coffee, growth in nontraditional primary exports such as pineapples and rubber, limited trade and banking liberalization, offshore oil and gas discoveries, and generous external financing and debt rescheduling by multilateral lenders and France. The 50% devaluation of Franc Zone currencies on 12 January 1994 caused a one-time jump in the inflation rate to 26% in 1994, but the rate fell to 7% in 1996 and an estimated 3.4% in 1997. Moreover, government adherence to donor-mandated reforms led to a jump in growth rates - 6.5% in GDP in 1996 and again in 1997. # 6.50 690 10658 31 20 49 3.40 ? ? # ? 2400 2700 foodstuffs, beverages; wood products, oil refining, automobile assembly, textiles, fertilizer, construction materials, electricity # 9 1.17 1875 127 coffee, cocoa beans, bananas, palm kernels, corn, rice, manioc (tapioca), sweet potatoes, sugar; cotton, rubber; timber # 4200 cocoa 36%, coffee 22%; tropical woods 4%, petroleum, cotton, bananas, pineapples, palm oil, cotton, fish # France 18%, Germany 8%, Italy 8%, Netherlands 8%, Burkina, Mali, US, UK # 3200.00 food, consumer goods; capital goods, fuel, transport equipment # France 32%, Nigeria 20%, US 6%, Ghana, Germany, Italy # 16100.00 ODA, $552 million (1993) # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes # 608.36 calendar year 87700 open-wire lines and microwave radio relay # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean); 2 coaxial submarine cables # 71 0 13 ? 18 810000 660 # # 660 km 1.000-meter gauge; 25 km double track (1995 est.) # # 50400 4,889 km # 45,511 km (1996 est.) # 980 ? ? ? Abidjan, Aboisso, Dabou, San-Pedro # 1 1200 1500 ? # 36 7 1 2 4 12 9 29 ? ? 8 ? ? ? Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard # 18 years of age # 3583410 1866896 172000 140000000 1.40 none # illicit producer of cannabis, mostly for local consumption; minor transshipment point for Southwest and Southeast Asian heroin to Europe and occasionally to the US, and for Latin American cocaine destined for Europe # @Croatia 0 Lijepa nasa domovino Lijepa nasa domovino, Oj junacka zemljo mila, Stare slave djedovino, da bi vazda sretna bila! Mila, kano si nam slavna, Mila si nam ti jedina. Mila kuda si nam ravna, Mila, kuda si planina! Teci Dravo, Savo teci, Nit' ti Dunav silu gubi, Sinje more svijetu reci, Da svoj narod Hrvat ljubi. Dok mu njive sunce grije, Dok mu hrasce bura vije, Dok mu mrtve grobak krije, Dok mu zivo srce bije!" # Greek colonies established along the Dalmatian coast beginning with the fourth century BC. The interior was then dominated by tribal peoples, with the Celts most significant just before the Roman conquest. The Celtic Norican Kingdom, which covered modern Austria, Slovenia and part of northern Croatia, briefly survived the conquest as a Roman tributary. Slavic migrations reached Croatia beginning in the 6th century, some possibly invited by the weakening Byzantine Empire to defend the frontier against other invaders. About 876-879, Croatian rulers established separate states along the Adriatic coast and inland in Slavonia (former Roman Pannonia). About 910-914, Tomislav became ruler of Croatian Dalmatia, and united it with Slavonia. Tomislav is said to have been crowned Croatias first king in 924 or 925. After his death, a series of civil wars weakened central authority and lost peripheral territories including Bosnia. <P> Dalmatia was only partly under Croatian control. In the late 900s, Byzantine Emperor Basil II, under threat from the new Bulgarian Empire, appointed the flourishing trading center of Venice to defend the Empires remaining Dalmatian ports. In response, the southern Dalmatian port and rival trading center of Ragusa or Dubrovnik reasserted a direct Byzantine link to avoid falling under Venetian control. About 1019, after the Byzantine defeat of Bulgaria, Venice was forced to return the Dalmatian ports to Basil II, but in the late 1090s, again seized much of Dalmatia. Gradually expanding its control over several centuries, Venice retained Dalmatia until Napoleon occupied and extinguished the Venetian Republic in 1797. With the Latin occupation of the Byzantine Empire in 1204, Ragusa became an independent city state. In 1808, the Republic of Ragusa was also absorbed by France. <P> The Byzantine resurgence under Basil II was brief, and the Empire's power in Croatia and neighboring lands disappeared over the next two centuries. Croatia, however, was weakened by internal problems. The death of King Zvonimir in 1089 or 1090 without heirs evidently led a group of Croatian nobles in 1091 to conclude the Pacta Conventa with Hungarian King Ladislaus, conceding him the Croatian crown in exchange for Croatian autonomy. Another group of Croatians opposed the Hungarian king, but were defeated by Ladislaus successor Koloman. (Venice took advantage of this fighting to seize Dalmatia, as noted above.) Koloman was crowned King of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia in Biograd (on the Dalmatian coast south of Zadar) in 1102. The Pacta Conventa became the basis for a Croatian struggle of centuries, with varying success, to maintain its autonomy first under the Hungarian crown, and later under the Habsburg emperors. <P> An additional loss of territory, effective albeit not official, followed on the Turkish invasions of the 1500s, with the creation of the Military Border as a defensive measure against the Turks. In 1522, the Croatian nobility invited Austrian Archduke Ferdinand of Habsburg to establish garrisons in Croatia to block Turkish invasion routes. In 1526, the Hungarian army was destroyed by the Turks at Mohacs, and King Louis II himself died fleeing the battlefield. To replace Louis, in 1527, Ferdinand of Habsburg was elected King of Hungary and Croatia. The Turks failed to take Vienna in 1529, but continued to threaten Croatia, Austria and Hungary. In 1553, Ferdinand appointed an Austrian general to take charge of two border regions in Croatia and Slavonia, with authority over both civil and military affairs in those regions. Ferdinand recruited local refugees to supplement his mercenary garrisons. These recruits came to be primarily Serbs, and thus a belt of Serb-settled territory developed along the border between the Habsburg dominions and the Turkish Empire. These areas developed essentially independent of Zagreb, under their separate military commands, becoming institutionalized as the Military Border (Vojna Krajina). Final dissolution of the Military Border and the return of this territory to the control of Zagreb took place only late in the 19th century. (The Serbian settlements along the old border remained until most of their inhabitants fled the Croatian offensives of June and August 1995.) <P> The Hungarian revolution of 1848-49 led by Lajos Kossuth against the Habsburgs provided an opportunity for Ban (Viceroy) Josip Jelacic of Croatia to assert Croatias separate status in supporting the Habsburgs against Hungary. Although on the winning side, Jelacic did distinguish himself militarily, but also stimulated suspicion in Vienna that he, like Kossuth, was a threat to Habsburg rule. However, his actions were honored by a statue in Zagreb's main square, now called Jelacicev Plac. <P> The first significant movement for union of the South Slavic peoples -- the Illyrian Movement -- was formed in Croatia in 1835 by the poet Ljudevit Gaj. Later, Bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer based his South-Slavism (jugoslavenstvo) on the Illyrian Movement, and founded the Yugoslav Academy of Arts and Sciences in Zagreb to promote educational and cultural revival. A more unitarist program for a South Slav was adopted by the Serb-Croat Coalition, founded in 1905 and led after 1910 by the Croatian Serb Svetozar Pribicevic. <P> Ante Starcevic was the first Croatian leader to break with the principle of South Slav unity, and left the Illyrian Movement after 1848 to push for an independent Croatian state, including Bosnia. Starcevic glorified Croatian history, while disparaging the merits of other Slavs, especially the Serbs. Followers of Josip Frank, the Frankovci, drew from Starcevic their strongly anti-Serb views, while advocating Croatian autonomy within the Habsburg Empire rather than independence. <P> Political movements in Serbia, notably the Radical Party of Nikola Pasic, tended to be less influenced by visions of South Slav unity and more by goals of uniting all the lands where Serbs were a majority or to which they had a historical claim. But pressured by the Allies during World War I, Pasic, as Serbian Prime Minister, consented to work for a union with the Croats and Slovenes. On the disintegration of Austria-Hungary in October 1918, a Croatian National Council took power in Zagreb and called for union with the other South Slavic parts of Austria-Hungary. Dalmatia, a separate Habsburg crownland since 1815, also recognized the authority of the Croatian National Council. In December 1918, the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was proclaimed in Belgrade. <P> Centralization of the new Kingdom under Serbian control, concretized in the Vidovdan Constitution of 1921, sparked resistance by its other nationalities. In Croatia, this resistance was led by the Croatian Peasants Party (HSS) under Stjepan Radic. In 1928, Radic was assassinated in the Parliament Building in Belgrade, but the HSS continued its activism under Vlatko Macek. To counter what he perceived as unrest, in 1929 King Alexander abolished Croatia and the other old territorial units and replaced them with Banovinas, renaming the country Yugoslavia. <P> Continued Croatian resistance to centralization eventually produced a compromise in 1939 which established a Croatian Banovina, including almost all of pre-1929 Croatia, as well as much of Bosnia, with Macek as Ban (roughly Viceroy) of Croatia. <P> In 1941, despite security agreements with Britain and France, Yugoslavia was invaded by German, Italian and Hungarian forces. Nazi Germany permitted an extremist Croatian organization, the Ustashe, to set up the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) including Croatia and all of Bosnia, under their leader, Ante Pavelic. The NDH, in turn, contributed Croatian units to the Nazi war effort, primarily to the Russian front. Macek was interned in a village outside of Zagreb, and many HSS activists jailed. Also imprisoned were other regime opponents and ethnic undesirables; the concentration camp (actually a series of camps) at Jasenovac was particularly infamous. The number of persons who perished at Jasenovac is still in dispute. <P> With the collapse of Nazi Germany, and the approach of communist forces toward Zagreb in 1945, most Ustasha leaders, as well as Macek and many other Croatians, fled toward areas occupied by American and British units. A contingent of the Ustasha military and home defense also fled into Austria, but were captured by the Allies at Bleiburg, then returned to Yugoslavia where most evidently were executed by Tito's forces. <P> The Communist-led partisan forces proclaimed a new Yugoslavia at Jajce, in Bosnia, in 1943, and with their victory in 1945, set up a federal state of six republics, substantially restoring the old borders of Bosnia and Croatia, but splitting Macedonia off from Serbia and setting up two autonomous regions within Serbia. Although it largely returned to the pre-1929 internal borders, Tito's new authoritarian government ruthlessly suppressed any sign of ethnic nationalism, with all power given to the multi-ethnic (in theory, non-ethnic) communist party. <P> Some aspects of Tito's system were relaxed over time after his break with Stalin in 1948. However, this relative liberalization did not extend to ethnic nationalism. Constant attention was required to maintain the suppression of nationalist expression. Croatia was an area of special concern, as the center of the strongest nationalist movement in pre-war Yugoslavia. The most serious challenge to the system during Tito's lifetime was probably the Croatian Spring or Mass Movement of the late 1960s, which was ended by the removal by Tito of most of the Croatian leadership in late 1971, and a parallel removal of accused nationalists in Serbia, Slovenia and Macedonia. (One of those jailed in Croatia during this period was the former partisan General Franjo Tudjman.) <P> However, the system of control began to break down after Tito's death in May 1980. To prevent the domination of the country by any one Republic, Tito established a rotating presidency, to come into effect on his death. Each of the six republics, plus the two autonomous regions of Serbia, would have its representative as Federal President for one year. This system achieved its primary goal, but also weakened the President substantially and accelerated the loosening of the system. Still, the impact was not obvious until the leadership of the Serbian Republic adopted an openly nationalist policy in 1987-88, and the Federal leadership was unable to move against them. The Croatian leadership was the first to react, virtually eliminating controls on the media before the end of 1988, and consenting to multi-party elections. <P> Candidates for the 1990 elections included both Croatian nationalists and non-nationalists, both of whom were extensively covered in the Croatian media in the runup to the 1990 elections. On the other hand, the most important parts of the Serbian media were under the control of nationalists working for Serbian President, Slobodan Milosevic. When nationalist Croat politicians, notably Franjo Tudjman, advocated a reduction in ethnic Serb representation in the Croatian police, or argued that the number of victims at Jasenovac had been inflated, the Serbian press repeated and embellished such positions to prove to Serbs that Croatia was returning to the days of the Ustashe, and that Serbs had to take up arms to defend themselves. The fact that some of the new political figures did, in fact, advocate a positive view of the Ustasha movement made still easier the job of the Serb nationalists. By the time of Franjo Tudjman's 1990 election victory, most Serbs in rural areas appear to have been convinced that their lives were in danger. <P> The disintegrating Yugoslav Federal government had made it clear that changes would have to be made in Yugoslavia's constitution. Serbian leaders again advocated central control, supported by Army leaders concerned over the breakdown of communist party control and attacks on army privileges. Croatian leaders, along with the Slovenes, insisted on a very loose federation or even confederation. Bosnia and Macedonia generally took a middle position. With the Serbs were the leaders of Montenegro, and of the autonomous regions of Kosovo and Vojvodina -- the leaderships of all three were ousted by mass protests organized in Serbia. In the collective Yugoslav Presidency, this meant that Serbia could command four out of eight votes. <P> With continuing stalemate, word spread that Serbias government was printing a massive amount of Yugoslav banknotes, without central government authorization. In this manner, Serbia was moving to undermine the economic program of the Federal Premier. There were other factors as well, but this may have been critical in Slovenia's decision unilaterally to declare independence on 25 June 1991. Once Slovenia left, the other opponents of Serbia would find themselves in a minority on the collective Presidency. If Tudjman had not in any case preferred independence, this incentive well might have moved him. In the event, Croatia declared independence on the same day as Slovenia. <P> The critical difference between Slovenia and Croatia was the presence of the substantial Serbian minority in the latter. Recent revelations in Belgrade indicate that Serbian President Milosevic had already decided to let Slovenia go. In Croatia's case, however, he was determined that areas inhabited by Serbs would break away if Croatia left Yugoslavia. Serbian control over the Army ensured that most of its arms ended up in Serbian hands, although this was less effective than in Bosnia. The new Croatian government had an advantage in having begun to arm itself in 1990, and in financial assistance from Croat emigres to fund arms purchases. Nonetheless, Serbs were able to seize about one third of Croatia between June 1991 and the cease-fire of 2 January 1992. They proclaimed the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK). The territory seized was critical to Croatia. It included the land access routes to Dalmatian coast tourist sites, most of Croatia's petroleum resources, and a section cutting the primary access route from Zagreb into Slavonia. Occasional Serb shelling attacks against coastal targets, especially the walled old city of Dubrovnik, virtually eliminated the tourist trade in central and southern Dalmatia. <P> The intervention of UN forces in early 1992, while it stopped most fighting, in Croatian eyes, froze an unacceptable situation. By 1994, the Croatian government began pushing to terminate the UN mandate, albeit against intense opposition from Western Europe. Serious deterioration in the RSK economy and in RSK morale provided the opportunity that Croatia seized in June 1995. A lightning assault captured the Serb-occupied salient in western Slavonia, and opened the main highway. An even more daring assault in August overran the main section of the RSK, leaving only the small section of eastern Slavonia around Vukovar. Next, in September and early October, Croatian army units, especially artillery, joined with Bosnian Federation units to push Bosnian Serb forces out of western Bosnia-Herzegovina. At the time of the October cease-fire, the principal Bosnian Serb stronghold of Banja Luka was seriously threatened. Croatian military achievements both demolished the myth of Serbian military superiority and opened the way to the Bosnian peace accord signed 14 December 1995. <P> In spite of their dispute over the status of Croatian Serbs, the Croatian and Serbian leaderships at times have found a certain common ground. There is substantial evidence that the Serbian and Croatian presidents agreed on a partition of Bosnia-Herzegovina. As Serb nationalists became prominent in Belgrade, so Croatian nationalist natives of Herzegovina became prominent in the Tudjman government, notably Defense Minister Gojko Susak. The same organization that helped arm Croatia in 1990-1991 also helped arm the Croats of Herzegovina, whose political organization is a branch of Tudjman's Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ). These links were important in the fighting between Bosnian Croats and the Bosnian Government that broke out in 1993, and outside pressure on the Croatian government was critical to agreement on a Bosnian Federation, which stopped this fighting in early 1994. <P> However, Serbian President Milosevic proved nationalism was not his primary concern in 1995, as he changed Serbia's policy line and pushed recalcitrant nationalists out of top positions in Belgrade. Although he has yielded to strong pressure to back the Bosnian Federation and renounce partition, Croatia's President Tudjman evidently still is motivated very strongly by the Croatian nationalism with which he won the 1990 election. This promises continued conflicts of interest, on human rights and other questions, between Croatia, and the United States and its West European allies. # HR Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea, between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovenia # 56538 56410 128 2197 Bosnia and Herzegovina 932 km, Hungary 329 km, Serbia and Montenegro 266 km (241 km with Serbia; 25 km with Montenego), Slovenia 670 km # 5790 ? 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # ? ? 12 Mediterranean and continental; continental climate predominant with hot summers and cold winters; mild winters, dry summers along coast # geographically diverse; flat plains along Hungarian border, low mountains and highlands near Adriatic coast, coastline, and islands # Adriatic Sea 0 m Dinara 1,830 m oil, some coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt # 21 2 20 38 19 30 frequent and destructive earthquakes # air pollution (from metallurgical plants) and resulting acid rain is damaging the forests; coastal pollution from industrial and domestic waste; widespread casualties and destruction of infrastructure in border areas affected by civil strife # Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands # Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Desertification # controls most land routes from Western Europe to Aegean Sea and Turkish Straits # 4671584 17 411022 389354 68 1591716 1592485 15 262471 424536 0.13 10.45 11.14 1.94 1.07 1.05 0.99 0.61 ? 8 73.75 70.43 77.28 1.54 Croat(s) Croatian Croat 78%, Serb 12%, Muslim 0.9%, Hungarian 0.5%, Slovenian 0.5%, others 8.1% (1991) # Catholic 76.5%, Orthodox 11.1%, Slavic Muslim 1.2%, Protestant 0.4%, others and unknown 10.8% # Serbo-Croatian 96%, other 4% (including Italian, Hungarian, Czechoslovak, and German) # age 15 and over can read and write # 97 99 95 Republic of Croatia Croatia Republika Hrvatska # Hrvatska .hr presidential/parliamentary democracy Zagreb 21 counties (zupanijas, zupanija - singular): Bjelovar-Bilogora, City of Zagreb, Dubrovnik-Neretva, Istra, Karlovac, Koprivnica-Krizevci, Krapina-Zagorje, Lika-Senj, Medimurje, Osijek-Baranja, Pozega-Slavonia, Primorje-Gorski Kotar, Sibenik, Sisak-Moslavina, Slavonski Brod-Posavina, Split-Dalmatia, Varazdin, Virovitica-Podravina, Vukovar-Srijem, Zadar-Knin, Zagreb # ? # Statehood Day, 30 May (1990) adopted on 22 December 1990 # based on civil law system # 18 years of age; universal (16 years of age, if employed) # President Franjo TUDJMAN (since 30 May 1990) # Prime Minister Zlatko MATESA (since 7 November 1995); Deputy Prime Ministers Mate GRANIC (since 8 September 1992), Ivica KOSTOVIC (since 14 October 1993), Jure RADIC (since NA October 1994), Borislav SKEGRO (since 3 April 1993), and Ljerka MINTAS-HODAK (since November 1995) # Council of Ministers appointed by the president # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 15 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); prime minister and deputy prime ministers appointed by the president # President Franjo TUDJMAN reelected; percent of vote - Franjo TUDJMAN 61%, Zdravko TOMAC 21%, Vlado GOTOVAC 18% # bicameral Assembly or Sabor consists of the House of Districts or Zupanijski Dom (68 seats - 63 directly elected by popular vote, 5 presidentially appointed; members serve four-year terms) and House of Representatives or the Zastupnicki Dom (127 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # House of Districts - last held 13 April 1997 (next to be held NA 2001); House of Representatives - last held 29 October 1995 (next to be held NA 1999) # House of Districts - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - HDZ 42, HDZ/HSS 11, HSS 2, IDS 2, SDP/PGS/HNS 2, SDP/HNS 2, HSLS/HSS/HNS 1, HSLS 1; note - in some districts certain parties ran as coalitions, while in others they ran alone; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - HDZ 45.23%, HSS/IDS/HNS/HKDU/SBHS 18.26%, HSLS 11.55%, SDP 8.93%, HSP 5.01%; seats by party - HDZ 75, HSLS 12, HSS 10, SDP 10, IDS 4, HSP 4, HNS 2, SNS 2, HND 1, ASH 1, HKDU 1, SBHS 1, independents 4 # Supreme Court, judges appointed for eight-year terms by the Judicial Council of the Republic, which is elected by the House of Representatives; Constitutional Court, judges appointed for eight-year terms by the Judicial Council of the Republic, which is elected by the House of Representatives # Croatian Democratic Union or HDZ [Franjo TUDJMAN, president]; Croatian Democratic Independents or HND [Stjepan MESIC, president]; Croatian Social Liberal Party or HSLS [Drazen BUDISA, president]; Liberal Party or LP [Vlado GOTOVAC, president]; Social Democratic Party of Croatia or SDP [Ivica RACAN]; Croatian Party of Rights or HSP [Anto DJAPIC]; Croatian Party of Rights 1861 or HSP 1861 [Dobrislav PARAGA]; Croatian Peasants' Party or HSS [Zlatko TOMCIC]; Croatian People's Party or HNS [Radimir CACIC, president]; Serbian National Party or SNS [Milan DJUKIC]; Action of the Social Democrats of Croatia or ASH [Silvije DEGEN]; Croatian Christian Democratic Union or HKDU [Marko VESELICA, president]; Istrian Democratic Assembly or IDS [Ivan JAKOVCIC]; Slanvonsko-Baranja Croatian Party or SBHS [Damir JURIC]; Primorje Gorski Kotar Alliance; Independent Democratic Serb Party or SDSS [Vojislav STANIMIROVIC]; Party of Democratic Action or SDA [Semso TANKOVIC] # ? # CCC, CE, CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (observer), OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) # red, white, and blue horizontal bands with Croatian coat of arms (red and white checkered) # Before the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the Republic of Croatia, after Slovenia, was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. Croatia faces considerable economic problems stemming from: the legacy of longtime communist mismanagement of the economy; damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses; the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian; and the disruption of economic ties. Western aid and investment, especially in the tourist and oil industries, would help restore the economy. The government has been successful in some reform efforts - partially macroeconomic stabilization policies - and it has normalized relations with its creditors. Yet it still is struggling with privatization of large state enterprises and with bank reform. # 4.40 4610 21536 12 24 64 3.70 1444000 industry and mining 31.1%, agriculture 4.3%, government 19.1% (including education and health), other 45.5% (1993) # 15.90 5300 6300 chemicals and plastics, machine tools, fabricated metal, electronics, pig iron and rolled steel products, aluminum, paper, wood products, construction materials, textiles, shipbuilding, petroleum and petroleum refining, food and beverages; tourism # 0 3.59 7150 2315 wheat, corn, sugar beets, sunflower seed, alfalfa, clover, olives, citrus, grapes, vegetables; livestock breeding, dairy farming # 4300.00 machinery and transport equipment 13.6%, miscellaneous manufactures 27.6%, chemicals 14.2%, food and live animals 12.2%, raw materials 6.1%, fuels and lubricants 9.4%, beverages and tobacco 2.7% (1993) # Germany 22%, Italy 21%, Slovenia 18% (1994) # 9100 machinery and transport equipment 23.1%, fuels and lubricants 8.8%, food and live animals 9.0%, chemicals 14.2%, miscellaneous manufactured articles 16.0%, raw materials 3.5%, beverages and tobacco 1.4% (1993) # Germany 21%, Italy 19%, Slovenia 10% (1994) # 5904 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Croatian kuna (HRK) = 100 lipas # 6.37 calendar year 1216000 NA # no satellite earth stations # 14 8 0 1100000 12 1520000 1907 # 1,907 km 1.435-m gauge (769 km electrified) # # # 27247 22,206 km (including 318 km of expressways) # 5,041 km (1996 est.) # 785 670 20 310 Dubrovnik, Omisalj, Ploce, Pula, Rijeka, Sibenik, Split, Zadar # 72 793114 1187908 bulk 13, cargo 31, chemical tanker 2, combination bulk 5, container 5, liquefied gas 1, multi-function large load carrier 3, oil tanker 2, passenger 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 3, short-sea passenger 5 # 71 20 2 6 2 3 7 51 ? ? 1 8 42 2 Ground Forces, Naval Forces, Air and Air Defense Forces, Frontier Guard, Home Guard # 19 years of age # 1191191 945746 33736 1500000000 8.20 Eastern Slavonia, which was held by ethnic Serbs during the ethnic conflict, was returned to Croatian control by the UN Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia on 15 January 1998; Croatia and Italy made progress toward resolving a bilateral issue dating from WWII over property and ethnic minority rights; significant progress has been made with Slovenia toward resolving a maritime border dispute over direct access to the sea in the Adriatic; Serbia and Montenegro is disputing Croatia's claim to the Prevlaka Peninsula in southern Croatia because it controls the entrance to Boka Kotorska in Montenegro; Prevlaka is currently under observation by the UN military observer mission in Prevlaka (UNMOP) # transit point along the Balkan route for Southwest Asian heroin to Western Europe; a minor transit point for maritime shipments of South American cocaine bound for Western Europe # @Cuba 0 Al combate corred bayameses que la patria os comtempla orgullosa no temais una muerte gloriosa que morir por la patria es vivir En cadenas vivir es morir en afrenta y oprobio sumidos del clarin escuchad el sonido a las armas valientes corred. # Spanish settlers established sugar cane and tobacco as Cuba's primary products. As the native Indian population died out, African slaves were imported to work the plantations. Slavery was abolished in 1886. <P> Cuba was the last major Spanish colony to gain independence, following a 50-year struggle begun in 1850. The final push for independence began in 1895, when Jose Marti, Cuba's national hero, announced the "Grito de Baire" ("Call to arms from Baire"). In 1898, after the USS Maine sunk in Havana Harbor on February 15 due to an explosion of undetermined origin, the United States entered the conflict. In December of that year Spain relinquished control of Cuba to the United States with the Treaty of Paris. On May 20, 1902, the United States granted Cuba its independence, but retained the right to intervene to preserve Cuban independence and stability under the Platt Amendment. In 1934, the amendment was repealed and the United States and Cuba reaffirmed the 1903 agreement which leased the Guantanamo Bay naval base to the United States. The treaty remains in force and can only be terminated by mutual agreement or abandonment by the United States. <P> Until 1959, Cuba was often ruled by military figures, who either obtained or remained in power by force. Fulgencio Batista, an army sergeant who established himself as Cuba's dominant leader for more than 25 years, fled on January 1, 1959, as Castro's "26th of July Movement" gained control. Castro had established the movement in Mexico, where he was exiled after the failed July 26, 1953, attack on the Moncada army barracks at Santiago de Cuba. Within months of taking power, Castro moved to consolidate his power by imprisoning or executing opponents. Hundreds of thousands of Cubans fled the island. <P> Castro declared Cuba a socialist state on April 16, 1961. For the next 30 years, Castro pursued close relations with the Soviet Union until the advent of perestroika and the subsequent demise of the U.S.S.R. During that time Cuba received substantial economic and military assistance from the U.S.S.R.--generally estimated at $5.6 billion annually--which kept its economy afloat and enabled it to maintain an enormous military establishment. In 1962, Cuban-Soviet ties led to a direct confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over the installation of nuclear-equipped missiles in Cuba, resolved only when the U.S.S.R. agreed to withdraw the missiles and other offensive weapons. Soviet subsidies ended in 1991 with the end of the Soviet Union. Former Soviet military personnel in Cuba--numbering around 15,000 in 1990--were withdrawn by 1993. <P> Russia still maintains a signal intelligence-gathering facility at Lourdes and has provided funding to preserve the still uncompleted thermonuclear plant at Juragua. # C Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, south of Florida # 110860 110860 0 29 US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay 29 km # 3735 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; moderated by trade winds; dry season (November to April); rainy season (May to October) # mostly flat to rolling plains with rugged hills and mountains in the southeast # Caribbean Sea 0 m Pico Turquino 2,005 m cobalt, nickel, iron ore, copper, manganese, salt, timber, silica, petroleum # 24 7 27 24 18 9100 the east coast is subject to hurricanes from August to October (in general, the country averages about one hurricane every other year); droughts are common # pollution of Havana Bay; overhunting threatens wildlife populations; deforestation # Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Marine Life Conservation # largest country in Caribbean # 11050729 22 1247339 1182612 69 3795310 3777454 9 490883 557131 0.42 13.13 7.35 -1.53 1.06 1.06 1 0.88 ? 7.89 75.64 73.29 78.13 1.57 Cuban(s) Cuban mulatto 51%, white 37%, black 11%, Chinese 1% # nominally Roman Catholic 85% prior to CASTRO assuming power; Protestants, Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, and Santeria are also represented # Spanish # age 15 and over can read and write # 95.70 96.20 95.30 Republic of Cuba Cuba Republica de Cuba # Cuba .cu Communist state Havana 14 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia) and 1 special municipality* (municipio especial); Camaguey, Ciego de Avila, Cienfuegos, Ciudad de La Habana, Granma, Guantanamo, Holguin, Isla de la Juventud*, La Habana, Las Tunas, Matanzas, Pinar del Rio, Sancti Spiritus, Santiago de Cuba, Villa Clara # ? # Rebellion Day, 26 July (1953); Liberation Day, 1 January (1959) 24 February 1976 # based on Spanish and American law, with large elements of Communist legal theory; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 16 years of age; universal # President of the Council of State and President of the Council of Ministers Fidel CASTRO Ruz (prime minister from February 1959 until 24 February 1976 when office was abolished; president since 2 December 1976); First Vice President of the Council of State and First Vice President of the Council of Ministers Gen. Raul CASTRO Ruz (since 2 December 1976); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President of the Council of State and President of the Council of Ministers Fidel CASTRO Ruz (prime minister from February 1959 until 24 February 1976 when office was abolished; president since 2 December 1976); First Vice President of the Council of State and First Vice President of the Council of Ministers Gen. Raul CASTRO Ruz (since 2 December 1976); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Council of Ministers proposed by the president of the Council of State, appointed by the National Assembly note: there is also a Council of State whose members are elected by the National Assembly # president and vice president elected by the National Assembly; election last held 24 February 1998 (next to be held NA) # Fidel CASTRO Ruz elected president; percent of legislative vote - NA; Raul CASTRO Ruz elected vice president; percent of legislative vote - NA # unicameral National Assembly of People's Power or Asemblea Nacional del Poder Popular (601 seats, elected directly from slates approved by special candidacy commissions; members serve five-year terms) # last held 11 January 1998 (next to be held NA 2003) # percent of vote - NA; seats - PCC 601 # People's Supreme Court (Tribunal Supremo Popular), president, vice president, and other judges are elected by the National Assembly # only party - Cuban Communist Party or PCC [Fidel CASTRO Ruz, first secretary] # ? # CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IAEA, ICAO, ICRM, IFAD, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM, OAS (excluded from formal participation since 1962), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # five equal horizontal bands of blue (top and bottom) alternating with white; a red equilateral triangle based on the hoist side bears a white five-pointed star in the center # The state plays the primary role in the economy and controls practically all foreign trade. The government has undertaken several reforms in recent years to stem excess liquidity, increase labor incentives, and alleviate serious shortages of food, consumer goods, and services. The liberalized agricultural markets introduced in October 1994, at which state and private farmers sell above-quota production at unrestricted prices, have broadened legal consumption alternatives and reduced black market prices. Government efforts to lower subsidies to unprofitable enterprises and to shrink the money supply caused the semi-official exchange rate for the Cuban peso to move from a peak of 120 to the dollar in the summer of 1994 to 23 to the dollar by yearend 1997. New taxes introduced in 1996 helped drive down the number of self-employed workers from 208,000 in January 1996 to 176,000 by September 1997. Havana announced in 1995 that GDP declined by 35% during 1989-93, the result of lost Soviet aid and domestic inefficiencies. The drop in GDP apparently halted in 1994, when Cuba reported 0.7% growth, followed by increases of 2.5% in 1995 and 7.8% in 1996. Growth slowed again in 1997, to 2.5%, in part due to a poor sugar harvest. Export earnings declined 3% in 1997, to $1.9 billion, the result of lower sugar export volume and lower world prices for nickel and sugar. Imports remained unchanged in 1997 at $3.2 billion. Tourism plays a key role in foreign currency earnings. The disparity between those at the top of the ladder and those at the bottom has increased markedly in the past 10 years. Living standards for the average Cuban remain at a depressed level compared with 1990. # 2.50 740 8178 7.60 34.80 57.60 ? 4500000 services and government 30%, industry 22%, agriculture 20%, commerce 11%, construction 10%, transportation and communications 7% (June 1990) # 8 ? ? sugar, petroleum, food, tobacco, textiles, chemicals, paper and wood products, metals (particularly nickel), cement, fertilizers, consumer goods, agricultural machinery # 6 3.99 10105 924 sugarcane, tobacco, citrus, coffee, rice, potatoes and other tubers, beans; livestock # 1900.00 sugar, nickel, tobacco, shellfish, medical products, citrus, coffee # Russia 18%, Netherlands 14% Canada 13% (1997 est.) # 3200.00 petroleum, food, machinery, chemicals # Spain 14%, Russia 12%, Mexico 9% (1997 est.) # 10500 ODA, $46 million (1997 est.) # ? # 1 Cuban peso (Cu$) = 100 centavos # 1 calendar year 229000 NA # satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region) # 150 5 1 2140000 58 2500000 4677 # 4,677 km 1.435-m gauge (132 km electrified) # # # 27700 15,484 km # 12,216 km (1996 est.) # 240 ? ? ? Cienfuegos, Havana, Manzanillo, Mariel, Matanzas, Nuevitas, Santiago de Cuba # 17 91981 126416 cargo 9, liquefied gas tanker 1, oil tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 6 # 171 77 7 9 14 11 36 94 ? ? ? 33 61 ? Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR) includes ground forces, Revolutionary Navy (MGR), Air and Air Defense Force (DAAFAR), Territorial Troops Militia (MTT), and Youth Labor Army (EJT); The Border Guard (TGF), which is controlled by the Interior Ministry # 17 years of age # 3060954 1898351 67200 ? 4 US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay is leased to US and only mutual agreement or US abandonment of the area can terminate the lease # territory serves as lesser transshipment zone for cocaine bound for the US # @Cyprus 0 Segnorees apo tin kopsi too spathyoo tin tromeri; Segnorees apo tin opsi poo me vya metra tin yee. Ap ta kokkala vyalmenee ton elleenon ta ye ra Ke san prawt' anthreeomenee hyer'o hyeri eleftherya. Ke san prawt' anthreeomenee hyer'o hye r'eleftherya, Ke san prawt' anthreeomenee hyer'o hye r'eleftherya. # Cypriot culture is among the oldest in the Mediterranean. By 3700 BC, the island was well-inhabited, a crossroads between East and West. The island fell successively under Assyrian, Egyptian, Persian, Greek, and Roman domination. For 800 years, beginning in AD 364, Cyprus was ruled by Byzantium. After brief possession by Richard the Lion-Hearted during the Crusades, the island came under Frankish control in the late 12th century. It was ceded to the Venetian Republic in 1489 and conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1571. The Ottomans applied the millet system to Cyprus, which allowed religious authorities to govern their own non-Muslim minorities. This system reinforced the position of the Orthodox Church and the cohesion of the ethnic Greek population. Most of the Turks who settled on the island during the 3 centuries of Ottoman rule remained when control of Cyprus--although not sovereignty--was ceded to Great Britain in 1878. Many, however, left for Turkey during the 1920s. The island was annexed formally by the U.K. in 1914 at the outbreak of World War I and became a crown colony in 1925. <P> Cyprus gained its independence from the U.K. in 1960, after an anti-British campaign by the Greek Cypriot EOKA (National Organization of Cypriot Fighters), a guerrilla group which desired political union with Greece, or enosis. Archbishop Makarios, a charismatic religious and political leader, was elected president. <P> Shortly after the founding of the republic, serious differences arose between the two communities about the implementation and interpretation of the constitution. The Greek Cypriots argued that the complex mechanisms introduced to protect Turkish Cypriot interests were obstacles to efficient government. In November 1963, President Makarios advanced a series of constitutional amendments designed to eliminate some of these special provisions. The Turkish Cypriots opposed such changes. The confrontation prompted widespread intercommunal fighting in December 1963, after which Turkish Cypriot participation in the central government ceased. UN peacekeepers were deployed on the island in 1964. Following another outbreak of intercommunal violence in 1967-68, a Turkish Cypriot provisional administration was formed. <P> In July 1974, the military junta in Athens sponsored a coup led by extremist Greek Cypriots hostile to Makarios for his alleged pro-communist leanings and for his perceived abandonment of enosis. Turkey, citing the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee, intervened militarily to protect Turkish Cypriots. <P> In a two-stage offensive, Turkish troops took control of 38% of the island. Many Greek Cypriots fled south while many Turkish Cypriots fled north. Since then, the southern part of the country has been under the control of the Government of Cyprus and the northern part under an autonomous Turkish-Cypriot administration supported by the presence of Turkish troops. In 1983, that administration proclaimed itself the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus," recognized only by Turkey. UN peacekeeping forces maintain a buffer zone between the two sides. Except for occasional demonstrations or infrequent incidents between soldiers in the buffer zone, there had been no violent conflict since 1974 until August 1996, when violent clashes led to the death of two demonstrators and escalated tension. There is little movement of people and essentially no movement of goods or services between the two parts of the island. Efforts to reunite the island under a federal structure continue, however, under the auspices of the United Nations. # CY Middle East, island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Turkey # 9250 9240 10 ? ? # 648 ? 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # ? ? 12 temperate, Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters # central plain with mountains to north and south; scattered but significant plains along southern coast # Mediterranean Sea 0 m Olympus 1,952 m copper, pyrites, asbestos, gypsum, timber, salt, marble, clay earth pigment # 12 5 0 13 70 390 moderate earthquake activity # water resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall; sea water intrusion to island's largest aquifier; increased salinization in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization # Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # ? # 748982 25 94006 89256 65 245739 241935 10 33989 44057 0.69 13.93 7.51 0.44 1.05 1.05 1.02 0.77 ? 7.97 76.79 74.62 79.07 2.03 Cypriot(s) Cypriot Greek 78% (99.5% of the Greeks live in the Greek Cypriot area; 0.5% of the Greeks live in the Turkish Cypriot area), Turkish 18% (1.3% of the Turks live in the Greek Cypriot area; 98.7% of the Turks live in the Turkish Cypriot area), other 4% (99.2% of the other ethnic groups live in the Greek Cypriot area; 0.8% of the other ethnic groups live in the Turkish Cypriot area) # Greek Orthodox 78%, Muslim 18%, Maronite, Armenian Apostolic, and other 4% # Greek, Turkish, English # age 15 and over can read and write # 94 98 91 Republic of Cyprus Cyprus ? # ? .cy republic Nicosia 6 districts; Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol, Nicosia, Paphos; note - Turkish Cypriot area administrative divisions include Kyrenia, all but a small part of Famagusta, and small parts of Nicosia and Larnaca # ? # Independence Day, 1 October 16 August 1960; negotiations to create the basis for a new or revised constitution to govern the island and to better relations between Greek and Turkish Cypriots have been held intermittently; in 1975 Turkish Cypriots created their own constitution and governing bodies within the "Turkish Federated State of Cyprus," which was renamed the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" in 1983; a new constitution for the Turkish Cypriot area passed by referendum on 5 May 1985 # based on common law, with civil law modifications # 18 years of age; universal # President Glafcos CLERIDES (since 28 February 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; post of vice president is currently vacant; under the 1960 constitution, the post is reserved for a Turkish Cypriot # President Glafcos CLERIDES (since 28 February 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; post of vice president is currently vacant; under the 1960 constitution, the post is reserved for a Turkish Cypriot # Council of Ministers appointed jointly by the president and vice president # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 15 February 1998 (next to be held NA February 2003) # Glafcos CLERIDES elected president; percent of vote - Glafcos CLERIDES 50.8%, George IAKOVOU 49.2% note: Rauf R. DENKTASH has been "president" of the Turkish Cypriot area since 13 February 1975 ("president" elected by popular vote for a five-year term); elections last held 15 and 22 April 1995 (next to be held NA April 2000); results - Rauf R. DENKTASH 62.5%, Dervis EROGLU 37.5%; Dervis EROGLU has been "prime minister" of the Turkish Cypriot area since 16 August 1996; there is a Council of Ministers (cabinet) in the Turkish Cypriot area # unicameral - Greek Cypriot area: House of Representatives or Vouli Antiprosopon (80 seats of which only 56 assigned to the Greek Cypriots are filled; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms); Turkish Cypriot area: Assembly of the Republic or Cumhuriyet Meclisi (50 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # Greek area: last held 26 May 1996 (next to be held May 2001); Turkish area: last held 12 December 1993 (next to be held December 1998) # Greek area: House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - DISY 34.5%, AKEL (Communist) 33.0%, DIKO 16.4%, EDEK 8.1%, KED 3.7%, others 4.1%; seats by party - DISY 20, AKEL (Communist) 19, DIKO 10, EDEK 5, KED 2; Turkish area: Assembly of the Republic - percent of vote by party - UBP 29.9%, DP 29.2%, CTP 24.2% TKP 13.3%, others 3.4%; seats by party - UBP (conservative) 17, DP 15, CTP 13, TKP 5; as of 13 May 1997, seats by party - UBP 18, DP 13, CTP 13, TKP 5, independent 1 # Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the Supreme Council of Judicature # Greek Cypriot area: Restorative Party of the Working People or AKEL (Communist Party) [Dimitrios CHRISTOFIAS]; Democratic Rally or DISY [Nikos ANASTASIADHIS]; Democratic Party or DIKO [Spyros KYPRIANOU]; United Democratic Union of Cyprus or EDEK [Vassos LYSSARIDIS]; Eurodemocratic Renewal Movement [Alexis GALANOS]; United Democrats Movement or EDI (formerly Free Democrats Movement or KED) [George VASSILIOU]; New Horizons [Nikolaos KOUTSOU, secretary general]; Ecologists [Yeoryios PERDHIKIS]; Turkish Cypriot area: National Unity Party or UBP [Dervis EROGLU]; Communal Liberation Party or TKP [Mustafa AKINCI]; Republican Turkish Party or CTP [Mehmet ALI TALAT]; Unity and Sovereignty Party or BEP [Arif Salih KIRDAG]; Democratic Party or DP [Serdar DENKTASH]; National Birth Party or UDP [Enuer EMIN]; New Cyprus Party of YKP [Alpay DURDURAN]; Our Party or BP [Okyay SADIKOGLU] # ? # C, CCC, CE, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # white with a copper-colored silhouette of the island (the name Cyprus is derived from the Greek word for copper) above two green crossed olive branches in the center of the flag; the branches symbolize the hope for peace and reconciliation between the Greek and Turkish communities # The Greek Cypriot economy is small and prosperous, but highly susceptible to external shocks. Industry contributes 22% to GDP and employs 25% of the labor force, while the service sector contributes 73% to GDP and employs 62% of the labor force. Erratic growth rates in the 1990s reflect the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals, caused by political instability on the island and fluctuations in economic conditions in Western Europe. The Turkish Cypriot economy has about one-third the per capita GDP of the south. Because it is recognized only by Turkey, it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there. The economy remains heavily dependent on agriculture and government service, which together employ about half of the work force. Moreover, the small, vulnerable economy has suffered because the Turkish lira is legal tender. To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey provides direct and indirect aid to nearly every sector. In January 1997, Turkey signed a $250 million economic cooperation accord with the Turkish Cypriot area to support tourism, education, and industry. # 2.40 14930 11182 ? ? ? 3.50 276200 services 63%, industry 22%, agriculture 15% (1995) # 3.90 3100 3700 food, beverages, textiles, chemicals, metal products, tourism, wood products # -2.10 0.67 2600 3530 potatoes, citrus, vegetables, barley, grapes, olives, vegetables # 1400 citrus, potatoes, grapes, wine, cement, clothing and shoes # Russia 19.1%, Bulgaria 16.4%, UK 11.3%, Turkey 9%, Greece 6.3%, Germany 4.8% # 3900 consumer goods, petroleum and lubricants, chemicals, food and feed grains, machinery # US 17.8%, UK 11.9%, Turkey 9.3%, Italy 9%, Germany 7%, Greece 7% # 1560 ? # ? # 1 Cypriot pound (£C) = 100 cents; 1 Turkish lira (TL) = 100 kurus # 1 calendar year 447000 open wire, fiber-optic cable, and microwave radio relay # tropospheric scatter; 3 coaxial and 5 fiber-optic submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean), 2 Eutelsat, 2 Intersputnik, and 1 Arabsat # 4 36 1 500000 10 390000 ? # # # # 12765 Greek Cypriot area: 7317 km # Greek Cypriot area: 5448 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol, Paphos, Vasilikos Bay # 1533 23330565 37272825 bulk 471, cargo 568, chemical tanker 23, combination bulk 48, combination ore/oil 12, container 139, liquefied gas tanker 5, oil tanker 142, passenger 7, passenger-cargo 1, refrigerated cargo 54, roll-on/roll-off cargo 42, short-sea passenger 16, specialized tanker 3, vehicle carrier 2 # 15 12 ? 8 ? 3 1 3 ? ? ? 1 2 4 Greek Cypriot area: Greek Cypriot National Guard (GCNG; includes air and naval elements); Hellenic Forces Regiment on Cyprus (ELDYK); Greek Cypriot # 18 years of age # 192389 132252 6220 405000000 5.40 1974 hostilities divided the island into two de facto autonomous areas, a Greek Cypriot area controlled by the internationally recognized Cypriot Government (59% of the island's land area) and a Turkish-Cypriot area (37% of the island), that are separated by a UN buffer zone (4% of the island); there are two UK sovereign base areas within the Greek Cypriot portion of the island # transit point for heroin and hashish via air routes and container traffic to Europe, especially from Lebanon and Turkey; some cocaine transits as well # @Czech Republic 0 Kde domov muj Kde domov muj, kde domov muj, voda huci po lucinach, bory sumi po skalinach, v sade skvi se jara kvet, zemsky raj to na pohled! A to je ta krasna zeme, zeme ceska domov muj, zeme ceska domov muj! # Czechoslovakia is made up of Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia. These were part of the Great Moravian Empire in the early Middle Ages. Following the collapse of the empire, Slovakia was overrun by the Magyars, while Bohemia and Moravia became part of the Holy Roman Empire, and later the Habsburg Empire of Austro-Hungary. Czechoslovakia was formed after the defeat of Austro-Hungary in 1918. It was occupied by Germany from 1939 until 1945, when it was liberated by the Soviet Union. It became a people's republic under communist control in 1948. Attempts to liberalize the country by Alexander Dubcek in 1968 resulted in its invasion by Warsaw Pact troops. Attempts at political and economic reform were renewed in 1988. These led to the collapse of the communist regime in 1989. In June 1990, free elections were held for the 300-strong Federal Parliament. Czechoslovakia consists of 2 federal republics, the Czech Socialist republic, and the Slovak Socialist Republic, and a total of 12 regions. # CR Central Europe, southeast of Germany # 78703 78645 58 1881 Austria 362 km, Germany 646 km, Poland 658 km, Slovakia 215 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? temperate; cool summers; cold, cloudy, humid winters # Bohemia in the west consists of rolling plains, hills, and plateaus surrounded by low mountains; Moravia in the east consists of very hilly country # Elbe River 115 m Snezka 1,602 m hard coal, soft coal, kaolin, clay, graphite # 41 2 11 34 12 240 NA # air and water pollution in areas of northwest Bohemia and in northern Moravia around Ostrava present health risks; acid rain damaging forests # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol # landlocked; strategically located astride some of oldest and most significant land routes in Europe; Moravian Gate is a traditional military corridor between the North European Plain and the Danube in central Europe # 10286470 17 907744 864202 69 3555822 3548548 14 541031 869123 -0.11 8.96 10.92 0.92 1.05 1.05 1 0.62 ? 6.79 74.11 70.75 77.65 1.17 Czech(s) Czech Czech 94.4%, Slovak 3%, Polish 0.6%, German 0.5%, Gypsy 0.3%, Hungarian 0.2%, other 1% # atheist 39.8%, Roman Catholic 39.2%, Protestant 4.6%, Orthodox 3%, other 13.4% # Czech, Slovak # age NA and over can read and write # 99 ? ? Czech Republic Czech Republic Ceska Republika # Ceska Republika .cz parliamentary democracy Prague 8 regions (kraje, kraj - singular); Jihocesky, Jihomoravsky, Praha, Severocesky, Severomoravsky, Stredocesky, Vychodocesky, Zapadocesky # ? # National Liberation Day, 8 May; Founding of the Republic, 28 October ratified 16 December 1992; effective 1 January 1993 # civil law system based on Austro-Hungarian codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction; legal code modified to bring it in line with Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) obligations and to expunge Marxist-Leninist legal theory # 18 years of age; universal # President Vaclav HAVEL (since 2 February 1993) # Prime Minister Milos ZEMAN; Deputy Prime Ministers Vladimir Spidla, Pavel Rychetsky, Egon Lansky, Pavel Mertlik # Cabinet appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister # president elected by Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 20 January 1998 (next to be held NA January 2003); prime minister appointed by the president # Vaclav HAVEL elected president; percent of parliamentary vote - NA; Vaclav HAVEL received 47 of 81 votes in the Senate and 99 out of 200 votes in the Chamber of Deputies (second round of voting) # bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Senate or Senat (81 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve staggered two-, four-, and six-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies or Snemovna Poslancu (200 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # Senate - last held 15-16 and 22-23 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 1998 - to replace/re-elect 20 senators serving two-year terms); Chamber of Deputies - last held 31 May-1 June 1996 (early elections to be held NA June 1998) # Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - governing coalition (ODS 32, KDU-CSL 13, ODA 7), opposition (CSSD 25, KCSM 2, DEU 1, independent 1); Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - governing coalition (ODS 68, KDU-CSL 18, ODA 13), opposition (CSSD 61, KCSM 22, SPR-RSC 18) # Supreme Court, chairman and deputy chairmen are appointed by the president for life; Constitutional Court, chairman and deputy chairmen are appointed by the president for life # Civic Democratic Party or ODS [Vaclav KLAUS, chairman]; Civic Democratic Alliance or ODA [Jiri SKALICKY, chairman]; Christian Democratic Union-Czech People's Party or KDU-CSL [Josef LUX, chairman]; Czech Social Democrats or CSSD - left opposition [Milos ZEMAN, chairman]; Communist Party or KSCM - left opposition [Miroslav GREBENICEK, chairman]; Assembly for the Republic or SPR-RSC - extreme right radical [Miroslav SLADEK, chairman]; Democratic Union or DEU [Ratibor MAJZLIK, chairman] note: the governing coalition resigned in November 1997; a caretaker government, led by Prime Minister Josef TOSOVSKY, was appointed by President HAVEL in December 1997; new general elections will most likely be held in June 1998; there are three new parties that have not been voted into office, but were created in the wake of Prime Minister KLAUS' resignation: Freedom Union or US [Jan RUML, chairman], Conservative Consensus Party [Ivan MASEK and Cestmir HOFHANZL], and Party of the Democratic Center [Josef WAGNER, chairman] # ? # Australia Group, BIS, CCC, CE (guest), CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NSG, OECD, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMOP, UNOMIG, UNPREDEP, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC # two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side (almost identical to the flag of the former Czechoslovakia) # Political and financial crises in 1997 shattered the Czech Republic's image as one of the most stable and prosperous of post-Communist states. Delays in enterprise restructuring and failure to develop a well-functioning capital market played major roles in Czech economic troubles, which culminated in a currency crisis in May. The currency was forced out of its fluctuation band as investors worried that the current account deficit, which reached about 8% of GDP in 1996, would become unsustainable. After expending $3 billion in vain to support the currency, the central bank let it float. The growing current account imbalance reflected a surge in domestic demand and poor export performance, as wage increases outpaced productivity. The government was forced to introduce two austerity packages later in the spring which cut government spending by 2.5% of GDP. A tough 1998 budget continues the painful medicine. These problems were compounded in the summer of 1997 by unprecedented flooding which inundated much of the eastern part of the country. Czech difficulties in 1997 contrast with earlier achievements of strong GDP growth, a balanced budget, and inflation and unemployment that were among the lowest in the region. The Czech economy's transition problems continue to be too much direct and indirect government influence on the privatized economy, the sometimes ineffective management of privatized firms, and a shortage of experienced financial analysts for the banking system. Prague forecasts a balanced budget, 2.2% GDP growth, 5.2% unemployment, and 10% inflation for 1998. # 0.70 5200 53490 5 40.60 54.40 10 5124000 industry 33.1%, agriculture 6.9%, construction 9.1%, transport and communications 7.2%, services 43.7% (1994) # 5 14200 14600 fuels, ferrous metallurgy, machinery and equipment, coal, motor vehicles, glass, armaments # 6.90 13.85 53285.00 5069 grains, potatoes, sugar beets, hops, fruit; pigs, cattle, poultry; forest products # 21700 machinery and equipment 32.7%, manufactured goods 28.8%, raw materials and fuel 9.2%, food 4.1% (1996) # EU 60.9%, CEFTA 21.4%, Slovakia 13.9%, EFTA 1.7% (1996) # 27700 machinery and equipment 38.2%, manufactured goods 19.3%, raw materials and fuels 12.4%, and food 5.6% (1996) # EU 61.1%, CEFTA 16.3%, Slovakia 11.8%, EFTA 2.2% (1996) # 20700 ? # ? # 1 koruna (Kc) = 100 haleru # 35.36 calendar year 3349539 NA # satellite earth stations - 2 Intersputnik (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions) # ? ? ? ? ? ? 9440 # 9,344 km 1.435-m standard gauge (2,688 km electrified at three voltages; 1,885 km double track) # 96 km 0.760-m narrow gauge (1996) # # 55489 55,489 km (including 423 km of expressways) # 0 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? 5400 Decin, Prague, Usti nad Labem # 5 110233 192998 bulk 3 under Maltese flag, cargo 2 under the Cypriot flag (1997 est.) # 66 33 2 7 10 1 13 33 ? ? ? 17 16 1 Army, Air Force, Civil Defense # 18 years of age # 2699023 2056386 78188 1220000000 2.20 Liechtenstein claims restitution for 1,600 sq km of territory in the Czech Republic confiscated from its royal family in 1918; the Czech Republic insists that restitution does not go back before February 1948, when the communists seized power; individual Sudeten German claims for restitution of property confiscated in connection with their expulsion after World War II; unresolved property issues with Slovakia over redistribution of former Czechoslovak federal property # transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and hashish and Latin American cocaine to Western Europe; domestic consumption - especially of locally produced synthetic drugs - on the rise # @Denmark 0 Der er et yndigt land, Det stσr med brede b°ge Nµr salten °sterstrand; Det bugter sig i bakke, dal, Det hedder gamle Danmark, Og det er Frejeas sal. Kong Kristian stod ved h°jen mast i r°g og damp; Hans vµrge hamrede sσ fast, At Gotens hjelm og hjerne brast. Da sank hver fjendligt spejl og mast i r°g und damp. "Fly", skreg de, "fly, hvad flygte kan! Hvo stσr for Danmarks Kristian i kamp?" # During the Viking period (9th-11th centuries), Denmark was a great power based on the Jutland Peninsula, the Island of Zealand, and the southern part of what is now Sweden. In the early 11th century, King Canute united Denmark and England for almost 30 years. <P> Viking raids brought Denmark into contact with Christianity, and in the 12th century, crown and church influence increased. By the late 13th century, royal power had waned, and the nobility forced the king to grant a charter, considered Denmark's first constitution. Although the struggle between crown and nobility continued into the 14th century, Queen Margrethe I succeeded in uniting Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland under the Danish crown. Sweden and Finland left the union in 1520; however, Norway remained until 1814. Iceland, in a "personal union" under the king of Denmark after 1918, became independent in 1944. <P> The Reformation was introduced in Denmark in 1536. Denmark's provinces in today's southwestern Sweden were lost in 1658, and Norway was transferred from the Danish to the Swedish crown in 1814, following the defeat of Napoleon, with whom Denmark was allied. <P> The Danish liberal movement gained momentum in the 1830s, and in 1849 Denmark became a constitutional monarchy. After the war with Prussia and Austria in 1864, Denmark was forced to cede Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia and adopt a policy of neutrality. Toward the end of the 19th century, Denmark inaugurated important social and labor market reforms, laying the basis for the present welfare state. <P> Denmark remained neutral during World War I. Despite its declaration of neutrality at the beginning of World War II, it was invaded by the Germans in 1940 and occupied until it was liberated by the Allied forces in May 1945. Denmark became a charter member of the United Nations and was one of the original signers of the North Atlantic Treaty. A 63% vote in favour of Denmark becoming a member of the EC was the result of a referendum held in 1972. Membership commenced on 1 January 1973. # DK Northern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, on a peninsula north of Germany # 43094 42394 700 68 Germany 68 km # 7314 4 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # 200 ? 3 temperate; humid and overcast; mild, windy winters and cool summers # low and flat to gently rolling plains # Lammefjord -7 m Ejer Bavnehoj 173 m petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, stone, gravel and sand # 60 0 5 10 25 4350 flooding is a threat in some areas of the country (e.g., parts of Jutland, along the southern coast of the island of Lolland) that are protected from the sea by a system of dikes # air pollution, principally from vehicle and power plant emissions; nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the North Sea; drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea # controls Danish Straits (Skagerrak and Kattegat) linking Baltic and North Seas; about one-quarter of the population lives in Copenhagen # 5333617 18 496886 471891 67 1807384 1760353 15 330385 466718 0.49 12.18 11.08 3.77 1.05 1.05 1.03 0.71 ? 5.17 76.31 73.64 79.12 1.68 Dane(s) Danish Scandinavian, Eskimo, Faroese, German # Evangelical Lutheran 91%, other Protestant and Roman Catholic 2%, other 7% (1988) # Danish, Faroese, Greenlandic (an Eskimo dialect), German (small minority) # age 15 and over can read and write # 99 ? ? Kingdom of Denmark Denmark Kongeriget Danmark # Danmark .dk constitutional monarchy Copenhagen metropolitan Denmark - 14 counties (amter, singular - amt) and 2 kommunes*; (stad); Arhus, Bornholm, Fredericksberg*, Frederiksborg, Fyn, Kobenhavn, Kobenhavn*, Nordjylland, Ribe, Ringkobing, Roskilde, Sonderjylland, Storstrom, Vejle, Vestsjalland, Viborg note: see separate entries for the Faroe Islands and Greenland, which are part of the Danish realm and self-governing administrative divisions # ? # Birthday of the Queen, 16 April (1940) 1849 was the original constitution; there was a major overhaul 5 June 1953, allowing for a unicameral legislature and a female chief of state # civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal # Queen MARGRETHE II (since 14 January 1972); Heir Apparent Crown Prince FREDERIK, elder son of the queen (born 26 May 1968) # Prime Minister Poul Nyrup RASMUSSEN (since 25 January 1993) # Cabinet appointed by the queen # none; the queen is a constitutional monarch; prime minister appointed by the queen # ? # unicameral Parliament or Folketing (179 seats; members are elected on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms) # last held 11 March 1998 (next to be held NA 2002) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - progovernment parties: Social Democrats 65, Socialist People's Party 13, Radical Liberal Party 7, Unity Party 5; opposition: Progress Party 42, Conservative People's Party 16, Danish People's Party 13, Center Democrats 8, other parties 10 # Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the monarch for life # Social Democratic Party [Poul Nyrup RASMUSSEN]; Conservative Party [Torben RECHENDORFF]; Liberal Party [Uffe ELLEMANN-JENSEN]; Socialist People's Party [Holger K. NIELSEN]; Progress Party [Kirsten JAKOBSEN]; Center Democratic Party [Mimi JAKOBSEN]; Social Liberal Party [Marianne JELVED]; Unity Party [none]; Danish People's Party [Pia KJAERSGAARD]; Radical Liberal Party [Margrethe VESTAGER]; Conservative People's Party [Torben RECHENDORFF] # ? # AfDB, AG (observer), AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MTCR, NATO, NC, NEA, NIB, NSG, OECD, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNPREDEP, UNTSO, UPU, WEU (observer), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC # red with a white cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side, and that design element of the Dannebrog (Danish flag) was subsequently adopted by the other Nordic countries of Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden # This thoroughly modern market economy features high-tech agriculture, up-to-date small-scale and corporate industry, extensive government welfare measures, comfortable living standards, and high dependence on foreign trade. Denmark is a net exporter of food. The center-left coalition government will concentrate on reducing the persistently high unemployment rate and the budget deficit as well as following the previous government's policies of maintaining low inflation and a current account surplus. The coalition also vows to maintain a stable currency. The coalition has lowered marginal income taxes while maintaining overall tax revenues; boosted industrial competitiveness through labor market and tax reforms and increased research and development funds; and improved welfare services for the neediest while cutting paperwork and delays. Prime Minister RASMUSSEN's reforms focus on adapting Denmark to the criteria for European integration by 1999; Copenhagen has won from the European Union (EU) the right to opt out of the European Monetary Union (EMU). Denmark is, in fact, one of the few EU countries likely to fit into the EMU on time. Growth may fall off slightly to 2.8% in 1998, and inflation may rise to 2.5%. # 3 32500 173343 4 27 69 2.20 2895950 private services 40%, government services 30%, manufacturing and mining 19%, construction 6%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 5% (1995) # 7.90 62100.00 66400 food processing, machinery and equipment, textiles and clothing, chemical products, electronics, construction, furniture, and other wood products, shipbuilding # 1.30 10.60 34244 6432 grain, potatoes, rape, sugar beets; meat, dairy products; fish # 48800 machinery and instruments 25%, meat and meat products, fuels, dairy products, ships, fish, chemicals # Germany 22.5%, Sweden 9.7%, UK 7.9%, Norway 5.9%, France 5.4%, Netherlands 4.4%, US 4.0% (1995) # 43200 machinery and equipment, petroleum 25%, chemicals, grain and foodstuffs, textiles, paper # Germany 21.7%, Sweden 11.7%, Netherlands 7.0%, UK 6.6%, France 5.2%, Norway 4.9%, US 4.7%, Japan 3.5%, FSU 1.7% (1995) # 44000 ? # ODA, $1.34 billion (1993) # 1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 oere # 6.92 calendar year 4025000.00 buried and submarine cables and microwave radio relay form trunk network, four cellular radio communications systems # 18 submarine fiber-optic cables linking Denmark with Norway, Sweden, Russia, Poland, Germany, Netherlands, UK, Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Canada; satellite earth stations - 6 Intelsat, 10 Eutelsat, 1 Orion, 1 Inmarsat (Blaavand-Atlantic-East); note - the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) share the Danish earth station and the Eik, Norway, station for world-wide Inmarsat access # 2 3 0 ? 50 3000000 3358 # 3,358 km 1.435-m gauge (440 km electrified; 760 km double track) (1996) # # # 71600 71,600 km (including 880 km of expressways) # 0 km (1996 est.) # 417 110 578 700 Alborg, Arhus, Copenhagen, Esbjerg, Fredericia, Grena, Koge, Odense, Struer # 327 4972331 6894091 bulk 14, cargo 118, chemical tanker 16, container 76, liquefied gas tanker 24, livestock carrier 6, oil tanker 25, railcar carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off cargo 22, short-sea passenger 9, specialized tanker 2 # 118 28 2 7 3 13 3 90 ? ? 1 7 82 ? Royal Danish Army, Royal Danish Navy, Royal Danish Air Force, Home Guard # 20 years of age # 1324150 1137563 32918 2900000000 1.60 Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Iceland, Ireland, and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area) # ? # @Djibouti 0 Hinjinne u sara kaca Calankaan haraad iyo Haydaar u mudateen. Hir cagaarku qariyayiyo Habkay samadu tahayoo Xiddig dhi igleh hoorshoo Cadaan lagu hadheeyaay. Maxaa haybad kugu yall. # The first french settlements in Djibouti date from the 1850's. France gained control of the area around the port of Obock in 1862 by purchasing it from the Afars. Control was expanded throughout the rest of the century. Djibouti became a French overseas area in 1967, its old name of French Somaliland being replaced by Afar and Issa. Rivalry between the Afars (ethnically related to Ethiopians) and Issas (related to Somalis) led to armed conflicts in 1976. In May 1977, a referendum was held in which a 98% vote in favour of independence from France was returned. Djibouti became the last French colony on the African continent to gain independence, on 27 June 1977, when it became a presidential republic. It has a single legislative house, the National Assembly, with 65 seats (33 for Issas, 30 for Afars, and 2 for Arabs). The country is divided into 5 'cercles', or districts. # ? Eastern Africa, bordering the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, between Eritrea and Somalia # 22000 21980 20 508 Eritrea 113 km, Ethiopia 337 km, Somalia 58 km # 314 24 ? # 200 ? 12 desert; torrid, dry # coastal plain and plateau separated by central mountains # Asal -155 m Moussa Ali 2,028 m geothermal areas # ? ? 9 0 91 ? earthquakes; droughts; occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean bring heavy rains and flash floods # inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ship Pollution # none of the selected agreements # strategic location near world's busiest shipping lanes and close to Arabian oilfields; terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia; mostly wasteland # 440727 43 94399 94154 55 127190 113582 2 5877 5525 1.51 41.75 14.69 -11.91 1.03 1 1.11 1.06 ? 102.40 51.07 49.06 53.15 5.94 Djiboutian(s) Djiboutian Somali 60%, Afar 35%, French, Arab, Ethiopian, and Italian 5% # Muslim 94%, Christian 6% # French (official), Arabic (official), Somali, Afar # age 15 and over can read and write # 46.20 60.30 32.70 Republic of Djibouti Djibouti ? # ? .dj republic Djibouti 5 districts (cercles, singular - cercle); 'Ali Sabih, Dikhil, Djibouti, Obock, Tadjoura # ? # Independence Day, 27 June (1977) multiparty constitution approved in referendum 4 September 1992 # based on French civil law system, traditional practices, and Islamic law # NA years of age; universal adult # President HASSAN GOULED Aptidon (since 24 June 1977) # Prime Minister BARKAT Gourad Hamadou (since 30 September 1978) # Council of Ministers responsible to the president # president elected by popular vote to a six-year term; election last held 7 May 1993 (next to be held NA 1999) # President HASSAN GOULED reelected; percent of vote - NA # unicameral Chamber of Deputies or Chambre des Deputes (65 seats; members are elected to serve five-year terms) # last held 19 December 1997 (next to be held NA 2002) # percent of vote - NA; seats - RPP 65; note - RPP (the ruling party) dominated # Supreme Court (Cour Supreme) # ruling party: People's Progress Assembly or RPP [Hassan GOULED Aptidon] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WTrO # two equal horizontal bands of light blue (top) and light green with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bearing a red five-pointed star in the center # The economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in northeast Africa. Two-thirds of the inhabitants live in the capital city, the remainder being mostly nomadic herders. Scanty rainfall limits crop production to fruits and vegetables, and most food must be imported. Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling center. It has few natural resources and little industry. The nation is, therefore, heavily dependent on foreign assistance to help support its balance of payments and to finance development projects. An unemployment rate of 40% to 50% continues to be a major problem. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35% over the last seven years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate (including immigrants and refugees). Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen in arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors. # 0.50 570 251 3 20 77 3 282000 agriculture 75%, industry 11%, services 14% (1991 est.) # 40 156 175 limited to a few small-scale enterprises, such as dairy products and mineral-water bottling # 3 0.09 180 427 fruits, vegetables; goats, sheep, camels # 39.60 hides and skins, coffee (in transit) (1995) # Ethiopia 45%, Somalia, Yemen, Saudi Arabia (1996) # 200.50 foods, beverages, transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum products (1995) # France, Ethiopia, Italy, Saudi Arabia, Thailand (1996) # 276 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Djiboutian franc (DF) = 100 centimes # 177.72 calendar year 7200 microwave radio relay network # submarine cable to Jiddah, Suez, Sicily, Marseilles, Colombo, and Singapore; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat; Medarabtel regional microwave radio relay telephone network # 2 2 0 ? 1 17000 97 # # 97 km 1.000-m gauge # Democratic Renewal Party or PRD [Mohamed Jama ELABE]; Democratic National Party or PND [ADEN Robleh Awaleh] # 2890 364 km # 2,526 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Djibouti # 1 1369 3030 ? # 11 2 1 1 2 5 2 9 ? ? ? ? ? ? Djibouti National Army (includes Navy and Air Force), National Security Force (Force Nationale de Securite), National Police Force # ? # 104450 61319 ? 26000000 ? none # ? # @Dominica 0 Isle of beauty, isle of splendour, Isle to all so sweet and fair, All must surely gaze in wonder At thy gifts so rich and rare. Rivers, valleys, hills and mountains, All these gifts we do extol. Healthy land, so like all fountains, Giving cheer that warms the soul. Dominica, God hath blest thee With a clime benign and bright, Pastures green and flowers of beauty Filling all with pure delight, And a people strong and healthy, Full of godly, rev'rent fear. May we ever seek to praise Thee For these gifts so rich and rare. Come ye forward, sons and daughters Of this gem beyond compare. Strive for honor, sons and daughters, Do the right, be firm, be fair. Toil with hearts and hands and voices. We must prosper! Sound the call, In which ev'ry one rejoices, "All for Each and Each for All." # The island's indigenous Arawak people were expelled or exterminated by Caribs in the 14th century. Columbus landed there in November 1493. Spanish ships frequently landed on Dominica during the 16th century, but fierce resistance by the Caribs discouraged Spain's efforts at settlement. <P> In 1635, France claimed Dominica. Shortly thereafter, French missionaries became the first European inhabitants of the island. Carib incursions continued, though, and in 1660, the French and British agreed that both Dominica and St. Vincent should be abandoned. Dominica was officially neutral for the next century, but the attraction of its resources remained; rival expeditions of British and French foresters were harvesting timber by the start of the 18th century. <P> Largely due to Dominica's position between Martinique and Guadeloupe, France eventually became predominant, and a French settlement was established and grew. As part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris that ended the seven years' war, the island became a British possession. In 1778, during the American Revolutionary War, the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population, which was largely French. The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain. French invasions in 1795 and 1805 ended in failure. <P> In 1763, the British established a legislative assembly, representing only the white population. In 1831, reflecting a liberalization of official British racial attitudes, the brown privilege bill conferred political and social rights on free nonwhites. Three Blacks were elected to the legislative assembly the following year. Following the abolition of slavery, in 1838 Dominica became the first and only British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature in the 19th century. Most Black legislators were smallholders or merchants who held economic and social views diametrically opposed to the interests of the small, wealthy English planter class. Reacting to a perceived threat, the planters lobbied for more direct British rule. <P> In 1865, after much agitation and tension, the colonial office replaced the elective assembly with one comprised of one-half elected members and one-half appointed. The elected legislators were outmaneuvered on numerous occasions by planters allied with colonial administrators. In 1871, Dominica became part of the Leeward Island Federation. The power of the Black population progressively eroded. Crown Colony government was re-established in 1896. All political rights for the vast majority of the population were effectively curtailed. Development aid, offered as compensation for disenfranchisement, proved to have a negligible effect. <P> Following World War I, an upsurge of political consciousness throughout the Caribbean led to the formation of the representative government association. Marshaling public frustration with the lack of a voice in the governing of Dominica, this group won one-third of the popularly elected seats of the legislative assembly in 1924 and one-half in 1936. Shortly thereafter, Dominica was transferred from the Leeward Island Administration and was governed as part of the Windwards until 1958, when it joined the short-lived West Indies Federation. <P> After the federation dissolved, Dominica became an associated state of the United Kingdom in 1967 and formally took responsibility for its internal affairs. On November 3, 1978, the Commonwealth of Dominica was granted independence by the United Kingdom. <P> Independence did little to solve problems stemming from centuries of economic underdevelopment, and in mid-1979, political discontent led to the formation of an interim government. It was replaced after the 1980 elections by a government led by the Dominica Freedom Party under Prime Minister Eugenia Charles, the Caribbean's first female prime minister. Chronic economic problems were compounded by the severe impact of hurricanes in 1979 and in 1980. By the end of the 1980's, the economy had made a healthy recovery, which weakened in the 1990's due to a decrease in banana prices. <P> In June 1995 elections, Edison James, leader of the United Workers Party, became Prime Minister, replacing Dame Eugenia Charles. # WD Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, about one-half of the way from Puerto Rico to Trinidad and Tobago # 750 750 0 ? ? # 148 24 ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; moderated by northeast trade winds; heavy rainfall # rugged mountains of volcanic origin # Caribbean Sea 0 m Morne Diablatins 1,447 m timber # 9 13 3 67 8 ? flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes can be expected during the late summer months # NA # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # ? # 65777 27 8987 8826 63 21231 20464 10 2572 3697 -1.33 17.35 6.29 -24.36 1.05 1.02 1.04 0.70 ? 9.04 77.80 74.94 80.80 1.90 Dominican(s) Dominican black, Carib Amerindian # Roman Catholic 77%, Protestant 15% (Methodist 5%, Pentecostal 3%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Baptist 2%, other 2%), none 2%, unknown 1%, other 5% # English (official), French patois # age 15 and over has ever attended school # 94 94 94 Commonwealth of Dominica Dominica ? # ? .dm parliamentary democracy Roseau 10 parishes; Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, Saint Peter # ? # Independence Day, 3 November (1978) 3 November 1978 # based on English common law # 18 years of age; universal # President Crispin Anselm SORHAINDO (since 25 October 1993) # Prime Minister Edison C. JAMES (since 12 June 1995) # Cabinet appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister # president elected by the House of Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 4 October 1993 (next to be held NA October 1998); prime minister appointed by the president # Crispin Anselm SORHAINDO elected president; percent of legislative vote - NA # unicameral House of Assembly (30 seats, 9 appointed senators, 21 elected by popular vote representatives; members serve five-year terms) # last held 12 June 1995; byelections held 13 August 1996 (next to be held by October 2000) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - UWP 12, DLP 5, DFP 4 # Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (located in Saint Lucia), one of the six judges must reside in Dominica and preside over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction # Dominica Freedom Party or DFP [Charles SAVARIN]; Dominica Labor Party or DLP [Rosie DOUGLAS]; United Workers Party or UWP [Edison JAMES] # ? # ACCT, ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO, WTrO # green with a centered cross of three equal bands - the vertical part is yellow (hoist side), black, and white - the horizontal part is yellow (top), black, and white; superimposed in the center of the cross is a red disk bearing a sisserou parrot encircled by 10 green five-pointed stars edged in yellow; the 10 stars represent the 10 administrative divisions (parishes) # The economy is dependent on agriculture and thus is highly vulnerable to climatic conditions, notably tropical storms. Agriculture, primarily bananas, accounts for 26% of GDP and employs 40% of the labor force. Development of the tourist industry remains difficult because of the rugged coastline, lack of beaches, and the lack of an international airport. Hurricane Luis devastated the country's banana crop in September 1995; tropical storms had wiped out one-quarter of the crop in 1994 as well. The government is attempting to develop an offshore financial industry in order to diversify the island's production base. # 3.70 3260 214 26 ? ? 1.70 25000 agriculture 40%, industry and commerce 32%, services 28% (1984) # 15 77 78 soap, coconut oil, tourism, copra, furniture, cement blocks, shoes # -0.40 0.01 37 448 bananas, citrus, mangoes, root crops, coconuts; forestry and fisheries potential not exploited # 51.80 bananas 50%, soap, bay oil, vegetables, grapefruit, oranges # Caricom countries 47%, UK 36%, US 7% (1996 est.) # 98.10 manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, food, chemicals # US 41%, Caricom 25%, UK 13%, Netherlands, Canada # 110 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents # 2.70 1 July - 30 June 14613 fully automatic network # microwave radio relay and SHF radiotelephone links to Martinique and Guadeloupe; VHF and UHF radiotelephone links to Saint Lucia # 3 2 0 45000 1 5200 ? # # # # 780 393 km # 387 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Portsmouth, Roseau # ? ? ? ? # 2 2 ? ? ? 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Commonwealth of Dominica Police Force (includes Special Service Unit, Coast Guard) # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; minor cannabis producer # @Dominican Republic 0 Quisqueyanos valientes alcemos nuestro canto con viva emoci≤n Y del mundo a la faz ostentemos Nuestro invicto glorioso pend≤n Salve el pueblo que intrepido y fuerte A la guerra a morir se lanz≤ Cuando en belico reto de muerte Sus cadenas de esclavo rompio. Ningun pueblo ser libre merece Si es esclavo, indolente y servil, Si en su pecho la llama no crece Que templo el heroismo viril. Mas Quisqueya dla indomita y brava Siempre altiva la frente alzarß, Que si fuere mil veces esclava Otras tantas ser libre sabra. # The island of Hispaniola, of which the Dominican Republic forms the eastern two-thirds and Haiti the remainder, was originally occupied by Tainos, an Arawak-speaking people. The Tainos welcomed Columbus in his first voyage in 1492, but subsequent colonizers were brutal, reducing the Taino population from about 1 million to about 500 in 50 years. To ensure adequate labor for plantations, the Spanish brought African slaves to the island beginning in 1503. <P> In the next century, French settlers occupied the western end of the island, which Spain ceded to France in 1697, and which, in 1804, became the Republic of Haiti. The Haitians conquered the whole island in 1822 and held it until 1844, when forces led by Juan Pablo Duarte, the hero of Dominican independence, drove them out and established the Dominican Republic as an independent state. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned to the Spanish Empire; in 1865, independence was restored. <P> Economic difficulties, the threat of European intervention, and ongoing internal disorders led to a U.S. occupation in 1916 and the establishment of a military government in the Dominican Republic. The occupation ended in 1924, with a democratically elected Dominican Government. <P> In 1930, Rafael L. Trujillo, a prominent army commander, established absolute political control. Trujillo promoted economic development--from which he and his supporters benefitted--and severe repression of domestic human rights. Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems. In August 1960, the Organization of American States (OAS) imposed diplomatic sanctions against the Dominican Republic as a result of Trujillo's complicity in an attempt to assassinate President Romulo Betancourt of Venezuela. These sanctions remained in force after Trujillo's death by assassination in May 1961. In November 1961, the Trujillo family was forced into exile. <P> In January 1962, a council of state that included moderate opposition elements with legislative and executive powers was formed. OAS sanctions were lifted January 4, and, after the resignation of President Joaquin Balaguer on January 16, the council under President Rafael E. Bonnelly headed the Dominican Government. In 1963, Juan Bosch was inaugurated President. Bosch was overthrown in a military coup in September 1963. <P> Another military coup, on April 24, 1965, led to violence between military elements favoring the return to government by Bosch and those who proposed a military junta committed to early general elections. On April 28, U.S. military forces landed to protect U.S. citizens and to evacuate U.S. and other foreign nationals. Additional U.S. forces subsequently established order. <P> In June 1966, President Balaguer, leader of the Reformist Party (now called the Social Christian Reformist Party--PRSC), was elected and then re-elected to office in May 1970 and May 1974, both times after the major opposition parties withdrew late in the campaign. <P> In the May 1978 election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by Antonio Guzman of the PRD. Guzman's inauguration on August 16 marked the country's first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another. <P> The PRD's presidential candidate, Salvador Jorge Blanco, won the 1982 elections, and the PRD gained a majority in both houses of Congress. In an attempt to cure the ailing economy, the Jorge administration began to implement economic adjustment and recovery policies, including an austerity program in cooperation with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In April 1984, rising prices of basic foodstuffs and uncertainty about austerity measures led to riots. <P> Balaguer was returned to the presidency with electoral victories in 1986 and 1990. Upon taking office in 1986, Balaguer tried to reactivate the economy through a public works construction program. Nonetheless, by 1988 the country slid into a two-year economic depression, characterized by high inflation and currency devaluation. Economic difficulties, coupled with problems in the delivery of basic services--e.g., electricity, water, transportation--generated popular discontent that resulted in frequent protests, occasionally violent, including a paralyzing nationwide strike in June 1989. <P> In 1990, Balaguer instituted a second set of economic reforms. After concluding an IMF agreement, balancing the budget, and curtailing inflation, the Dominican Republic is experiencing a period of economic growth marked by moderate inflation, a balance in external accounts, and a steadily increasing GDP. <P> The voting process in 1986 and 1990 was generally seen as fair, but allegations of electoral board fraud tainted both victories. A commission of electoral advisers, designated by President Jorge and led by the Archbishop of Santo Domingo, played an important role in keeping the electoral process on track. The elections of 1994 were again marred by charges of fraud. Following a compromise calling for constitutional and electoral reform, President Balaguer assumed office for an abbreviated term. In June 1996, Leonel Fernandez Reyna was elected to a four-year term as president. # DOM Caribbean, eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Haiti # 48730 48380 350 275 Haiti 275 km # 1288 24 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin # 200 ? 6 tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation; seasonal variation in rainfall # rugged highlands and mountains with fertile valleys interspersed # Lago Enriquillo -46 m Pico Duarte 3,175 m nickel, bauxite, gold, silver # 21 9 43 12 15 2300 occasional hurricanes (July to October) # water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation # Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection # Climate Change, Law of the Sea # shares island of Hispaniola with Haiti (eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, western one-third is Haiti) # 7998766 35 1435698 1382377 60 2452310 2379991 5 165602 182788 1.63 26.42 5.73 -4.37 1.05 1.04 1.03 0.91 ? 44.26 69.73 67.53 72.04 3.06 Dominican(s) Dominican white 16%, black 11%, mixed 73% # Roman Catholic 95% # Spanish # age 15 and over can read and write # 82.10 82 82.20 Dominican Republic none Republica Dominicana # none .do republic Santo Domingo 29 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia) and 1 district* (distrito); Azua, Baoruco, Barahona, Dajabon, Distrito Nacional*, Duarte, Elias Pina, El Seibo, Espaillat, Hato Mayor, Independencia, La Altagracia, La Romana, La Vega, Maria Trinidad Sanchez, Monsenor Nouel, Monte Cristi, Monte Plata, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Salcedo, Samana, Sanchez Ramirez, San Cristobal, San Juan, San Pedro de Macoris, Santiago, Santiago Rodriguez, Valverde # ? # Independence Day, 27 February (1844) 28 November 1966 # based on French civil codes # 18 years of age, universal and compulsory; married persons regardless of age # President Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna (since 16 August 1996); Vice President Jaime David FERNANDEZ Mirabal (since 16 August 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna (since 16 August 1996); Vice President Jaime David FERNANDEZ Mirabal (since 16 August 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet nominated by the president # president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year term; election last held 16 May 1996; runoff election held 30 June 1996 (next to be held 16 May 2000) # President FERNANDEZ elected to his first term; percent of vote - Leonel FERNANDEZ (PLD) 51.25%, Jose Francisco PENA Gomez (PRD) 48.75% # bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of the Senate or Senado (30 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (120 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # Senate - last held 30 May 1994 (next to be held NA May 1998); Chamber of Deputies - last held 16 May 1994 (next to be held NA May 1998) # Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRSC 15, PLD 1, PRD 14; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PLD 13, PRSC 50, PRD 57 # Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges are elected by a Council made up of legislative and executive members with the president presiding # major parties: Social Christian Reformist Party or PRSC [Joaquin BALAGUER Ricardo]; Dominican Liberation Party or PLD [Lidio CADET]; Dominican Revolutionary Party or PRD [Jose Franciso PENA Gomez]; Independent Revolutionary Party or PRI # ? # ACP, Caricom (observer), ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM (guest), OAS, OPANAL, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # a centered white cross that extends to the edges, divides the flag into four rectangles - the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue; a small coat of arms is at the center of the cross # Economic reforms launched in late 1994 contributed to exchange rate stabilization, reduced inflation, and strong GDP growth in 1995-96. In 1996, there was increased mineral and petroleum exploration, and a new investment law that allows for repatriation of capital dividends has drawn more investment to the island. Upon coming to power in August 1996, President FERNANDEZ nevertheless inherited a trouble-ridden economy hampered by a pressured peso, a large external debt, nearly bankrupt state-owned enterprises, and a manufacturing sector hindered by daily power outages. In December, FERNANDEZ presented a bold economic reform package - including such reforms as the devaluation of the peso, income tax cuts, a 50% increase in sales taxes, reduced import tariffs, and increased gasoline prices - in an attempt to create a market-oriented economy that can compete internationally. Even though reforms are moving ahead at a slow pace, the economy grew vigorously in 1997, with tourism and telecommunications leading the advance. The government is working to increase electric generating capacity, a key to continued economic growth. # 7 1670 13358 15 22 63 10.90 2450000 agriculture 50%, services and government 32%, industry 18% (1991 est.) # 30 2000 2000 tourism, sugar processing, ferronickel and gold mining, textiles, cement, tobacco # 6.30 1.45 6500 865 sugarcane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes, corn, bananas; cattle, pigs, dairy products, meat, eggs # 815 ferronickel, sugar, gold, coffee, cocoa # US 45%, EU 34%, Canada, Japan, Puerto Rico (1995) # 3700 foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals # US 44%, EU 16%, Venezuela 11%, Netherlands Antilles, Mexico, Japan (1995) # 3600.00 ODA, $21 million (1993) # ? # 1 Dominican peso (RD$) = 100 centavos # 14.33 calendar year 190000 relatively efficient system based on islandwide microwave radio relay network # 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 120 0 6 ? 18 728000 757 # 375 km 1.435-m gauge (Central Romana Railroad) # 142 km 0.762-m gauge (Dominica Government Railway); 240 km operated by sugar companies in various gauges (0.558-m, 0.762-m, 1.067-m gauges) (1995) # # 12600 6,224 km # 6,376 km (1996 est.) # ? 96 8 ? Barahona, La Romana, Puerto Plata, San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo # 1 1587 1165 ? # 36 14 2 2 5 3 2 22 ? ? 1 6 15 ? Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police # 18 years of age # 2119278 1332971 80784 116000000 1.40 none # transshipment point for South American drugs destined for the US through Puerto Rico # @Ecuador 0 CORO ¡Salve oh Patria, mil veces! ¡Oh Patria! ¡gloria a ti! Y a tu pecho rebosa gozo y paz, y tu frente radiosa mßs que el sol contemplamos lucir. ESTROFAS Indignados tus hijos del yugo Cedi≤ al fin la fierezaespa±ola, que te impuso la ibΘrica audacia, y hoy, oh Patria, tu libre existencia de la injusta y horrenda desgracia es la noble y magnífica herencia que pesaba fatal sobre ti, que nos dio, el heroφsmo feliz; santa voz a los cielos alzaron, de las manos paternas la hubimos, voz de noble y sin par juramento, nadie intente arrancßrnosla ahora, de vengarte del monstruo sangriento, ni nuestra ira excitar vengadora de romper ese yugo servil. quiera, necio o audaz, contra sφ. Los primeros los hijos del suelo Nadie, oh Patria, lo intente. Las sombras que, soberbio; el Pichincha decora de tus hΘroes gloriosos nos miran, te aclamaron por siempre se±ora y el valor y el orgullo que inspiran y vertieron su sangre por ti. son augurios de triunfos por ti. Dios mir≤ y acept≤ el holocausto, Venga el hierro y el plomo fulmφneo, y esa sangre fue germen fecundo que a la idea de guerra, y venganza de otros hΘroes que, at≤nito, el mundo se despierta la heroica pujanza vio en tu torno a millares surgir. que hizo al fiero espa±ol sucumbir. De estos hΘroes al brazo de hierro Y si nuevas cadenas prepara nada tuvo invencible la tierra, la injusticia de bßrbarasuerte, y del valle a la altφsima sierra ¡gran Pichincha! prevΘn t· la muerte se escuchaba el fragor de la lid; de la patria y sus hijos al fin; tras la lid la victoria volaba, hunde al punto en tus hondas extra±as libertad tras el triunfo venφa, cuando existe en tu tierra: el tirano y al le≤n destrozado se oφa huelle s≤lo cenizas y en vano de impotencia y despecho rugir. busque rastro de ser junto a ti. # The region was inhabited by small, dispersed tribes of Indians, before being subjugated by the Incas in 1487. The Spanish arrived in 1531 and within 30 years had conquered Quito and its surrounding area, making it into a colonial empire. The Spanish were defeated by liberation forces in 1822, near Quito. Ecuador then became part of the Great Colombia Republic (together with Venezuela and Colombia), but seceded in 1830 to declare itself the Republic of Ecuador. Ruled by civilian and military dictatorships since 1968, a peaceful transfer of power from the military junta to a democratic civilian government took place in 1979. Economic decline has resulted from the reduction in petroleum exports since 1982. Ecuador and Peru have long disputed the area of the Amazon Valley, often resulting in skirmishes. The single legislative house (National Chamber of Representatives) has 69 seats. Executive power lies with the president, elected for a term of four years. Ecuador is divided into 20 provinces. The Archipelago de Col∙n, better known as the Galapagos Islands, form part of Ecuador, and lie some 1000km to the west. Advanced indigenous cultures flourished in Ecuador long before the area was conquered by the Inca empire in the 15th century. In 1534, the Spanish arrived and defeated the Inca armies, and Spanish colonists became the new elite. The indigenous population was decimated by disease in the first decades of Spanish rule--a time when the natives were also forced into the "encomienda" labor system for Spanish landlords. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a royal "audiencia" (administrative district) of Spain. <P> After independence forces defeated the royalist army in 1822, Ecuador joined Simon Bolivar's Republic of Gran Colombia, only to become a separate republic in 1830. The 19th century was marked by instability, with a rapid succession of rulers. The conservative Gabriel Garcia Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Catholic Church. In the late 1800s, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast. A coastal-based liberal revolution in 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and opened the way for capitalist development. <P> The end of the cocoa boom produced renewed political instability and a military coup in 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by populist politicians such as five-time president Jose Velasco Ibarra. In January 1942, Ecuador signed the Rio Protocol to end a brief war with Peru the year before; Ecuador agreed to a border that conceded to Peru much territory Ecuador previously had claimed in the Amazon. After World War II, a recovery in the market for agricultural commodities and the growth of the banana industry helped restore prosperity and political peace. From 1948-60, three presidents--beginning with Galo Plaza--were freely elected and completed their terms. <P> Recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadoran Amazon. In 1972, a nationalist military regime seized power and used the new oil wealth and foreign borrowing to pay for a program of industrialization, land reform, and subsidies for urban consumers. With the oil boom fading, Ecuador returned to democracy in 1979, but by 1982 the government faced a chronic economic crisis, including inflation, budget deficits, a falling currency, mounting debt service, and uncompetitive industries. <P> The 1984 presidential elections were narrowly won by Leon Febres-Cordero of the Social Christian Party (PSC). During the first years of his administration, Febres-Cordero introduced free-market economic policies, took strong stands against drug trafficking and terrorism, and pursued close relations with the United States. His tenure was marred by bitter wrangling with other branches of government and his own brief kidnaping by elements of the military. A devastating earthquake in March 1987 interrupted oil exports and worsened the country's economic problems. <P> Rodrigo Borja of the Democratic Left (ID) party won the presidency in 1988. His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja Government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group, "Alfaro Lives." However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1990. <P> In 1992, Sixto Duran-Ballen won in his third run for the presidency. His government's popularity suffered from tough macroeconomic adjustment measures, but it succeeded in pushing a limited number of modernization initiatives through Congress. Duran-Ballen's vice president, Alberto Dahik, was the architect of the administration's economic policies, but in 1995, Dahik fled the country to avoid prosecution on corruption charges following a heated political battle with the opposition. A war with Peru erupted in January-February 1995 in a small, remote region where the boundary prescribed by the 1942 Rio Protocol was in dispute. <P> Abdala Bucaram, from the Guayaquil-based Ecuadorian Roldosista Party (PRE), won the presidency in 1996 on a platform that promised populist economic and social reforms and the breaking of what Bucaram termed as the power of the nation's oligarchy. During his short term of office, Bucaram's administration drew criticism for corruption. Bucaram was deposed by the Congress in February 1997 on grounds of alleged mental incompetence. In his place, Congress named Interim President Fabian Alarcon, who had been President of Congress and head of the small Radical Alfarist Front party. Alarcon's interim presidency was endorsed by a May 1997 popular referendum. # EC Western South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean at the Equator, between Colombia and Peru # 283560 276840 6720 2010 Colombia 590 km, Peru 1,420 km # 2237 ? claims continental shelf between mainland and Galapagos Islands # ? ? 200 tropical along coast becoming cooler inland # coastal plain (costa), inter-Andean central highlands (sierra), and flat to rolling eastern jungle (oriente) # Pacific Ocean 0 m Chimborazo 6,267 m petroleum, fish, timber # 6 5 18 56 15 5560 frequent earthquakes, landslides, volcanic activity; periodic droughts # deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution; pollution from oil production wastes # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # Cotopaxi in Andes is highest active volcano in world # 12336572 36 2253920 2175402 60 3636637 3725766 4 254432 290415 1.86 23.16 5.17 0.56 1.05 1.04 0.98 0.88 ? 32.07 71.80 69.19 74.54 2.75 Ecuadorian(s) Ecuadorian mestizo (mixed Amerindian and Spanish) 55%, Amerindian 25%, Spanish 10%, black 10% # Roman Catholic 95% # Spanish (official), Amerindian languages (especially Quechua) # age 15 and over can read and write # 90.10 92 88.20 Republic of Ecuador Ecuador Republica del Ecuador # Ecuador .ec republic Quito 21 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Azuay, Bolivar, Canar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro, Esmeraldas, Galapagos, Guayas, Imbabura, Loja, Los Rios, Manabi, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Pastaza, Pichincha, Sucumbios, Tungurahua, Zamora-Chinchipe # ? # Independence Day, 10 August (1809) (independence of Quito) 10 August 1979 # based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal, compulsory for literate persons ages 18-65, optional for other eligible voters # President Jamil MAHUAD; Vice President Gustavo NOBOA; note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Jamil MAHUAD; Vice President Gustavo NOBOA; note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet appointed by the president # president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 19 May 1996; runoff election held 7 July 1996; note - because of the February 1997 unusual change in executive power, the next presidential elections will take place 31 May 1998 # runoff election; percent of vote - Abdala BUCARAM Ortiz 54%, Jaime NEBOT 46%; note - in February 1997, Congress elected ALARCON to be Interim President until August 1998, with 57 of 82 Congressmen voting in favor of him # unicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional (82 seats; 12 members are popularly elected at-large nationally to serve four-year terms; 70 members are popularly elected by province for two-year terms) # last held 19 May 1996 (next to be held 31 May 1998) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PSC 27, PRE 19, DP 12, P-NP 8, ID 4, FRA 3, MPD 2, PCE 2, CFP 1, independents and other 4; note - defections by members of congress are commonplace, resulting in frequent changes in the numbers of seats held by the various parties # Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges are elected by Congress # Center-Right parties: Social Christian Party or PSC [Jaime NEBOT Saadi, president]; Ecuadorian Conservative Party or PCE [Freddy BRAVO] Center-Left parties: Democratic Left or ID [Rodrigo BORJA Cevallos, leader]; Popular Democracy or DP [Jamil MAHUAD, leader]; Radical Alfarista Front or FRA [Fabian ALARCON, director]; Roldosista Party or PRE [Abdala BUCARAM, leader] Leftist parties: Popular Democratic Movement or MPD [leader NA] Populist parties: Roldosist Party or PRE [Abdala BUCARAM Ortiz, director]; Concentration of Popular Forces or CFP [Averroes BUCARAM, leader]; Popular Revolutionary Action or APRE [Frank VARGAS Passos, leader]; Pachakutik-New Country or P-NP [Freddy EHLERS] Far-Left parties: Popular Democratic Movement or MPD [Juan Jose CASTELLO, leader] # ? # AG, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, MINUGUA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double width), blue, and red with the coat of arms superimposed at the center of the flag; similar to the flag of Colombia that is shorter and does not bear a coat of arms # Ecuador has substantial oil resources and rich agricultural areas. As an exporter of primary products such as oil, bananas, and shrimp, fluctuations in world market prices can have a substantial domestic impact. Growth has been uneven in recent years as the government has repeatedly initiated ill-conceived fiscal stabilization measures. The populist government of Abdala BUCARAM Ortiz proposed a major currency reform in 1996, but popular discontent with new austerity measures and rampant official corruption undermined his government's position. Congress replaced BUCARAM with Fabian ALARCON in February 1997. ALARCON has adopted a minimalist economic program that puts off major decisions until the next elected government takes office in August 1998. Ecuador joined the World Trade Organization in 1996, but has failed to comply with many of its accession commitments. Growth slowed to 2.0% in 1996, due to a lack of investment caused by political uncertainty and high domestic interest rates, but economic activity picked up in 1997. Exports and economic growth in 1998 may be adversely affected by lower world oil prices and, to a smaller extent, by El Nino. # 3.40 1590 19615 12 37 51 31 4200000 agriculture 29%, manufacturing 18%, commerce 15%, services and other activities 38% (1990) # 6.90 3600.00 3600.00 petroleum, food processing, textiles, metal work, paper products, wood products, chemicals, plastics, fishing, lumber # 2.40 2.75 9270 600 bananas, coffee, cocoa, rice, potatoes, manioc, plantains, sugarcane; cattle, sheep, pigs, beef, pork, dairy products; balsa wood; fish, shrimp # 3400 petroleum 30%, bananas 26%, shrimp 16%, cut flowers 2%, fish 1.9% # US 39%, Latin America 25%, EU countries 22%, Asia 12% # 2900.00 transport equipment, consumer goods, vehicles, machinery, chemicals # US 32%, EU 19%, Latin America 35%, Asia 11% # 12500 ODA, $153 million (1993) # ? # 1 sucre (S/) = 100 centavos # 4498 calendar year 586300 facilities generally inadequate and unreliable # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 272 0 39 ? 33 940000 965 # # 965 km 1.067-m gauge # # 43249 5,752 km # 37,497 km (1996 est.) # 1500 800 1358 ? Esmeraldas, Guayaquil, La Libertad, Manta, Puerto Bolivar, San Lorenzo # 18 84423 137272 liquefied gas tanker 1, oil tanker 14, passenger 3 (1997 est.) # 183 52 2 6 10 16 18 131 ? ? 3 38 90 1 Army (Ejercito Ecuatoriano), Navy (Armada Ecuatoriana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Ecuatoriana), National Police # 20 years of age # 3168489 2139516 127810 411000000 2.10 three sections of the boundary with Peru are in dispute # significant transit country for derivatives of coca originating in Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru; minor illicit producer of coca; importer of precursor chemicals used in production of illicit narcotics; important money-laundering hub # @Egypt 0 CHORUS Biladi biladi biladi Lakihubbi wa fuadi (repeat previous two lines) Misr ya umm al bilad Inti ghayati wal murad Wa alla ku il ibad Kam lineelik min ayadi CHORUS Misr intiaghla durra Fawq gabeen addahr ghurra Ya biladi aishihurra Wa asadi raghm al adi. CHORUS Misr awladik kiram Aufiya yaruzimam Saufa takhti bilmaram Bittihadhim waittihadi. CHORUS (without repeats) # The union of Upper and Lower Egypt by the Menes in 3100 BC is traditionally seen as the beginning of Egyptian history. In 525 BC Egypt was conquered by the Persian Cambyses. Persian rule came to an end in 332 BC when Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great. After three centuries, Roman rule took over, but after 395 AD, Egypt was administered from Constantinople and flourished as a center of Christianity until overrun by Muslims in the 7th century AD. Egypt became politically and culturally important again for a brief period from 1250 to 1517 under the Mamluks. This importance diminished under the Ottoman Turks (1517-1798). France occupied Egypt from 1798-1805. In 1882 Egypt became a British protectorate and in 1922 a constitutional monarchy. In 1952, Farouk, who had been king since 1937, was forced to abdicate, and the following year saw the complete independence of Egypt. The constitution of 1971 was amended in 1980 to base the legal system on Islamic law and to declare Egypt to be a "socialist-democratic state". # ET Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip # 1001450 995450 6000 2689 Gaza Strip 11 km, Israel 255 km, Libya 1,150 km, Sudan 1,273 km # 2450 24 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # 200 ? 12 desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters # vast desert plateau interrupted by Nile valley and delta # Qattara Depression -133 m Mount Catherine 2,629 m petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc # 2 0 0 0 98 32460 periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes, flash floods, landslides, volcanic activity; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring; dust storms, sandstorms # agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salinization below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Nile which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining natural resources # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # controls Sinai Peninsula, only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, shortest sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics # 66050004 36 12173882 11637239 60 20108426 19718302 4 1074271 1337884 1.86 27.31 8.41 -0.35 1.05 1.05 1.02 0.80 ? 69.23 62.07 60.09 64.14 3.41 Egyptian(s) Egyptian Eastern Hamitic stock (Egyptians, Bedouins, and Berbers) 99%, Greek, Nubian, Armenian, other European (primarily Italian and French) 1% # Muslim (mostly Sunni) 94% (official estimate), Coptic Christian and other 6% (official estimate) # Arabic (official), English and French widely understood by educated classes # age 15 and over can read and write # 51.40 63.60 38.80 Arab Republic of Egypt Egypt Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah # Misr .eg republic Cairo 26 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar, Al Buhayrah, Al Fayyum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah, Al Isma'iliyah, Al Jizah, Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah, Al Qalyubiyah, Al Wadi al Jadid, Ash Sharqiyah, As Suways, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa'id, Dumyat, Janub Sina', Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina', Suhaj # ? # Anniversary of the Revolution, 23 July (1952) 11 September 1971 # based on English common law, Islamic law, and Napoleonic codes; judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal and compulsory # President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK (since 14 October 1981) # Prime Minister Kamal Ahmed El-GANZOURI (since 4 January 1996) # Cabinet appointed by the president # president nominated by the People's Assembly for a six-year term, the nomination must then be validated by a national, popular referendum; national referendum last held 4 October 1993 (next to be held NA October 1999); prime minister appointed by the president # national referendum validated President MUBARAK's nomination by the People's Assembly to a third term # bicameral system consists of the People's Assembly or Majlis al-Sha'b (454 seats; 444 elected by popular vote, 10 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms) and the Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura - which functions only in a consultative role (264 seats; 176 elected by popular vote, 88 appointed by the president; members serve NA-year terms) # People's Assembly - last held 29 November 1995 (next to be held NA 2000); Advisory Council - last held 7 June 1995 (next to be held NA) # People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - NDP 72%, independents 25%, opposition 3%; seats by party - NDP 317, independents 114, NWP 6, NPUG 5, Nasserist Arab Democratic Party 1, Liberals 1; Advisory Council - percent of vote by party - NDP 99%, independents 1%; seats by party - NA # Supreme Constitutional Court # National Democratic Party (NDP), President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK, leader, is the dominant party; legal opposition parties are as follows: New Wafd Party (NWP), Fu'ad SIRAJ AL-DIN; Socialist Labor Party (SLP), Ibrahim SHUKRI; National Progressive Unionist Grouping (NPUG), Khalid MUHI AL-DIN; Socialist Liberal Party, Mustafa Kamal MURAD; Democratic Unionist Party, Mohammed 'Abd-al-Mun'im TURK; Umma Party, Ahmad al-SABAHI; Misr al-Fatah Party (Young Egypt Party), leader NA; Nasserist Arab Democratic Party, Dia' al-din DAWUD; Democratic Peoples' Party, Anwar AFIFI; The Greens Party, Kamal KIRAH; Social Justice Party, Muhammad 'ABDAL-'AL note: formation of political parties must be approved by government # ? # ABEDA, ACC, ACCT (associate), AfDB, AFESD, AG (observer), AL, AMF, BSEC (observer), CAEU, CCC, EBRD, ECA, ESCWA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUA, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OAU, OIC, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMOP, UNOMIG, UNOMIL, UNPREDEP, UNRWA, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with the national emblem (a shield superimposed on a golden eagle facing the hoist side above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band; also similar to the flag of Syria that has two green stars and to the flag of Iraq, which has three green stars (plus an Arabic inscription) in a horizontal line centered in the white band # At the end of the 1980s, Egypt faced problems of low productivity and poor economic management, compounded by the adverse social effects of excessive population growth, high inflation, and massive urban overcrowding. In the face of these pressures, in 1991 Egypt undertook wide-ranging macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform measures. This reform effort has been supported by three successive IMF arrangements, the last of which was concluded in October 1996. Egypt's reform efforts - and its participation in the Gulf war coalition - also led to massive debt relief under the Paris Club arrangements. Although the pace of reform has been uneven and slower than envisaged under the IMF programs, substantial progress has been made in improving macroeconomic performance. Budget deficits have been slashed while foreign reserves in 1997 were at an all-time high. And Egypt has been moving toward a more decentralized, market-oriented economy. These economic reforms and growing investment opportunities have prompted increasing foreign investment, but incoming capital has largely been concentrated in stock market portfolio flows. Egypt's economy also has been hit by a sharp downturn in tourism - a key foreign exchange and job producing sector - following the 17 November 1997 massacre of foreign tourists at Luxor. Although Egypt will probably regain these revenues over time, the slump in tourism is likely to slow the GDP growth rate in 1998. # 5.20 1180 77939 17 32 51 4.90 17400000 agriculture 40%, services, including government 38%, industry 22% (1990 est.) # 9.40 19200 19800 textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, petroleum, construction, cement, metals # 8.50 13.04 48500 778 cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats; annual fish catch about 140,000 metric tons # 5100.00 crude oil and petroleum products, cotton yarn, raw cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals # EU, US, Japan # 15500 machinery and equipment, foods, fertilizers, wood products, durable consumer goods, capital goods # US, EU, Japan # 30500 ODA, $1.713 billion (1993) # ? # 1 Egyptian pound (£E) = 100 piasters # 3.40 1 July - 30 June 2200000 principal centers at Alexandria, Cairo, Al Mansurah, Ismailia, Suez, and Tanta are connected by coaxial cable and microwave radio relay # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean), 1 Arabsat, and 1 Inmarsat; 5 coaxial submarine cables; tropospheric scatter to Sudan; microwave radio relay to Israel; participant in Medarabtel # 39 6 0 ? 41 5000000 4751 # 4,751 km 1,435-m gauge (42 km electrified; 951 km double track) # # # 64000 49,984 km # 14,016 km (1996 est.) # 3500 1171 596 460 Alexandria, Al Ghardaqah, Aswan, Asyut, Bur Safajah, Damietta, Marsa Matruh, Port Said, Suez # 161 1225989 1899818 bulk 24, cargo 60, liquefied gas tanker 1, oil tanker 15, passenger 42, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 15, short-sea passenger 3 (1997 est.) # 89 70 11 39 15 2 3 19 ? 2 2 6 9 2 Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Command # 20 years of age # 17350925 11247896 683868 3280000000 8.20 administrative boundary with Sudan does not coincide with international boundary creating the "Hala'ib Triangle," a barren area of 20,580 sq km # a transit point for Southwest Asian and Southeast Asian heroin and opium moving to Europe and the US; popular transit stop for Nigerian couriers; large domestic consumption of hashish from Lebanon and Syria # @El Salvador 0 El Salvador Original Spanish Words CHORUS Saludemos la patria orgullosos de hijos suyos podernos llamar; y juremos la vida animosos, sin descanso a su bien consagrar. Saludemos la patria orgullosos de hijos suyos podernos llamar; y juremos la vida animosos, sin descanso a su bien consagrar. consagrar, consagrar, consagrar, consagrar. De la paz en la dicha suprema, siempre noble so±≤ El Salvador; fue obtenerla su eterno problema, conservarla es su gloria mayor. Y con fe inquebrantable el camino del progeso se afana en seguir por llenar su grandioso destino, conquistarse un feliz porvenir. Le protege una fΘrrea barrera contra el choque de ruin deslealtad, desde el dφa que en su alta bandera con su sangre escribi≤: íLIBERTAD! íescribi≤ libertad! íescribi≤ libertad! CHORUS Libertad es su dogma, es su guφa que mil veces logr≤ defender; y otras tantas de audaz tiranφa rechazar el odioso poder. Dolorosa y sangrienta es su historia, pero excelsa y brillante a la vez; manantial de legφtima gloria, gran lecci≤n de espartana altivez. No desmaya en su innata bravura, en cada hombre hay un hΘroe inmortal que sabrß mantenerse a la altura de su antiguo valor proverbial. valor proverbial, valor proverbial. CHORUS Todos son abnegados y fieles al prestigio del bΘlico ardor con que siempre segaron laureles de la patria salvando el honor. Respetar los derechos extra±os y apoyarse en la recta raz≤n es para ella, sin torpes ama±os su invariable, mßs firme ambici≤n. Y en seguir esta lφnea se aferra dedicando su esfuerzo tenaz, en hacer cruda guerra a la guerra: Su ventura se encuentra en la paz. en la paz, en la paz. CHORUS English: CHORUS Let us salute the motherland, Proud to be called her children. To her well-being let us swear Boldly and unceasingly to devote our lives. Let us salute the motherland, Proud to be called her children. To her well-being let us swear Boldly and unceasingly to devote our lives, our lives, our lives, our lives, our lives. Of peace enjoyed in perfect happiness, El Salvador has always nobly dreamed. To achieve this has been her eternal proposition, To keep it, her greatest glory. With inviolable faith, she eagerly follows The way of progress In order to fulfil her high destiny And achieve a happy future. A stern barrier protects her Against the clash of vile disloyalty, Ever since the day when her lofty banner, In letters of blood, wrote "Freedom," Wrote "Freedom," wrote "Freedom." CHORUS Freedom is her dogma and her guide; A thousand times she has defended it, And as many times has she repelled The hateful power of atrocious tyranny. Her history has been bloody and sad, Yet at the same time sublime and brilliant, A source of legitimate glory And a great lesson in Spartan pride. Her innate bravery shall not waver: In every man there is an immortal hero Who knows how to maintain the level Of the proverbial valour of old. valour of old, valour of old. CHORUS All are self-denying and faithful To the tradition of warlike ardour With which they have always reaped fame By saving the motherland's honour. To respect the rights of others And base her actions on right and justice Is for her, without infamous intrigue, The constant and most firm ambition. And in following this line she persists, Dedicating her tenacious efforts In giving hard battle for battle; Her happiness is found in peace. found in peace, found in peace. CHORUS # Before the Spanish conquest, the area that is now El Salvador was made up of two large Indian states and several principalities. The indigenous inhabitants were the Pipils, a tribe of nomadic Nahua people long established in Central Mexico. Early in their history, they became one of the few Mesoamerican Indian groups to abolish human sacrifice. Otherwise, their culture was similar to that of their Aztec neighbors. Remains of Nahua culture are still found at ruins such as Tazumal (near Chalchuapa), San Andres (northeast of Armenia), and Joya De Ceren (north of Colon). <P> The first Spanish attempt to subjugate this area failed in 1524, when Pedro de Alvarado was forced to retreat by Pipil warriors. In 1525, he returned and succeeded in bringing the district under control of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which retained its authority until 1821, despite an abortive revolution in 1811. <P> Independence <P> In 1821, El Salvador and the other Central American provinces declared their independence from Spain. When these provinces were joined with Mexico in early 1822, El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries. Guatemalan troops sent to enforce the union were driven out of El Salvador in June 1822. El Salvador, fearing incorporation into Mexico, petitioned the U.S. Government for statehood. <P> But in 1823, a revolution in Mexico ousted Emperor Augustin Iturbide, and a new Mexican congress voted to allow the Central American provinces to decide their own fate. That year, the United Provinces of Central America was formed of the five Central American states under Gen. Manuel Jose Arce. When this federation was dissolved in 1838, El Salvador became an independent republic. <P> El Salvador's early history as an independent state-as with others in Central America-was marked by frequent revolutions; not until the period 1900-1930 was relative stability achieved. The economic elite ruled the country in conjunction with the military, and the power structure was controlled by a relatively small number of wealthy landowners, known as the 14 Families. The economy, based on coffee-growing, prospered or suffered as the world coffee price fluctuated. <P> From 1932-the year of Gen. Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez's coup following his brutal suppression of rural resistance-until 1980, all but one Salvadoran President was an army officer. Periodic presidential elections were seldom free or fair. <P> From Military to Civilian Rule <P> From the 1930s to the 1970s, authoritarian governments employed political repression and limited reform to maintain power, despite the trappings of democracy. During the 1970s, the political situation began to unravel. In the 1972 presidential election, the opponents of military rule united under Jose Napoleon Duarte, leader of the Christian Democratic Party (PDC). Amid widespread fraud, Duarte's broad-based reform movement was defeated. Subsequent protests and an attempted coup were crushed, and Duarte exiled. These events eroded hope of reform through democratic means and persuaded those opposed to the government that armed insurrection was the only way to achieve change. As a consequence, leftist groups capitalizing upon social discontent gained strength. <P> By 1979, leftist guerrilla warfare had broken out in the cities and the countryside, launching what became a 12-year civil war. A cycle of violence took hold as rightist vigilante death squads in turn killed thousands. The poorly trained Salvadoran Armed Forces (ESAF) also engaged in repression and indiscriminate killings. After the collapse of the Somoza regime in Nicaragua that year, the new Sandinista government provided large amounts of arms and munitions to five Salvadoran guerrilla groups. <P> On October 15, 1979, reform-minded military officers and civilian leaders ousted the right-wing government of Gen. Carlos Humberto Romero (1977-79) and formed a revolutionary junta. PDC leader Duarte joined the junta in March 1980, leading the provisional government until the elections of March 1982. The junta initiated a land reform program and nationalized the banks and the marketing of coffee and sugar. Political parties were allowed to function again, and on March 28, 1982, Salvadorans elected a new constituent assembly. Following that election, authority was peacefully transferred to Alvaro Magana, the provisional president selected by the assembly. <P> The 1983 constitution, drafted by the assembly, strengthened individual rights; established safeguards against excessive provisional detention and unreasonable searches; established a republican, pluralistic form of government; strengthened the legislative branch; and enhanced judicial independence. It also codified labor rights, particularly for agricultural workers. The newly initiated reforms, though, did not satisfy the guerrilla movements, which had unified under Cuban auspices-while each retained their autonomous status-as the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN). <P> Duarte won the 1984 presidential election against rightist Roberto D'Aubuisson of the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) with 54% of the vote and became the first freely elected president of El Salvador in more than 50 years. <P> In 1989, ARENA's Alfredo Cristiani won the presidential election with 54% of the vote. His inauguration on June 1, 1989, marked the first time that power had passed peacefully from one freely elected civilian leader to another. <P> Ending the Civil War <P> Upon his inauguration in June 1989, President Cristiani called for direct dialogue to end the decade of conflict between the government and guerrillas. An unmediated dialogue process involving monthly meetings between the two sides was initiated in September 1989, lasting until the FMLN launched a bloody, nationwide offensive in November that year. <P> In early 1990, following a request from the Central American presidents, the United Nations became involved in an effort to mediate direct talks between the two sides. After a year of little progress, the government and the FMLN accepted an invitation from the UN Secretary-General to meet in New York City. On September 25, 1991, the two sides signed the New York City Accord. It concentrated the negotiating process into one phase and created the Committee for the Consolidation of the Peace (COPAZ), made up of representatives of the government, FMLN, and political parties, with Catholic Church and UN observers. <P> On December 31, 1991, the government and the FMLN initialed a peace agreement under the auspices of then Secretary-General Perez de Cuellar. The final agreement, called the Accords of Chapultepec, was signed in Mexico City on January 16, 1992. A nine-month cease-fire took effect February 1, 1992, and was never broken. A ceremony held on December 15, 1992, marked the official end of the conflict, concurrent with the demobilization of the last elements of the FMLN military structure and the FMLN's inception as a political party. # ES Middle America, bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between Guatemala and Honduras # 21040 20720 320 545 Guatemala 203 km, Honduras 342 km # 307 ? ? # ? ? 200 tropical; rainy season (May to October); dry season (November to April) # mostly mountains with narrow coastal belt and central plateau # Pacific Ocean 0 m Cerro El Pital 2,730 m hydropower, geothermal power, petroleum # 27 8 29 5 31 1200 known as the Land of Volcanoes; frequent and sometimes very destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity # deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection # Law of the Sea # smallest Central American country and only one without a coastline on Caribbean Sea # 5752067 37 1088579 1042087 58 1575806 1748250 5 135556 161789 1.57 26.71 6.32 -4.73 1.05 1.04 0.90 0.84 ? 29.07 69.66 66.31 73.17 3.06 Salvadoran(s) Salvadoran mestizo 94%, Amerindian 5%, white 1% # Roman Catholic 75% # Spanish, Nahua (among some Amerindians) # age 15 and over can read and write # 71.50 73.50 69.80 Republic of El Salvador El Salvador Republica de El Salvador # El Salvador .sv republic San Salvador 14 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Ahuachapan, Cabanas, Chalatenango, Cuscatlan, La Libertad, La Paz, La Union, Morazan, San Miguel, San Salvador, Santa Ana, San Vicente, Sonsonate, Usulutan # ? # Independence Day, 15 September (1821) 20 December 1983 # based on civil and Roman law, with traces of common law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal # President Armando CALDERON Sol (since 1 June 1994); Vice President Enrique BORGO Bustamante (since 1 June 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Armando CALDERON Sol (since 1 June 1994); Vice President Enrique BORGO Bustamante (since 1 June 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Council of Ministers # president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 20 March 1994, with a run-off election held 24 April 1994 (next to be held NA March 1999) # Armando CALDERON Sol elected president; percent of vote - Armando CALDERON Sol (ARENA) 49.03%, Ruben ZAMORA Rivas (CD/FMLN/MNR) 24.09%, Fidel CHAVEZ Mena (PDC) 16.39%, other 10.49%; because no candidate received a majority, a run-off election was held and the results were as follows - Armando CALDERON Sol (ARENA) 68.35%, Ruben ZAMORA Rivas (CD/FMLN/MNR) 31.65% # unicameral Legislative Assembly or Asamblea Legislativa (84 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve three-year terms) # last held 16 March 1997 (next to be held NA March 2000) # percent of vote by party - ARENA 35.4%, FMLN 34.3%, PCN 8.1%, PDC 7.9%, CD 3.8%, PRSC 3.4%, PLD 3.2%, MU 2.1%, PD 1.0%, other 0.8%; seats by party - ARENA 28, FMLN 27, PCN 9, PDC 8, PRSC 3, CD 2, PLD 2, MU 1, PD 1, independent 3 # Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges are selected by the Legislative Assembly # National Republican Alliance or ARENA [Alfredo CRISTIANI]; Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front or FMLN [Facundo GUARDADO, general coordinator]; Christian Democratic Party or PDC [Ronal UMANA, secretary general; title in dispute]; National Conciliation Party or PCN [Ciro CRUZ Zepeda, secretary general]; Democratic Convergence or CD [Ruben ZAMORA, secretary general]; Popular Labor Party or PPL [Jose VILANOVA, secretary general]; Liberal Democratic Party or PLD [Kirio Waldo SALGADO, president]; Social Christian Union or USC (formed by union of the PRSC, MU, and MSN) [Abraham RODRIGUEZ, president]; Democratic Party or PD [Ana Guadeloupe MARTINEZ, president] # ? # BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL; similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which has a different coat of arms centered in the white band - it features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band # In 1997 the government emphasized a fixed exchange rate, along with conservative monetary and fiscal policies to promote foreign investment. Inflation fell to an unprecedented low of 2%. Exports reached a record level and were the main engine of growth. Productivity in other sectors remained weaker, however. For the last few years, El Salvador has experienced sizable deficits in both its trade and its fiscal accounts. The trade deficit has been offset by remittances from the large number of Salvadorans living abroad and from external aid. The deficit is expected to increase in 1998 as imports continue to rise. San Salvador is stepping up its privatization efforts in 1998 to increase revenues. Late in 1997 the legislative assembly approved a privatization law that will facilitate the sale of the state-owned telephone company sometime in 1998. The government also plans to privatize pension funds later in the year. # 4 1810 10411 15 24 61 2 2260000 agriculture 40%, commerce 16%, manufacturing 15%, government 13%, financial services 9%, transportation 6%, other 1% # 7.70 1750 1820.00 food processing, beverages, petroleum, chemicals, fertilizer, textiles, furniture, light metals # 7 0.90 3500 603 coffee, sugarcane, corn, rice, beans, oilseed, cotton, sorghum; beef, dairy products; shrimp # 1960.00 coffee, sugar; shrimp; textiles # US, Guatemala, Germany, Costa Rica, Honduras # 3500 raw materials, consumer goods, capital goods, fuels # US, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Venezuela, Japan # 2600 ODA, $763 million (1996) # ? # 1 Salvadoran colon (C) = 100 centavos # 1 calendar year 350000 nationwide microwave radio relay system # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); connected to Central American Microwave System # 18 80 2 1500000 11 700000 602 # # 602 km 0.914-m gauge # # 9977 1,985 km (including 266 km of expressways) # 7,992 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Acajutla, Puerto Cutuco, La Libertad, La Union, Puerto El Triunfo # ? ? ? ? # 88 4 1 ? 1 2 66 84 ? ? ? 18 ? 1 Army, Navy, Air Force # 18 years of age # 1362504 864419 65130 104000000 0.90 land boundary dispute with Honduras mostly resolved by 11 September 1992 International Court of Justice (ICJ) decision; the presidents of Honduras and El Salvador signed in January 1998 an agreement allowing citizens in the 1992 demarcated areas to choose Honduran or Salvadoran citizenship; the two countries also agreed to a final demarcation of the border within one year; the agreement awaits ratification by the legislative assemblies of both countries; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, ICJ referred to an earlier agreement in this century and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua likely would be required # transshipment point for cocaine; marijuana produced for local consumption # @Equatorial Guinea 0 Caminemos pisando las sendas De nuestra inmensa felicidad. En fraternidad, sin separaci≤n, íCantemos Libertad! Tras dos siglos de estar sometidos, Bajos la dominaci≤n colonial, En fraterna uni≤n, sin discriminar, íCantemos Libertad! íGritamos Viva, Libre Guinea! Y defendamos nuestra Libertad. Cantemos siempre, Libre Guinea, Y conservemos siempre la unitad. íGritamos Viva, Libre Guinea! Y defendamos nuestra Libertad. Cantemos siempre, Libre Guinea, Y conservemos, Y conservemos La independencia nacional. (repeat previous two lines) # # ? Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Cameroon and Gabon # 28050 28050 0 539 Cameroon 189 km, Gabon 350 km # 296 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; always hot, humid # coastal plains rise to interior hills; islands are volcanic # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mount Malabo 3,008 m timber, petroleum, small unexploited deposits of gold, manganese, uranium # 5 4 4 46 41 ? violent windstorms # tap water is not potable; desertification # Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution # none of the selected agreements # insular and continental regions rather widely separated # 454001 43 97993 97470 53 114960 126453 4 7597 9528 2.56 38.90 13.32 0 1.03 1 0.90 0.79 ? 93.45 53.93 51.61 56.31 5.06 Equatorial Guinean(s) or Equatoguinean(s) Equatorial Guinean or Equatoguinean Bioko (primarily Bubi, some Fernandinos), Rio Muni (primarily Fang), Europeans less than 1,000, mostly Spanish # nominally Christian and predominantly Roman Catholic, pagan practices # Spanish (official), French (official), pidgin English, Fang, Bubi, Ibo # age 15 and over can read and write # 78.50 89.60 68.10 Republic of Equatorial Guinea Equatorial Guinea Republica de Guinea Ecuatorial # Guinea Ecuatorial .gq republic in transition to multiparty democracy Malabo 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Annobon, Bioko Norte, Bioko Sur, Centro Sur, Kie-Ntem, Litoral, Wele-Nzas # ? # Independence Day, 12 October (1968) approved by national referendum 17 November 1991; emended January 1995 # partly based on Spanish civil law and tribal custom # 18 years of age; universal adult # President Brig. Gen. (Ret.) Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO (since 3 August 1979) # Prime Minister Serafin Seriche DOUGAN (since April 1996); First Vice Prime Minister for Foreign Affairs Miguel OYONO (since January 1998); Second Vice Prime Minister for Internal Affairs Demetrio Elo NDONG NGEFUMU (since January 1998) # Council of Ministers appointed by the president # president elected by popular vote to a seven-year term; election last held 25 February 1996 (next to be held NA February 2003) # President OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO reelected without opposition; percent of popular vote - 98% # unicameral House of Peoples Representatives or Camara de Representantes del Pueblo (80 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held 21 November 1993 (next to be held NA 1998) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDGE 68, CSDP 6, UDS 5, CLD 1 # Supreme Tribunal # ruling party: Democratic Party for Equatorial Guinea or PDGE [Brig. Gen. (Ret.) Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO] opposition parties: Convergence Party for Social Democracy or CPDS [Santiago OBAMA, president; Placido Miko ABOGO, secretary-general]; Democratic Social Union or UDS [Camelo MODU, general secretary]; Liberal Democratic Convention or CLD [Alfonso Nsue MIFUMU, president]; Liberal Party or PL [Santos PASCUAL]; National Democratic Union or UDENA [Jose MECHEBA Ikaka, president]; National Movement of the Liberation of Equatorial Guinea or MONALIGE [Dr. Aldolfo Obrang BIKO, president]; Party of the Social Democratic Coalition or PCSD [Buenaventura Moswi M'Asumu, general coordinator]; Party of Progress or PP [Mocache MEINGA, interim chairman]; Popular Action of Equatorial Guinea or APGE [Casiano Masi Edu]; Popular Union or UP [Juan BITUI, president]; Party for Progress of Equatorial Guinea or PPGE [Basilio Ava Eworo and Domingo ABUY]; Progressive Democratic Alliance or ADP [Antonio-Ebang Mbele Abang, president]; Social Democratic and Popular Convergence or CSDP [Secundino Oyono Agueng Ada, general secretary]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Benjamin-Gabriel Balingha Balinga Alene, general secretary]; Socialist Party of Equatorial Guinea or PSGE [Tomas MICHEBE Fernandez, general secretary] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) # three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side and the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms has six yellow six-pointed stars (representing the mainland and five offshore islands) above a gray shield bearing a silk-cotton tree and below which is a scroll with the motto UNIDAD, PAZ, JUSTICIA (Unity, Peace, Justice) # The discovery and exploitation of large oil reserves have contributed to dramatic economic growth in recent years. Farming, forestry, and fishing are also major components of GDP. Subsistence farming predominates. Although pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings, the deterioration of the rural economy under successive brutal regimes has diminished potential for agriculture-led growth. A number of aid programs sponsored by the World Bank and the IMF have been cut off since 1993 because of the government's gross corruption and mismanagement. Businesses, for the most part, are owned by government officials and their family members. Undeveloped natural resources include titanium, iron ore, manganese, uranium, and alluvial gold. The country responded favorably to the devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994. # ? 1050 477 46 33 21 6 ? ? # ? 47 43 fishing, sawmilling # 7.40 0.01 20 48 coffee, cocoa, rice, yams, cassava (tapioca), bananas, palm oil nuts, manioc; livestock; timber # 197 petroleum, timber, cocoa # US 34%, Japan 17%, Spain 13%, China 13%, Nigeria # 248 petroleum, food, beverages, clothing, machinery # Cameroon 40%, Spain 18%, France 14%, US 8% # 254 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes # 608.36 1 April - 31 March 2000 NA # international communications from Bata and Malabo to African and European countries; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) # 2 0 0 ? 1 4000 0 # # # # 2820 0 km # 2,820 km (1995 est.) # ? ? ? ? Bata, Luba, Malabo # 19 66766 84780 bulk 1, cargo 16, passenger 1, passenger-cargo 1 (1997 est.) # 3 2 ? 1 1 ? 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? Army, Navy, Air Force, Rapid Intervention Force, National Police # ? # 98960 50308 ? 2500000 ? maritime boundary dispute with Gabon because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay; maritime boundary dispute with Nigeria because of disputed jurisdiction over oil-rich areas in the Gulf of Guinea # ? # @Eritrea 0 ? # Eritrea officially celebrated its independence on May 24, 1993, becoming the world's newest nation. Prior to Italian colonization in 1885, what is now Eritrea had been ruled by the various local or international powers that successively dominated the Red Sea region. In 1896, the Italians used Eritrea as a springboard for their disastrous attempt to conquer Ethiopia. Eritrea was placed under British military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II. In 1952, a UN resolution federating Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect. The resolution ignored Eritrean pleas for independence but guaranteed Eritreans some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated. <P> In 1962, Emperor Haile Sellassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country, sparking the Eritrean fight for independence that continued after Haile Sellassie was ousted in a coup in 1974. The new Ethiopian Government, called the Derg, was a Marxist military junta led by strongman Mengistu Haile Miriam. <P> During the 1960s, the Eritrean independence struggle was led by the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). In 1970, members of the group had a falling out, and a group broke away from the ELF and formed the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). By the late 1970s, the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, and Isaias Afwerki had emerged as its leader. Much of the materiel used to combat Ethiopia was captured from the Ethiopian Army. <P> By 1977 the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. That same year, however, a massive airlift of Soviet arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. Between 1978 and 1986, the Derg launched eight major offensives against the independence movement--all failed. In 1988, the EPLF captured Afabet, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea's second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia. At the end of the 1980s, the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF--along with other Ethiopian rebel forces--began to advance on Ethiopian positions. <P> The United States played a facilitative role in the peace talks in Washington during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in Zimbabwe, leaving a caretaker government in Addis Ababa. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in London to formalize the end of the war. These talks were attended by the four major combatant groups, including the EPLF. <P> A high-level U.S. delegation also was present in Addis Ababa for the July 1-5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence. <P> Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor. The fall of communist regimes in the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF now says it is committed to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights. <P> In May 1991, the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum was held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Isaias became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body. <P> On April 23-25, 1993, Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence from Ethiopia in a UN-monitored free and fair referendum. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on April 27. The government was reorganized and after a national, freely contested election, the National Assembly, which chose Isaias as President of the PGE, was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The EPLF established itself as a political party, the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), and is now in the process of drafting a new constitution and setting up a permanent government. <P> Meanwhile, Sudan's aggressiveness toward its neighbors, its goal of spreading Islamic fundamentalism throughout the region, and its unwillingness to play a constructive role in regional development have raised security concerns along Eritrea's border with Sudan. Khartoum gives support and safehaven to a small, relatively ineffectual Eritrean insurgent group, the Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ). Eritrea, in turn, supports the Sudanese opposition, which has coalesced in the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). The NDA has the stated objective of overturning the current National Islamic Front (NIF)-dominated government in Khartoum. # ? Eastern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Djibouti and Sudan # 121320 121320 0 1630 Djibouti 113 km, Ethiopia 912 km, Sudan 605 km # 2234 ? ? # ? ? ? hot, dry desert strip along Red Sea coast; cooler and wetter in the central highlands (up to 61 cm of rainfall annually); semiarid in western hills and lowlands; rainfall heaviest during June-September except on coastal desert # dominated by extension of Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain, on the northwest to hilly terrain and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains # Kobar Sink -75 m Soira 3,013 m gold, potash, zinc, copper, salt, probably oil and natural gas (petroleum geologists are prospecting for it), fish # 12 1 48 20 19 280 frequent droughts # deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species # none of the selected agreements # strategic geopolitical position along world's busiest shipping lanes; Eritrea retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the Red Sea upon de jure independence from Ethiopia on 27 April 1993 # 3842436 43 826686 818323 54 1026922 1042156 3 66222 62127 3.39 42.52 12.57 3.90 1.03 1.01 0.98 1.06 ? 78.51 55.31 53.19 57.51 5.99 Eritrean(s) Eritrean ethnic Tigrinya 50%, Tigre and Kunama 40%, Afar 4%, Saho (Red Sea coast dwellers) 3% # Muslim, Coptic Christian, Roman Catholic, Protestant # Afar, Amharic, Arabic, Tigre and Kunama, Tigrinya, minor ethnic group languages # ? # ? ? ? State of Eritrea Eritrea Hagere Ertra # Ertra .er transitional government Asmara (formerly Asmera) 8 provinces (singular - awraja); Akele Guzay, Barka, Denkel, Hamasen, Sahil, Semhar, Senhit, Seraye note: in May 1995 the National Assembly adopted a resolution stating that the administrative structure of Eritrea, which had been established by former colonial powers, would consist of only six provinces when the new constitution, then being drafted, would go into effect some time in 1998; the new provinces, the names of which had not been recommended by the US Board on Geographic Names for recognition by the US government, pending acceptable definition of the boundaries, were: Anseba, Debub, Debubawi Keyih Bahri, Gash-Barka, Maakel, and Semanawi Keyih Bahri; more recently, it has been reported that these provinces have been redesignated regions and renamed Southern Red Sea, Northern Red Sea, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Southern, and Central # ? # National Day (independence from Ethiopia), 24 May (1993) the transitional constitution, decreed on 19 May 1993, was replaced by a new constitution that was promulgated in May 1997 # NA # NA; note - the transitional constitution of 19 May 1993 did not provide rules for suffrage, but it seems likely that the final version of the constitution, which may be promulgated some time in 1998, will follow the example set in the referendum of 1993 and extend suffrage to all persons 18 years of age or older # President ISAIAS Afworki (since 8 June 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President ISAIAS Afworki (since 8 June 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # State Council is the collective executive authority note: the president is head of the State Council and National Assembly # president elected by the National Assembly; election last held 8 June 1993 (next to be held NA) # ISAIAS Afworki elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - ISAIAS Afworki 95% # unicameral National Assembly (150 seats; term limits not established) # in May 1997, following the adoption of the new constitution, 75 members of the PFDJ Central Committee (the old Central Committee of the EPLF), 60 members of the 527-member Constituent Assembly which had been established in 1997 to discuss and ratify the new constitution, and 15 representatives of Eritreans living abroad were formed into a Transitional National Assembly to serve as the country's legislative body until country-wide elections to a National Assembly are held in 1998; only 75 members will be elected to the National Assembly - the other 75 will be members of the Central Committee of the PFDJ # ? # Judiciary the Supreme Court; 10 provincial courts; 29 district courts # People's Front for Democracy and Justice or PFDJ, the only party recognized by the government [ISAIAS Afworki, PETROS Solomon] # ? # ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, FAO, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), ITU, NAM, OAU, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO # red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle # With independence from Ethiopia on 27 April 1993, Eritrea faced the bitter economic problems of a small, desperately poor African country. The economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture, with over 70% of the population involved in farming and herding. The small industrial sector consists mainly of light industries with outmoded technologies. Domestic output (GDP) is substantially augmented by worker remittances from abroad. Government revenues come from custom duties and taxes on income and sales. Road construction is a top domestic priority. Eritrea has inherited the entire coastline of Ethiopia and has long-term prospects for revenues from the development of offshore oil fields, offshore fishing, and tourism. Eritrea's economic future depends on its ability to master fundamental social and economic problems, e.g., overcoming illiteracy, promoting job creation, expanding technical training, attracting foreign investment, and streamlining the bureaucracy. # 6.80 210 807 18 20 62 4 ? ? # ? 226 453 food processing, beverages, clothing and textiles # ? 0.07 ? ? sorghum, lentils, vegetables, maize, cotton, tobacco, coffee, sisal (for making rope); livestock (including goats); fish # 71 livestock, sorghum, textiles, food, small manufactures # Ethiopia 67%, Sudan 10%, Saudi Arabia 4%, US 3%, Italy, Yemen (1996) # 499 processed goods, machinery, petroleum products # Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia, Italy, United Arab Emirates # 162 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 nafka = 100 cents # 1 calendar year ? very inadequate; about 4 telephones per 100 families, most of which are in Asmara; government is seeking international tenders to improve the system # NA # ? ? 0 ? 1 ? 307 # # 307 km 0.950-m gauge (1995 est.) # # 4010 874 km # 3,136 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Assab (Aseb), Massawa (Mits'iwa) # 2 5516 5747 oil tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 1 (1997 est.) # 20 2 1 1 5 6 3 18 2 2 ? ? ? ? Army, Navy, Air Force # ? # ? ? ? 40000000 ? a dispute with Yemen over sovereignty of the Hanish Islands in the southern Red Sea has been submitted to arbitration under the auspices of the ICJ; a decision on the Islands is expected in mid-1998 # ? # @Estonia 0 Sa oled mind ju sⁿnnitand ja ⁿles kasvatand; sind tΣnan mina alati ja jΣΣn sull' truuiks surmani, mul k⌡ige armsam oled sa, mu kallis isamaa! Su ⁿle Jumal valvaku, mu armas isamaa! Ta olgu sinu kaitseja ja v⌡tku rohkest ⌡nnista, mis iial ette v⌡tad sa, mu kallis isamaa! # Estonians are one of the longest settled European peoples, whose forebears, known as the "comb pottery" people, lived on the southeastern shores of the Baltic Sea over 5,000 years ago. Like other early agricultural societies, Estonians were organized into economically self-sufficient, male-dominated clans with few differences in wealth or social power. By the early Middle Ages most Estonians were small landholders, with farmsteads primarily organized by village. Estonian government remained decentralized, with local political and administrative subdivisions emerging only during the first century A.D. By then, Estonia had a population of over 150,000 people and remained the last corner of medieval Europe to be Christianized. <P> Estonia also managed to remain nominally independent from the Vikings to the west and Kievan Rus to the east, subject only to occasional forced tribute collections. <P> However, the Danes conquered Toompea, the hilled fortress at what is now the center of Tallinn, and in 1227 the German crusading order of the Sword Brethren defeated the last Estonian stronghold; the people were Christianized, colonized, and enserfed. Despite attempts to restore independence, Estonia was divided among three domains and small states were formed. Tallinn joined the Hanseatic League in 1248. <P> By 1236, the Sword Brethren allied with the Order of the Teutonic Knights and became known as the Livonian Order of the Teutonic Knights. Finding upkeep of the distant colony too costly, the Danes in 1346 sold their part of Estonia to the Livonian Order. Despite successful Russian raids and invasions in 1481 and 1558, the local German barons continued to rule Estonia and since 1524 preserved Estonian commitment to the Protestant Reformation. Northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control in 1561 during the Livonian Wars, and in 1582/3 southern Estonia (Livonia) became part of Poland's Duchy of Courland. <P> In 1625, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule, and in 1645, Sweden bought the island of Saaremaa from Denmark. In 1631, the Swedish king Gustav II Adolf granted the peasantry greater autonomy, opened the first known Estonian-language school in Tallinn, and in 1632 established a printing press and university in the city of Tartu. The Swedish defeat resulting in the 1721 Treaty of Nystad imposed Russian rule in what became modern Estonia. Nonetheless, the legal system, Lutheran church, local and town governments, and education remained mostly German until the late 19th century and partially until 1918. <P> By 1819, the Baltic provinces were the first in the Russian empire in which serfdom was abolished, spurring the peasants to own their own land or move to the cities. These moves created the economic foundation for the Estonian national cultural awakening that had lain dormant for some 600 years of foreign rule. Estonia was caught in a current of national awakening that began sweeping through Europe in the mid-1800s. <P> A cultural movement sprang forth to adopt the use of Estonian as the language of instruction in schools, all-Estonian song festivals were held regularly after 1869, and a national literature in Estonia developed. Kalevipoeg, Estonia's epic national poem, was published in 1861 in both Estonian and German. <P> More importantly, activists who agitated for a modern national culture also agitated for a modern national state. <P> As the 1905 Revolution swept through Estonia, the Estonians called for freedom of the press and assembly, for universal franchise, and for national autonomy. The 1905 uprisings were brutally suppressed and Estonian gains were minimal, but the tense stability that prevailed between 1905 and 1917 allowed Estonians to advance the aspiration of national statehood. <P> With the collapse of the Russian empire in World War I, Russia's Provisional Government granted national autonomy to Estonia. A popularly elected assembly (Maapaev) was formed but was quickly forced underground by opposing extremist political forces. The Committee of Elders of the underground Maapaev announced the Republic of Estonia on 24 February 1918, one day before German troops invaded. After the withdrawal of German troops in November 1918, fighting broke out between Bolshevik and Estonian troops. On February 2, 1920 the Treaty of Tartu-the Soviet Union's first foreign peace treaty-was signed by the Republic of Estonia and Soviet Russia. The terms of the treaty stated that Soviet Russia renounced in perpetuity all rights to the territory of Estonia. <P> Independence lasted twenty-two years. Estonia underwent a number of economic, social, and political reforms necessary to come to terms with its new status as a sovereign state. Economically and socially, land reform in 1919 was the most important step. Large estate holdings belonging to the Baltic nobility were redistributed among the peasants and especially among volunteers in the War of Independence. Loss of markets in the east led to considerable hardships until Estonia developed an export-based economy and domestic industries. Estonia's principal markets became Scandinavia, Great Britain, and Western Europe, with some exports to the United States and Soviet Union. <P> During its early independence Estonia operated under a liberal democratic constitution patterned on the Swiss model. However, with nine to 14 politically divergent parties, Estonia experienced 20 different parliamentary governments between 1919 and 1933. The Great Depression spawned the growth of powerful, far-rightist parties which successfully pushed popular support in 1933 for a new constitution granting much stronger executive powers. In a preemptive move against the far right, Estonia's first and also then-president, Konstantin Pats, dissolved parliament and governed the country by decree. By 1938 Estonia ratified a third, more balanced, and very liberal constitution, and elected a new parliament the following year. <P> The independence period was one of great cultural advancement. Estonian language schools were established, and artistic life of all kinds flourished. One of the more notable cultural acts of the independence period, unique in Western Europe at the time of its passage in 1925, was a guarantee of cultural autonomy to minority groups comprising at least 3,000 persons, and to Jews. <P> Estonia had pursued a policy of neutrality, but the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Non-aggression Pact on August 23, 1939 signaled the end of independence. The agreement provided for the Soviet occupation of Estonia, Latvia, part of Finland, and later, Lithuania, in return for Nazi Germany's assuming control over most of Poland. After extensive diplomatic intrigue, the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed on July 21, 1940, one month after Estonia was occupied by Soviet troops. The ESSR was formally accepted into the Soviet Union on August 6. <P> Soviet occupation was accompanied by expropriation of property, Sovietization of cultural life and the installation of Stalinist communism in political life. Deportations also quickly followed, beginning on the night of June 14, 1941. <P> That night, more than 10,000 people, most of them women, children and the elderly, were taken from their homes and sent to Siberia in cattle cars. When Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union on June 22, most Estonians greeted the Germans with relatively open arms. <P> Two-and-a-half years of Nazi occupation amply demonstrated that German intentions were nearly as harsh as Soviet aggression: <P> Estonia became a part of "Ostland," and about 5,500 Estonians died in concentration camps. However, few Estonians welcomed the Red Army's return to the frontier in January 1944. Without much support from retreating German troops, Estonian conscripts engaged the Soviets in a slow, bloody, nine-month battle. Some 10% of the population fled to the West between 1940 and 1944. By late September, Soviet forces expelled the last German troops from Estonia, ushering in a second phase of Soviet rule. That year, Moscow also moved to transfer the Estonian Narva and Petseri border districts, which held a large percentage of ethnic Russians, to Russian control. <P> For the next decade in the countryside, an anti-Soviet guerrilla movement known as "the Forest Brethren" existed in the countryside. Composed of formerly conscripted Estonian soldiers from the German Army, fugitives from the Soviet military draft or security police arrest, and those seeking revenge for mass deportations, the Forest Brethren used abandoned German and Soviet equipment and worked in groups or alone. In the hope that protracted resistance would encourage Allied intervention for the restoration of Estonian independence, the movement reached its zenith in 1946-48 with an estimated 5,000-30,000 followers and held effective military control in some rural areas. <P> After the war the Estonian Communist Party (ECP) became the pre-eminent organization in the republic. Most of these new members were Russified Estonians who had spent most of their lives in the Soviet Union. Not surprisingly, Estonians were reluctant to join the ECP and thus take part in the Sovietization of their own country. The ethnic Estonian share in the total ECP membership went from 90% in 1941 to 48% in 1952. <P> After Stalin's death, Party membership vastly expanded its social base to include more ethnic Estonians. By the mid-1960s, the percentage of ethnic Estonian membership stabilized near 50%. On the eve of perestroika the ECP claimed about 100,000 members; less than half were ethnic Estonians and comprised less than 2% of the country's population. Russians or Russified Estonians continued to dominate the party's upper echelons. <P> A positive aspect of the post-Stalin era in Estonia was a re-opening in the late 1950s of citizens' contacts with foreign countries. Ties were also reactivated with Finland, boosting a flourishing black market. In the mid-1960s, Estonians began watching Finnish television. This electronic "window on the West" afforded Estonians more information on current affairs and more access to Western culture and thought than any other group in the Soviet Union. This heightened media environment was important in preparing Estonians for their vanguard role in extending perestroika during the Gorbachev era. <P> By the 1970s, national concerns, including worries about ecological ruin, became the major theme of dissent in Estonia. In the late 1970s, Estonian society grew increasingly concerned about the threat of cultural Russification to the Estonian language and national identity. By 1981, Russian was taught in the first grade of Estonian language schools and was also introduced into the Estonian pre-school teaching. These acts prompted 40 established intellectuals to write a letter to Moscow and the republic authorities. This "Letter of the Forty" spoke out against the use of force against protesters and the increasing threat to the Estonian language and culture. In October of 1980, the youth of Tallinn also demonstrated against toughened Russification policies, particularly in education. <P> By the beginning of the Gorbachev era, concern over the cultural survival of the Estonian people had reached a critical point. Although these complaints were first couched in environmental terms, they quickly became the grist of straightforward political national feelings. In this regard the two decades of independent statehood were pivotal. <P> The ECP remained stable in the early perestroika years and appeared strong at its 19th Congress in 1986. By 1988, however, the ECP's weakness had become clear when it was unable to assume more than a passive role and was relegated to a reactive position. <P> Praising the 1980 "Letter of the Forty," Vaino Valjas replaced Karl Vaino as Party Chief and thereby temporarily enhanced the ECP's reputation along with his own. Nevertheless, the Party continued its downward spiral of influence in 1989 and 1990. In November 1989, the Writers' Union Party Organization voted to suspend its activity and the Estonian Komsomol disbanded. <P> In February 1990, Estonia's Supreme Soviet eliminated paragraph 6 of the republic's constitution which had guaranteed the Party's leading role in society. The final blow came at the ECP's 20th Congress in March 1990 when it voted to break with the CPSU. The Party splintered into three branches, then consolidated into a pro-CPSU (Moscow) and an independent ECP. <P> As the ECP waned, other political movements, groupings, and parties moved to fill the power vacuum. The first and most important was the Estonian Popular Front, established in April 1988 with its own platform, leadership, and broad constituency. The Greens and the dissident-led Estonian National Independence Party soon followed. By 1989, the political spectrum widened and new parties were formed and re-formed almost daily. <P> A number of changes in the republic's government brought about by political advances in the late 1980s played a major role in forming a legal framework for political change. This involved the republic's Supreme Soviet being transformed into an authentic regional law-making body. This relatively conservative legislature managed to pass a number of laws, notably a package of laws that addressed the most sensitive ethnic concerns. These laws included the early declaration of sovereignty (November 1988); a law on economic independence (May 1989) confirmed by the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet that November; a language law making Estonian the official language (January 1989); and local and republic election laws stipulating residency requirements for voting and candidacy (August, November 1989). <P> Although not all non-Estonians supported full independence, they were divided in their goals for the republic. In March 1990 some 18% of Russian speakers supported the idea of fully independent Estonia, up from 7% the previous autumn, and only a small group of Estonians were opposed to full independence in early 1990. Estonia held free elections for the 105-member Supreme Council on March 18, 1990. All residents of Estonia were eligible to participate in the elections, including the approximately 50,000 Soviet troops stationed there. The Popular Front coalition, composed of left and centrist parties and led by former Central Planning Committee official Edgar Savisaar, held a parliamentary majority. <P> Despite the emergence of the new lawmaking body, an alternative legislature developed in Estonia. In February 1990, a body known as the Congress of Estonia was elected in unofficial and unsanctioned elections. Supporters of the Congress argued that the inter-war republic continued to exist de jure: Since Estonia was forcibly annexed by the U.S.S.R., only citizens of that republic and their descendants could decide Estonia's future. <P> Through a strict, nonconfrontational policy in pursuing independence, Estonia managed to avoid the violence which Latvia and Lithuania incurred in the bloody January 1991 crackdowns and in the border-customs post guard murders that summer. During the August coup in the U.S.S.R., Estonia was able to maintain constant operation and control of its telecommunications facilities, thereby offering the West a clear view into the latest coup developments and serving as a conduit for swift Western support and recognition of Estonia's redeclaration of independence on August 20. Following Europe's lead, the U.S. formally reestablished diplomatic relations with Estonia on September 2, and the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet offered recognition on September 6. <P> During the subsequent cold winter which compounded Estonia's economic restructuring problems, Prime Minister Edgar Savisaar demanded emergency powers to deal with the economic and fuel crises. A consequent no-confidence vote by the Supreme Council caused the Popular Front leader to resign, and a new government led by former Transportation Minister Tiit Vahi took office. <P> After more than three years of negotiations, on August 31, 1994, the armed forces of the Russian Federation withdrew from Estonia. Several hundred civilian-clad Russian military remained at the nuclear submarine training reactor facility at Paldiski until September 30, 1995, in order to remove equipment and help decommission the facility. # EW Eastern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland, between Latvia and Russia # 45226 43211 2015 633 Latvia 339 km, Russia 294 km # 3794 ? ? # ? ? 12 maritime, wet, moderate winters, cool summers # marshy, lowlands # Baltic Sea 0 m Suur Munamagi 318 m shale oil (kukersite), peat, phosphorite, amber, cambrian blue clay # 22 0 11 31 36 110 flooding occurs frequently in the spring # air heavily polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products, chemicals at former Soviet military bases; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and manmade lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas are heavily affected by organic waste; coastal sea water is polluted in many locations # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ship Pollution, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # ? # 1421335 19 136278 131480 67 456796 492946 14 66261 137574 -0.99 9.04 14.15 -4.76 1.05 1.03 0.92 0.48 ? 13.98 68.52 62.50 74.83 1.29 Estonian(s) Estonian Estonian 64.2%, Russian 28.7%, Ukrainian 2.7%, Byelorussian 1.5%, Finn 1%, other 1.9% (1995) # Evangelical Lutheran, Russian Orthodox, Estonian Orthodox, others include Baptist, Methodist, 7th Day Adventist, Roman Catholic, Pentecostal, Word of Life, 7th Day Baptist, Judaism # Estonian (official), Russian, Ukrainian, other # age 15 and over can read and write # 100 100 100 Republic of Estonia Estonia Eesti Vabariik # Eesti .ee parliamentary democracy Tallinn 15 counties (maakonnad, singular - maakond): Harjumaa (Tallinn), Hiiumaa (Kardla), Ida-Virumaa (Johvi), Jarvamaa (Paide), Jogevamaa (Jogeva), Laanemaa (Haapsalu), Laane-Virumaa (Rakvere), Parnumaa (Parnu), Polvamaa (Polva), Raplamaa (Rapla), Saaremaa (Kuessaare), Tartumaa (Tartu), Valgamaa (Valga), Viljandimaa (Viljandi), Vorumaa (Voru) note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses) # ? # Independence Day, 24 February (1918) adopted 28 June 1992 # based on civil law system; no judicial review of legislative acts # 18 years of age; universal for all Estonian citizens # President Lennart MERI (since 5 October 1992) # Prime Minister Mart LAAR # Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister, approved by Parliament # president elected by Parliament for a five-year term; if he or she does not secure two-thirds of the votes after 3 rounds of balloting, then an electoral assembly (made up of Parliament plus members of local governments) elects the president, choosing between the two candidates with the largest percentage of votes; election last held August-September 1996 (next to be held fall 2001); prime minister nominated by the president and approved by Parliament # Lennart MERI elected president by an electoral assembly after Parliament was unable to break a deadlock between MERI and RUUTEL; percent of electoral assembly vote - Lennert MERI 61%, Arnold RUUTEL 39% # unicameral Parliament or Riigikogu (101 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # last held 5 March 1995 (next to be held NA March 1999) # percent of vote by party - KMU 32.22%, RE 16.18%, K 14.17%, Pro Patria and ERSP 7.85%, M 5.98%, Our Home is Estonia and Right-Wingers 5.0%; seats by party - KMU 41, RE 19, K 16, Pro Patria 8, Our Home is Estonia 6, M 6, Right-Wingers 5 # National Court, chairman appointed by the Parliament for life # Coalition Party and Rural Union or KMU [Mart SIIMAN, chairman] made up of 4 parties: Coalition Party or EK, Country People's Party [Arnold RUUTEL, chairman]/Farmer's Assembly or EME, Rural Union or EM [Arvo SIRENDI, chairman] , and Pensioners' and Families' League or EPPL [Mai TREIAL, chairperson]; Reform Party or RE [Siim KALLAS, chairman]; Center Party or K [Edgar SAVISAAR, chairman]; Union of Pro Patria or Fatherland League (Isamaaliit) [Toivo JURGENSON, chairman]; National Independence Party or ERSP [Tunne KELAM, chairman]; Our Home is Estonia [Viktor ANDREJEV] made up of two parties: United Peoples Party and the Russian Party of Estonia; note - Our Home is Estonia split when two Russian Party of Estonia members withdrew; United Peoples Party [Viktor ANDREJEV, chairman]; Russian Party of Estonia [Nikolai MASPANOV, chairman]; Moderates or M [Andres TARAND] made up of two parties: Social Democratic Party or ESDP and Rural Center Party or EMK; Social Democratic Party [Eiki NESTOR, chairman]; Rural Center Party [Vambo KAAL, chairman]; Right-Wingers [Ulo NUGIS, chairman]; Republican Conservative [Vootele HANSEN]; Development/Progressive Party [Andra VEIDEMANN, chairwoman], note - party was created by defectors from Center Party in late spring 1996, Development Party faction split and now holds five independent seats # ? # BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNMIBH, UNTSO, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant) # pre-1940 flag restored by Supreme Soviet in May 1990 - three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), black, and white # In 1997 Estonia's continued implementation of market economic reforms, disciplined fiscal and monetary policies, and a liberal free trade regime resulted in GDP growth of 10% and a drop in inflation to 11.2%. Estonia can point to its inclusion among the first group of Central and East European countries to begin EU accession talks in 1998 as its most significant economic achievement in 1997. Other economic strengths include solid investment grade rating from both Standard and Poors and Moody's, government revenue collection in excess of projections by more than 6%, growth in exports at a faster rate than imports, and record levels of foreign direct investment, among the highest per capita in Central and East Europe. Estonia privatized its shipping company in 1997, but failed to make as much progress privatizing other large infrastructure/utility companies, such as Eesti Energia and the Oil Shale company, which it plans to privatize in the next two years. The growing current account deficit, which stood at nearly 10% of GDP at yearend 1997, remains a serious concern. In 1998, GDP is expected to grow by 5.5% and inflation to fall 10%. # 10 3330 4733 7.10 24.90 68 11.20 785000 industry and construction 42%, agriculture and forestry 20%, other 38% (1990) # 3.60 1700 1800.00 oil shale, shipbuilding, phosphates, electric motors, excavators, cement, furniture, clothing, textiles, paper, shoes, apparel # 3 3.29 8083 4355 potatoes, fruits, vegetables; livestock and dairy products; fish # 2000 textiles 16%, food products 16%, machinery and equipment 16%, metals 9% (1995) # Finland, Russia, Sweden, Germany, Latvia (1995) # 3200.00 machinery and equipment 29%, foodstuffs 14%, minerals 13%, textiles 13%, metals 12% (1995) # Finland, Russia, Sweden, Germany (1995) # 270 ODA, $147 million (1993) # ? # 1 Estonian kroon (EEK) = 100 cents (introduced in August 1992) # 14.53 calendar year 400000 substantial investment has been made in cellular systems which are operational throughout Estonia # international traffic is carried to the other former Soviet republics by landline or microwave radio relay and to other countries partly by leased connection to the Moscow international gateway switch and partly by a new Tallinn-Helsinki fiber-optic, submarine cable which gives Estonia access to international circuits everywhere; access to the international packet-switched digital network via Helsinki # ? ? ? 710000 4 600000 1018 1,018 km 1.520-m gauge (132 km electrified) (1995) # # # # 15304 8,142 km (including 65 km of expressways) # 7,162 km (1996 est.) # 500 ? ? 420 Haapsalu, Narva, Paldiski, Parnu, Tallinn # 53 368340 455696 bulk 6, cargo 27, combination bulk 1, container 5, oil tanker 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 7, short-sea passenger 5 (1997 est.) # 5 5 1 1 ? 3 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Ground Forces, Navy/Coast Guard, Air and Air Defense Force (not officially sanctioned), Maritime Border Guard, Volunteer Defense League (Kaitseliit), Security Forces (internal and border troops) # 18 years of age # 351148 275610 10424 35000000 1.50 Estonian and Russian negotiators reached a technical border agreement in December 1996 which has not been ratified; Estonia claimed over 2,000 sq km territory in the Narva and Pechory regions of Russia - based on boundary established under the 1920 Peace Treaty of Tartu # transshipment point for opiates and cannabis from Southwest Asia and the Caucasus, and cocaine from Latin America to Western Europe and Scandinavia # @Ethiopia 0 ? # Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world. Herodotus, the Greek historian of the fifth century B.C. describes ancient Ethiopia in his writings. The Old Testament of the Bible records the Queen of Sheba's visit to Jerusalem. According to legend, Menelik I, the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, founded the Ethiopian Empire. Missionaries from Egypt and Syria introduced Christianity in the fourth century A.D. Following the rise of Islam in the seventh century, Ethiopia was gradually cut off from European Christendom. The Portuguese established contact with Ethiopia in 1493, primarily to strengthen their hegemony over the Indian Ocean and to convert Ethiopia to Roman Catholicism. There followed a century of conflict between pro- and anti-Catholic factions, resulting in the expulsion of all foreign missionaries in the 1630s. This period of bitter religious conflict contributed to hostility toward foreign Christians and Europeans, which persisted into the 20th century and was a factor in Ethiopia's isolation until the mid-19th century. <P> Under the Emperors Theodore II (1855-68), Johannes IV (1872-89), and Menelik II (1889-1913), the kingdom began to emerge from its medieval isolation. When Menelik II died, his grandson, Lij Iyassu, succeeded to the throne but soon lost support because of his Muslim ties. He was deposed in 1916 by the Christian nobility, and Menelik's daughter, Zewditu, was made empress. Her cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen (1892-1975), was made regent and successor to the throne. <P> In 1930, after the empress died, the regent, adopting the throne name Haile Selassie, was crowned emperor. His reign was interrupted in 1936 when Italian Fascist forces invaded and occupied Ethiopia. The emperor was forced into exile in England despite his plea to the League of Nations for intervention. Five years later, the Italians were defeated by British and Ethiopian forces, and the emperor returned to the throne. <P> After a period of civil unrest which began in February 1974, the aging Haile Selassie I was deposed on September 12, 1974, and a provisional administrative council of soldiers, known as the Derg ("committee") seized power from the emperor and installed a government which was socialist in name and military in style. The Derg summarily executed 59 members of the royal family and ministers and generals of the emperor's government; Emperor Haile Selassie was strangled in the basement of his palace on August 22, 1975. <P> Lt. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam assumed power as head of state and Derg chairman, after having his two predecessors killed. Mengistu's years in office were marked by a totalitarian-style government and the country's massive militarization, financed by the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, and assisted by Cuba. From 1977 through early 1978 thousands of suspected enemies of the Derg were tortured and/or killed in a purge called the "red terror." Communism was officially adopted during the late 1970s and early 1980s with the promulgation of a Soviet-style constitution, Politburo, and the creation of the Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE). <P> In December 1976, an Ethiopian delegation in Moscow signed a military assistance agreement with the Soviet Union. The following April, Ethiopia abrogated its military assistance agreement with the United States and expelled the American military missions. In July 1977, sensing the disarray in Ethiopia, Somalia attacked across the Ogaden Desert in pursuit of its irredentist claims to the ethnic Somali areas of Ethiopia. Ethiopian forces were driven back far inside their own frontiers but, with the assistance of a massive Soviet airlift of arms and Cuban combat forces, they stemmed the attack. The major Somali regular units were forced out of the Ogaden in March 1978. Twenty years later, the Somali region of Ethiopia remains under-developed and insecure. <P> The Derg's collapse was hastened by droughts and famine, as well as by insurrections, particularly in the northern regions of Tigray and Eritrea. In 1989, the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). In May 1991, EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa. Mengistu fled the country and was granted asylum in Zimbabwe, where he still resides. <P> In July 1991, the EPRDF, the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), and others established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) which was comprised of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. In June 1992 the OLF withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition left the government. <P> In May 1991, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), led by Isaias Afwerki, assumed control of Eritrea and established a provisional government. This provisional government independently administered Eritrea until April 23-25, 1993, when Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence in a UN-monitored free and fair referendum. Eritrea was declared independent on April 27, and the U.S. recognized Eritrean independence on April 28. <P> In Ethiopia, President Meles Zenawi and members of the TGE pledged to oversee the formation of a multi-party democracy. The election for a 547-member constituent assembly was held in June 1994, and this assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. The elections for Ethiopia's first popularly chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995. Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections, ensuring a landslide victory for the EPRDF. International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so. The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995. The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles has promoted a policy of ethnic federalism, devolving significant powers to regional, ethnically based authorities. Ethiopia today has 10 semi-autonomous administrative regions which have the power to raise and spend their own revenues. Under the present government, Ethiopians enjoy greater political participation and freer debate than ever before in their history, although some fundamental freedoms, including freedom of the press, are in practice somewhat circumscribed. # ETH Eastern Africa, west of Somalia # 1127127 1119683 7444 5311 Djibouti 337 km, Eritrea 912 km, Kenya 830 km, Somalia 1,626 km, Sudan 1,606 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? tropical monsoon with wide topographic-induced variation # high plateau with central mountain range divided by Great Rift Valley # Denakil -125 m Ras Dashen Terara 4,620 m small reserves of gold, platinum, copper, potash, natural gas # 12 1 40 25 22 1900 geologically active Great Rift Valley susceptible to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions; frequent droughts # deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection # Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban # landlocked - entire coastline along the Red Sea was lost with the de jure independence of Eritrea on 27 April 1993 # 58390351 46 13468783 13398500 51 15095357 14812537 3 734471 880703 2.21 44.69 21.25 -1.33 1.03 1 1.01 0.83 ? 125.65 40.85 39.76 41.97 6.88 Ethiopian(s) Ethiopian Oromo 40%, Amhara and Tigrean 32%, Sidamo 9%, Shankella 6%, Somali 6%, Afar 4%, Gurage 2%, other 1% # Muslim 45%-50%, Ethiopian Orthodox 35%-40%, animist 12%, other 3%-8% # Amharic (official), Tigrinya, Orominga, Guaraginga, Somali, Arabic, English (major foreign language taught in schools) # age 15 and over can read and write # 35.50 45.50 25.30 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ethiopia YeItyop'iya Federalawi Demokrasiyawi Ripeblik # YeItyop'iya .et federal republic Addis Ababa 9 ethnically-based administrative regions (astedader akababiwach, singular - astedader akababi) and 1 federal capital*: Addis Ababa*; Afar; Amhara; Benishangul/Gumaz; Gambela; Harar; Oromia; Somali; Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples; Tigray # ? # National Day, 28 May (1991) (defeat of Mengistu regime) promulgated December 1994 # NA # 18 years of age; universal # President NEGASSO Gidada (since 22 August 1995) # Prime Minister MELES Zenawi (since August 1995) # Council of Ministers as provided in the December 1994 constitution; ministers are selected by the prime minister and approved by the Council of People's Representatives # president elected by the Council of People's Representatives for a six-year term; election last held June 1995 (next to be held NA 2001); prime minister designated by the party in power following legislative elections # NEGASSO Gidada elected president; percent of vote by the Council of People's Representatives - NA # bicameral Parliament consists of the Council of the Federation or upper chamber (117 seats; members are chosen by state assemblies to serve five-year terms) and the Council of People's Representatives or lower chamber (548 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote from single-member districts to serve five-year terms); note - the upper chamber represents the ethnic interests of the regional governments # regional and national popular elections were held in May and June 1995 (next to be held NA 2000) and the Federal Parliamentary Assembly assumed legislative power on 21 August 1995 # percent of vote - NA; seats - NA; note - EPRDF won nearly all seats # Supreme Court, judges are elected by the national legislature # Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front or EPRDF [MELES Zenawi] # ? # ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer) # three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and red with a yellow pentagram and single yellow rays emanating from the angles between the points on a light blue disk centered on the three bands; Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa, and the colors of her flag were so often adopted by other African countries upon independence that they became known as the pan-African colors # Ethiopia remains one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. Its economy is based on agriculture, which accounts for more than half of GDP, 90% of exports, and 80% of total employment; coffee generates 60% of export earnings. The agricultural sector suffers from frequent periods of drought, poor cultivation practices, and deterioration of internal security conditions. The manufacturing sector is heavily dependent on inputs from the agricultural sector. Over 90% of large-scale industry, but less than 10% of agriculture, is state-run. The government is considering selling off a portion of state-owned plants and is implementing reform measures that are gradually liberalizing the economy. A major medium-term problem is the improvement of roads, water supply, and other parts of an infrastructure badly neglected during years of civil strife. # 5 110 6423 55 12 33 0 ? agriculture and animal husbandry 80%, government and services 12%, industry and construction 8% (1985) # ? 1000 1480 food processing, beverages, textiles, chemicals, metals processing, cement # ? 0.46 1143 20 cereals, pulses, coffee, oilseed, sugarcane, potatoes, other vegetables; hides, cattle, sheep, goats # 418 coffee, leather products, gold (1995) # Germany 32%, Japan 14%, Djibouti 7%, Saudi Arabia 8%, Italy 8% (1994) # 1230 food and live animals, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, machinery, motor vehicles and aircraft (1994) # Saudi Arabia 15%, Italy 11%, US 12.3%, Germany 8% (1994) # 5200 ODA, $367 million (FY95/96) # ? # 1 birr (Br) = 100 cents # 1 8 July - 7 July 100000 open wire and microwave radio relay # open wire to Sudan and Djibouti; microwave radio relay to Kenya and Djibouti; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Pacific Ocean) # 4 0 0 9900000 1 100000 681 # # 681 km 1.000-m gauge # # 28500 4,275 km # 24,225 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? none; Ethiopia is landlocked but by agreement with Eritrea may use the ports of Assab and Massawa # 13 73775 98279 cargo 8, oil tanker 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 3 (1997 est.) # 86 10 3 4 2 1 20 76 3 7 10 36 ? ? Ground Forces, Air Force, Police # 18 years of age # 13240029 6900452 630087 126000000 ? most of the southern half of the boundary with Somalia is a Provisional Administrative Line; territorial dispute with Somalia over the Ogaden # transit hub for heroin originating in Southwest and Southeast Asia and destined for Europe and North America as well as cocaine destined for markets in southern Africa; cultivates qat (chat) for local use and regional export # @Europa Island France ? # # Southern Africa, island in the Mozambique Channel, about one-half of the way from southern Madagascar to southern Mozambique # 28 28 0 ? ? # 22.20 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical # NA # Indian Ocean 0 m unnamed location 24 m negligible # ? ? ? ? ? 0 NA # NA # NA # NA # wildlife sanctuary # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? none Europa Island none # Ile Europa .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # NA # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of France is used # no economic activity # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 1 ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only # ? ? ? ? # 1 ? ? ? ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? claimed by Madagascar # ? # @Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) United Kingdom ? # A group of over 100 islands in the S Atlantic. The two main islands,East Falkland and West Falkland, lie 480km east of the southern tip of South America. Invaded by Argentina, who had long laid claim to the islands, on 2 April 1982; recaptured by a British expeditionary force on 14 June 1982. Spanish name: Islas Malvinas. # GB Southern South America, islands in the South Atlantic Ocean, east of southern Argentina # 12173 12173 0 ? ? # 1288 ? 200 nm # ? 200 12 cold marine; strong westerly winds, cloudy, humid; rain occurs on more than half of days in year; occasional snow all year, except in January and February, but does not accumulate # rocky, hilly, mountainous with some boggy, undulating plains # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mount Usborne 705 m fish, wildlife # 0 0 99 0 1 ? strong winds persist throughout the year # NA # NA # NA # deeply indented coast provides good natural harbors; short growing season # 2805 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 4.13 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Falkland Islander(s) Falkland Island British # primarily Anglican, Roman Catholic, United Free Church, Evangelist Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Lutheran, Seventh-Day Adventist # English # ? # ? ? ? Colony of the Falkland Islands Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) ? # ? .fk NA Stanley none (dependent territory of the UK, also claimed by Argentina) # ? # Liberation Day, 14 June (1982) 3 October 1985; amended 1997 # English common law # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952) # Governor Richard RALPH (since 29 January 1996); Chief Executive A. GURR (since NA); First Secretary R. T. JARVIS (since NA) # Executive Council; three members elected by the Legislative Council, two ex-officio members (chief executive and the financial secretary), and the governor # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor appointed by the queen # ? # unicameral Legislative Council (10 seats, 8 elected, 2 ex officio; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held NA October 1997 (next to be held NA October 2002) # percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 8 # Supreme Court, chief justice is non-resident # none; all independents # ? # ICFTU # blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Falkland Island coat of arms in a white disk centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms contains a white ram (sheep raising is the major economic activity) above the sailing ship Desire (whose crew discovered the islands) with a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto DESIRE THE RIGHT # The economy was formerly based on agriculture, mainly sheep farming, which directly or indirectly employs most of the work force. Dairy farming supports domestic consumption; crops furnish winter fodder. Exports feature shipments of high-grade wool to the UK and the sale of postage stamps and coins. Rich stocks of fish in the surrounding waters are not presently exploited by the islanders. So far, efforts to establish a domestic fishing industry have been unsuccessful. The economy has diversified since 1987, when the government began selling fishing licenses to foreign trawlers operating within the Falklands exclusive fishing zone; overfishing is a growing problem. These license fees total more than $40 million per year and support the island's health, education, and welfare system. To encourage tourism, the Falkland Islands Development Corporation has built three lodges for visitors attracted by the abundant wildlife and trout fishing. The islands are now self-financing except for defense. The British Geological Survey announced a 200-mile oil exploration zone around the islands in 1993, and early seismic surveys suggest substantial reserves capable of producing 500,000 barrels per day. An agreement between Argentina and the UK in 1995 seeks to defuse licensing and sovereignty conflicts that would dampen foreign interest in exploiting potential oil reserves. # ? 14140 40 ? ? ? ? 1100 agriculture 95% (mostly sheepherding) # ? 53.40 53.10 wool and fish processing; sale of stamps and coins # ? 0.01 10 4316 fodder and vegetable crops; sheep farming, small dairy herds # 7.60 wool, hides, meat # UK, Netherlands, Japan (1992) # 24.70 fuel, food and drink, building materials, clothing # UK, Netherlands Antilles, Japan (1992) # ? ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Falkland pound (£F) = 100 pence # 0.61 1 April - 31 March 1180 government-operated radiotelephone and private VHF/CB radiotelephone networks provide effective service to almost all points on both islands # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) with links through London to other countries # ? ? ? 1000 1 ? ? # # # # 348 83 km # 265 km # ? ? ? ? Stanley # ? ? ? ? # 5 2 ? 1 ? ? 1 3 ? ? ? ? 3 ? British Forces Falkland Islands (includes Army, Royal Air Force, Royal Navy, and Royal Marines), Police Force # ? # ? ? ? ? ? claimed by Argentina # ? # @Faroe Islands Denmark ? # # DK Northern Europe, island group between the Norwegian Sea and the north Atlantic Ocean, about one-half of the way from Iceland to Norway # 1399 1399 0 ? ? # 1117 ? ? # ? 200 3 mild winters, cool summers; usually overcast; foggy, windy # rugged, rocky, some low peaks; cliffs along most of coast # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Slaettaratindur 882 m fish, whales # 6 0 0 0 94 0 NA # NA # NA # NA # archipelago of 17 inhabited islands and one uninhabited island, and a few uninhabited islets; strategically located along important sea lanes in northeastern Atlantic; precipitous terrain limits habitation to small coastal lowlands # 41834 23 4971 4777 62 13896 12034 15 2759 3397 -1.72 13.08 8.84 -21.42 1.05 1.04 1.15 0.81 ? 10.50 78.43 75.53 81.45 2.36 Faroese (singular and plural) Faroese Scandinavian # Evangelical Lutheran # Faroese (derived from Old Norse), Danish # ? # ? ? ? none Faroe Islands none # Foroyar .fo NA Torshavn none (part of the Kingdom of Denmark; self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark) # ? # Birthday of the Queen, 16 April (1940) 5 June 1953 (Danish constitution) # Danish # 18 years of age; universal # Queen MARGRETHE II of Denmark (since 14 January 1972), represented by High Commissioner Bente KLINTE, chief administrative officer (since NA) # Prime Minister Anfinn KALLSBERG (since NA May 1998) # Landsstyri elected by the Faroese Parliament # the queen is a constitutional monarch; high commissioner appointed by the queen; following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually elected prime minister by the Faroese Parliament; election last held NA 1994 (next to be held NA 1998) # Edmund JOENSEN elected prime minister; percent of parliamentary vote - 23.4% # unicameral Faroese Parliament or Logting (32 seats; members are elected on a proportional basis from the seven constituencies to serve four-year terms) # last held 30 April 1998 (next to be held by NA July 2002) # percent of vote by party - Republicans 23.8%, People's Party 21.3%, Social Democrats 21.9%, Coalition Party (Union Party, Labor Front, Home Rule Party) 15%; seats by party - Republicans 8, People's Party 8, Social Democrats 7, Coalition Party 6, other parties 3 note: election of 2 seats to the Danish Parliament was last held on 21 September 1994 (next to be held by September 1998); results - percent of vote by party - Unionist Party 22.5%, People's Party 21.7%; seats by party - Unionist Party 1, People's Party 1 # none # Social Democratic Party [Joannes EIDESGAARD]; Workers' Party [Alis JACOBSEN]; Home Rule Party [Helena Dam A NEYSTABO]; Unionist Party [Edmund JOENSEN]; Republican Party [Heini O. HEINESEN]; Center Party [Tordur NICLASEN]; Christian People's Party [Niels Pauli DANIELSEN]; People's Party [Arnfinn KALLSBERG] # ? # none # white with a red cross outlined in blue that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag) # The Faroese economy in 1995 and 1996 saw a noticeable upturn after several years of decline brought on by a drop in fish catches and declining prices and by over-spending by the Faroese Home Rule Government (FHRG). In the early 1990s, property values plummeted, and the FHRG had to bail out and merge the two largest Faroese banks. Fishing is now improving; wage costs are increasing; the FHRG's budget is almost in balance; and the large foreign debt has come down significantly. Nevertheless, the total dependence on fishing makes the Faroese economy extremely vulnerable, and the reduction in the foreign debt is at the cost of low investment. Oil finds close to the Faroese area give hope for deposits in the immediate Faroese area, which may lay the basis for an eventual economic rebound. The Faroese are supported by a substantial annual subsidy from Denmark. # 6 10850 454 20 16 64 2.80 20345 largely engaged in fishing, manufacturing, transportation, and commerce # 11 467 468 fishing, shipbuilding, construction, handicrafts # ? 0.09 200 4092 milk, potatoes, vegetables; sheep; salmon farming; fish # 362 fish and fish products 92%, animal feedstuffs, transport equipment (ships) # Denmark 22.2%, UK 25.8%, Germany 9.7%, France 8.3%, Norway 6.2%, US 2.0% # 0.00 machinery and transport equipment 17.0%, consumer goods 33%, raw materials and semi-manufactures 26.9%, fuels 11.4%, fish and salt 6.7% # Denmark 34.5%, Norway 15.9%, UK 8.4% Germany 7.8%, Sweden 5.8%, US 1.5% # 767 ? # ? # 1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 oere # 6.92 calendar year 26000 digitalization to be completed in 1998 # satellite earth stations - 1 Orion; 1 optical fiber submarine cable linking the Faroe Islands with Denmark and Iceland # 1 1 0 11800 1 11600 ? # # # # 458 450 km # 8 km (1995 est.) # ? ? ? ? Torshavn, Klaksvik, Tvoroyri, Runavik, Fuglafjorour # 6 22853 13481 cargo 2, oil tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 1, short-sea passenger 1 (1997 est.) # 1 1 ? ? ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? no organized native military forces; only a small Police Force and Coast Guard are maintained # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Fiji 0 Blessing grant, oh God of nations, on the isles of Fiji, As we stand united under noble banner blue. And we honour and defend the cause of freedom ever, Onward march together, God bless Fiji! CHORUS For Fiji, ever Fiji, let our voices ring with pride, For Fiji, ever Fiji, her name hail far and wide, A land of freedom, hope and glory to endure whate'er befall May God bless Fiji, forevermore! Blessing grant, oh God of nations, on the isles of Fiji, Shores of golden sand and sunshine, happiness and song. Stand united, we of Fiji, fame and glory ever, Onward march together, God bless Fiji! # It is assumed that the first inhabitants of the hundreds of islands that make up the archipelago arrived about 3500 years ago via Indonesia and New Guinea. (The actual number of islands is difficult to determine; sources range in estimate from 322 to more than 500! It is, however, agreed that 106 of these are inhabited.) The first sighting of the islands by a westerner was in 1643, by Abel Tasman. Captain Bligh landed there in 1789 after the mutiny on the Bounty, and charted the area. Fiji became a British colony in 1874. Fiji became an independent parliamentary democracy in 1970. In 1987, the government was ousted by a military coup. Order was restored, but a second coup was staged by Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka in September of that same year, and in October he declared Fiji a republic. The Fijian parliament has two houses: the Senate with 22 seats, and the House of Representatives with 52 seats. The country is divided into 4 divisions and 14 provinces. # FJI Oceania, island group in the South Pacific Ocean, about two-thirds of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand # 18270 18270 0 ? ? # 1129 ? 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation; rectilinear shelf claim added # 200 ? 12 tropical marine; only slight seasonal temperature variation # mostly mountains of volcanic origin # Pacific Ocean 0 m Tomanivi 1,324 m timber, fish, gold, copper, offshore oil potential # 10 4 10 65 11 10 cyclonic storms can occur from November to January # deforestation; soil erosion # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # includes 332 islands of which approximately 110 are inhabited # 802611 34 139713 134220 63 251646 251425 3 12051 13556 1.28 22.92 6.25 -3.92 1.05 1.04 1 0.89 ? 16.65 66.29 63.92 68.78 2.74 Fijian(s) Fijian Fijian 49%, Indian 46%, European, other Pacific Islanders, overseas Chinese, and other 5% # Christian 52% (Methodist 37%, Roman Catholic 9%), Hindu 38%, Muslim 8%, other 2% # English (official), Fijian, Hindustani # age 15 and over can read and write # 91.60 93.80 89.30 Republic of the Fiji Islands Fiji ? # ? .fj republic Suva 4 divisions and 1 dependency*; Central, Eastern, Northern, Rotuma*, Western # ? # Independence Day, 10 October (1970) 10 October 1970 (suspended 1 October 1987); a new constitution was proposed on 23 September 1988 and promulgated on 25 July 1990; another new constitution, which opens the way for a non-ethnic Fijian to become prime minister, was signed by the president on 25 July 1997 and will come into force no later than 28 July 1998 # based on British system # 21 years of age; universal # President Ratu Sir Kamisese MARA (acting president since 15 December 1993, president since 12 January 1994); First Vice President Ratu Sir Josaia TAIVAI'IA (since 12 January 1994); Second Vice President Ratu Inoke TAKIVEIKATA (since 12 January 1994) # Prime Minister Sitiveni RABUKA (since 2 June 1992); Deputy Prime Minister Taufa VAKATALE (since 7 August 1997) # Cabinet appointed by the prime minister from among the members of Parliament and is responsible to Parliament note: there is also a Presidential Council that advises the president on matters of national importance and a Great Council of Chiefs which consists of the highest ranking members of the traditional chiefly system # president elected by the Great Council of Chiefs for a five-year term; prime minister appointed by the president # Ratu Sir Kamisese MARA elected president; percent of Great Council of Chiefs vote - NA # bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (34 seats; 24 reserved for ethnic Fijians, 9 for Indians and others, and 1 for the island of Rotuma; members appointed by the president to serve five-year terms) and the House of Representatives (70 seats; 37 reserved for ethnic Fijians, 27 for ethnic Indians, and 6 for independents and others; members elected by popular vote on a communal basis to serve five-year terms) # House of Representatives - last held 18-25 February 1994 (next to be held NA 1999) # House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - SVT 31, NFP 20, FLP 7, FAP 5, GVP 4, independents 2, ANC 1 note: when the new constitution comes into force, the composition of the legislative branch will change to the following: Senate - 32 seats (14 appointed by the Great Council of Chiefs, nine appointed by the prime minister, eight appointed by the leader of the opposition, and one appointed by the Council of Rotuma); House of Representatives - 71 seats (23 reserved for ethnic Fijians, 19 reserved for ethnic Indians, three reserved for other ethnic groups, and there will be 25 open seats) # Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president # Fijian Political Party (SVT - primarily Fijian), leader Maj. Gen. Sitivini RABUKA; National Federation Party (NFP; primarily Indian), Jai Ram REDDY; Fijian Nationalist Party (FNP), Sakeasi BUTADROKA; Fiji Labor Party (FLP), Mahendra CHAUDHRY; General Voters Party (GVP), Leo SMITH; Fiji Conservative Party (FCP), leader NA; Conservative Party of Fiji (CPF), leader NA; Fiji Indian Liberal Party, leader NA; Fiji Indian Congress Party, leader NA; Fiji Independent Labor (Muslim), leader NA; Four Corners Party, leader NA; Fijian Association Party (FAP), Ratu Finau MARA; General Electors' Association, David PICKERING note: in early 1995, ethnic Fijian members of the All National Congress (ANC) merged with the Fijian Association (FA); the remaining members of the ANC have renamed their party the General Electors' Association # ? # ACP, AsDB, C, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, PCA, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO # light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Fijian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the shield depicts a yellow lion above a white field quartered by the cross of Saint George featuring stalks of sugarcane, a palm tree, bananas, and a white dove # Fiji, endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector. Sugar exports and a growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Roughly 250,000 tourists visit each year. Political uncertainty and drought, however, contribute to substantial fluctuations in earnings from tourism and sugar and to the emigration of skilled workers. Fiji's growth slowed in 1997 because the sugar industry suffered from low world prices and rent disputes between farmers and landowners. # 3 2470 1982 21 18 61 3 235000 subsistence agriculture 67%, wage earners 18%, salary earners 15% (1987) # 6 540.65 742.65 sugar, tourism, copra, gold, silver, clothing, lumber, small cottage industries # 2.90 0.20 545 705 sugarcane, coconuts, cassava (tapioca), rice, sweet potatoes, bananas; cattle, pigs, horses, goats; fish catch 13,796 tons (1991) # 639 sugar 32%, clothing, gold, processed fish, lumber # EU 26%, Australia 15%, other Pacific island countries 11%, Japan 6% # 947 machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, food, consumer goods, chemicals # Australia 30%, NZ 17%, Japan 13%, EU 6%, US 6% # 333.80 ODA, $14.35 million from Australia (FY96/97 est.); $3.5 million from New Zealand (FY95/96) # ? # 1 Fijian dollar (F$) = 100 cents # 1.91 calendar year 60017 NA # access to important cable link between US and Canada and NZ and Australia; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean) # 7 1 0 ? 0 12000 597 # # 597 km 0.610-m gauge (1995) # # 3440 1,692 km # 1,748 km (1996 est.) # 203 ? ? ? Labasa, Lautoka, Levuka, Savusavu, Suva # 6 17800 18034 chemical tanker 2, oil tanker 1, passenger 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 2 (1997 est.) # 24 3 1 ? 1 1 17 21 ? ? ? 4 ? ? Republic of Fiji Military Forces (RFMF; includes army, navy, and a small air wing) # 18 years of age # 214475 118181 9180 32000000 5 none # ? # @Finland 0 Oi maamme Suomi, synnyinmaa, soi, sana kultainen! Ei laaksoa ei kukkulaa, ei vettΣ, rantaa rakkaampaa kuin kotimaa tΣΣ pohjoinen, maa kallis isien. Sun kukoistukses kuorestaan keerrankin puhkeaa; viel' lempemme saa nousemaan, sun toivos, riemus loistossaan, ja kerran laulus, synnyinmaa, korkeemman kaiun saa. # The origins of the Finnish people are still a matter of conjecture, although many scholars argue that their original home was in what is now west-central Siberia. The Finns arrived in their present territory thousands of years ago, pushing the indigenous Lapps into the more remote northern regions. Finnish and Lappish -- the language of Finland's small Lapp minority -- both are Finno-Ugric languages and are in the Uralic rather than the Indo-European family. <P> Finland's nearly 700-year association with the Kingdom of Sweden began in 1154 with the introduction of Christianity by Sweden's King Eric. During the ensuing centuries, Finland played an important role in the political life of the Swedish-Finnish realm, and Finnish soldiers often predominated in Swedish armies. Finns also formed a significant proportion of the first "Swedish" settlers in 17th-century America. <P> Following Finland's incorporation into Sweden in the 12th century, Swedish became the dominant language, although Finnish recovered its predominance after a 19th-century resurgence of Finnish nationalism. Publication in 1835 of the Finnish national epic, The Kalevala -- a collection of traditional myths and legends -- first stirred the nationalism that later led to Finland's independence from Russia. <P> In 1809, Finland was conquered by the armies of Czar Alexander I and thereafter remained an autonomous grand duchy connected with the Russian Empire until the end of 1917. On December 6, 1917, shortly after the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, Finland declared its independence. In 1918, the country experienced a brief but bitter civil war that colored domestic politics for many years. During World War II, Finland fought the Soviet Union twice -- in the Winter War of 1939-40 and again in the Continuation War of 1941-44. This was followed by the Lapland War of 1944-45, when Finland fought against the Germans as they withdrew their forces from northern Finland. <P> Treaties signed in 1947 and 1948 with the Soviet Union included obligations and restraints on Finland vis-a-vis the U.S.S.R. as well as territorial concessions by Finland; both have been abrogated by Finland since the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union # SF Northern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, and Gulf of Finland, between Sweden and Russia # 337030 305470 31560 2628 Norway 729 km, Sweden 586 km, Russia 1,313 km # 1126 6 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # ? 12 12 cold temperate; potentially subarctic, but comparatively mild because of moderating influence of the North Atlantic Current, Baltic Sea, and more than 60,000 lakes # mostly low, flat to rolling plains interspersed with lakes and low hills # Baltic Sea 0 m Haltiatunturi 1,328 m timber, copper, zinc, iron ore, silver # 8 ? 0 76 16 640 NA # air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to acid rain; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling # Air Pollution-Sulphur 94 # long boundary with Russia; Helsinki is northernmost national capital on European continent; population concentrated on small southwestern coastal plain # 5149242 19 488974 469343 67 1736883 1700466 14 284929 468647 0.20 11.24 9.65 0.45 1.04 1.04 1.02 0.61 ? 3.82 77.15 73.61 80.83 1.73 Finn(s) Finnish Finn 93%, Swede 6%, Lapp 0.11%, Gypsy 0.12%, Tatar 0.02% # Evangelical Lutheran 89%, Greek Orthodox 1%, none 9%, other 1% # Finnish 93.5% (official), Swedish 6.3% (official), small Lapp- and Russian-speaking minorities # age 15 and over can read and write # 100 ? ? Republic of Finland Finland Suomen Tasavalta # Suomi .fi republic Helsinki 6 provinces (laanit, singular - laani); Aland, Etela-Suomen Laani, Ita-Suomen Lanni, Lansi-Suomen Laani, Lappi, Oulun Laani # ? # Independence Day, 6 December (1917) 17 July 1919 # civil law system based on Swedish law; Supreme Court may request legislation interpreting or modifying laws; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal # President Martti AHTISAARI (since 1 March 1994) # Prime Minister Paavo LIPPONEN (since 13 April 1995) and Deputy Prime Minister Sauli NIINISTO (since 13 April 1995) # Council of State or Valtioneuvosto appointed by the president, responsible to Parliament # president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 31 January-6 February 1994 (next to be held NA January 2000); prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the president # Martti AHTISAARI elected president; percent of vote - Martti AHTISAARI 54%, Elisabeth REHN 46% # unicameral Parliament or Eduskunta (200 seats; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis to serve four-year terms) # last held 19 March 1995 (next to be held NA March 1999) # percent of vote by party - Social Democratic Party 28.3%, Center Party 19.9%, National Coalition (Conservative) Party 17.9%, Leftist Alliance (Communist) 11.2%, Swedish People's Party 5.1%, Green League 6.5%, Ecology Party 0.3%, Rural 1.3%, Finnish Christian League 3.0%, Liberal People's Party 0.6%, Young Finns 2.8%; seats by party - Social Democratic Party 63, Center Party 44, National Coalition (Conservative) Party 39, Leftist Alliance (Communist) 22, Swedish People's Party 11, Green League 9, Ecology Party 1, Rural 1, Finnish Christian League 7, Young Finns 2, Aaland Islands 1 # Supreme Court or Korkein Oikeus, judges appointed by the president # government coalition: Social Democratic Party [Paavo LIPPONEN]; National Coalition (conservative) Party [Sauli NIINISTO]; Leftist Alliance (Communist) composed of People's Democratic League and Democratic Alternative [Claes ANDERSSON]; Swedish People's Party [(Johan) Ole NORRBACK]; Green League [Pekka HAAVISTO] # ? # AfDB, AG (observer), AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MTCR, NAM (guest), NC, NEA, NIB, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNPREDEP, UNTSO, UPU, WEU (observer), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC # white with a blue cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag) # Finland has a highly industrialized, largely free-market economy, with per capita output roughly that of the UK, France, Germany, and Italy. Its key economic sector is manufacturing - principally the wood, metals, and engineering industries. Trade is important, with the export of goods representing about 30% of GDP. Except for timber and several minerals, Finland depends on imports of raw materials, energy, and some components for manufactured goods. Because of the climate, agricultural development is limited to maintaining self-sufficiency in basic products. Forestry, an important export earner, provides a secondary occupation for the rural population. The economy has come back from the recession of 1990-92, which had been caused by economic overheating, depressed foreign markets, and the dismantling of the barter system between Finland and the former Soviet Union under which Soviet oil and gas had been exchanged for Finnish manufactured goods. The Finns voted in an October 1994 referendum to enter the EU, and Finland officially joined the Union on 1 January 1995. Attempts to cut the unacceptably high rate of unemployment and increasing integration with Western Europe will dominate the economic picture over the next few years. Despite high unemployment and moderate GDP growth of 3.9% anticipated for 1998, inflation is forecast to rise to 2.5% # 4.60 24080 123994 7 37 56 1.20 2533000 public services 30.4%, industry 20.9%, commerce 15.0%, finance, insurance, and business services 10.2%, agriculture and forestry 8.6%, transport and communications 7.7%, construction 7.2% # 14.60 33000 40000 metal products, shipbuilding, pulp and paper, copper refining, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, clothing # 7.40 14.14 58626 13181 cereals, sugar beets, potatoes; dairy cattle; annual fish catch about 160,000 metric tons # 38400 paper and pulp, machinery, chemicals, metals, timber # EU 46.5% (Germany 13.4%, UK 10.4%), Sweden 10.1%, US 6.7%, Japan 2.6%, Russia 4.8% (1995) # 29300 foodstuffs, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, transport equipment, iron and steel, machinery, textile yarn and fabrics, fodder grains # EU 44% (Germany 16.6%, UK 8.0%), Sweden 11.7%, US 7.1%, Russia 7.1%, Japan 6.3% (1995) # 30000 ? # ODA, $355 million (1993) # 1 markka (FMk) or Finmark = 100 pennia # 5.49 calendar year 2500000 cable and microwave radio relay # 1 submarine cable; satellite earth stations - access to Intelsat transmission service via a Swedish satellite earth station, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions); note - Finland shares the Inmarsat earth station with the other Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) # 6 105 0 4980000 235 1920000 5859 5,859 km 1.524-m gauge (2,073 km electrified; 480 km double- or more-track) (1996) # # # Center Party [Esko AHO]; Finnish Christian League [C. P. Bjarne KALLIS]; Rural Party [Raimo VISTBACKA]; Liberal People's Party [Pekka RYTILA]; Greens Ecological Party or EPV [Eugen PARKATTI]; Young Finns [Risto PENTTILA] # 77782 49,780 km (including 431 km of expressways) # 28,002 km (1996 est.) # 6675 ? ? 580 Hamina, Helsinki, Kokkola, Kotka, Loviisa, Oulu, Pori, Rauma, Turku, Uusikaupunki, Varkaus # 93 1069794 1127087 bulk 8, cargo 22, chemical tanker 5, oil tanker 11, passenger 1, railcar carrier 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 34, short-sea passenger 11 (1997 est.) # 158 69 3 23 13 21 9 89 ? ? ? 5 84 ? Army, Navy, Air Force, Frontier Guard (includes Sea Guard) # 17 years of age # 1286563 1059657 33492 1900000000 1.60 none # minor transshipment point for Latin American cocaine for the West European market # @France 0 La Marseillaise 1er couplet Allons enfants de la patrie, Le jour de gloire est arrivΘ ! Contre nous de la tyrannie L'Θtendard sanglant est levΘ (bis) Entendez vous dans les campagnes, Mugir ces fΘroces soldats ? Ils viennent jusque dans nos bras Egorger nos fils, nos compagnes Refrain Aux armes, citoyens Formez vos bataillons Marchons Marchons Qu'un sang impur Abreuve nos sillons 2eme couplet Que veut cette horde d'esclaves, de traitres, de rois conjures ? Pour qui ces ignobles entraves, Ces fers des longtemps preparΘs ? (bis) Franτais pour nous, ah Quel outrage Quels transports il doit exciter C'est nous qu'on ose mΘditer De rendre α l'antique esclavage 3Φme couplet Quoi Ces cohortes ΘtrangΦres Feraient la loi dans nos foyers Quoi Ces phalanges mercenaires Terrasseraient nos fiers guerriers (bis) Grand Dieu ! Par des mains enchainΘes Nos fronts sous le joug ploiraient De vils despotes deviendraient Les maεtres de nos destinΘes 4Φme couplet Tremblez tyrans ! Et vous, perfides, L'opprobre de tous les partis, Tremblez Vos projets parricides Vont enfin recevoir leur prix (bis) Tout est soldat pour vous combattre. S'ils tombent, nos jeunes heros, La France en produit de nouveaux, Contre vous tout prΩts α se battre 5Φme couplet Francais, en guerriers magnanimes, Portez ou retenez vos coups Epargnez ces tristes victimes, A regret s'armant contre nous. (bis) Mais ces despotes sanguinaires, Mais ces complices de Boulle, Tous ces tigres qui, sans pitiΘ, DΘchirent le sein de leur mΦre !... 6Φme couplet Amour sacrΘ de la patrie, Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs LibertΘ, LibertΘ chΘrie, Combats avec tes dΘfenseurs (bis) Sous nos drapeaux, que la victoire Accoure α tes males accents Que tes ennemis expirants Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire 7Φme couplet Nous entrerons dans la carriΦre Quand nos aεnΘs n'y seront plus; Nous y trouverons leur poussiΦre Et la trace de leurs vertus. (bis) Bien moins jaloux de leur survivre Que de partager leur cercueil, Nous aurons le sublime orgueil De les venger ou de les suivre. # Celtic Gaul was conquered by Julius Caesar 58-51 BC. Romans ruled for 500 years. France was one of the earliest countries to progress from feudalism into the era of the nation-state. Its monarchs surrounded themselves with capable ministers, and French armies were among the most innovative, disciplined, and professional of their day. <P> During the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), France was the dominant power in Europe. But overly ambitious projects and military campaigns of Louis and his successors led to chronic financial problems in the 18th century. Deteriorating economic conditions and popular resentment against the complicated system of privileges granted the nobility and clerics were among the principal causes of the French Revolution (1789-94), which overthrew the monarchy, establishing the First Republic. <P> Although the revolutionaries advocated republican and egalitarian principles of government, France reverted to forms of absolute rule or constitutional monarchy four times--the Empire of Napoleon, the Restoration of Louis XVIII, the reign of Louis-Philippe, and the Second Empire of Napoleon III. <P> After the Franco-Prussian War (1870), the Third Republic was established and lasted until the military defeat of 1940. <P> World War I (1914-18) brought great losses of troops and materiel. In the 1920s, France established an elaborate system of border defenses (the Maginot Line) and alliances to offset resurgent German strength. <P> France was defeated early in World War II, however, and occupied in 1940. The German victory left the French groping for a new policy and new leadership suited to the circumstances. On July 10, 1940, the Vichy Government was established. Its senior leaders acquiesced in the plunder of French resources, as well as the sending of French forced labor to Germany; in doing so, they claimed they hoped to preserve at least some small amount of French sovereignty. <P> The German occupation proved quite costly, however, as a full one-half of France's public sector revenue was appropriated by Germany. After four years of occupation and strife, Allied forces liberated France in 1944. A bitter legacy carries over to the present day. A nation-wide debate has emerged over how much responsibility France should bear for the crimes and collaborations of the Vichy regime. <P> France emerged from World War II to face a series of new problems. After a short period of provisional government initially led by Gen. Charles de Gaulle, the Fourth Republic was set up by a new constitution and established as a parliamentary form of government controlled by a series of coalitions. The mixed nature of the coalitions and a consequent lack of agreement on measures for dealing with Indochina and Algeria caused successive cabinet crises and changes of government. <P> Finally, on May 13, 1958, the government structure collapsed as a result of the tremendous opposing pressures generated in the divisive Algerian issue. A threatened coup led the parliament to call on General de Gaulle to head the government and prevent civil war. He became Prime Minister in June 1958 (at the beginning of the Fifth Republic) and was elected President in December of that year. <P> Seven years later, in an occasion marking the first time in the 20th century that the people of France went to the polls to elect a president by direct ballot, de Gaulle won re-election with a 55% share of the vote, defeating Francois Mitterrand. In April 1969, President de Gaulle's government conducted a national referendum on the creation of 21 regions with limited political powers. The government's proposals were defeated, and de Gaulle subsequently resigned. <P> Succeeding him as President of France have been Gaullist Georges Pompidou (1969-74), Independent Republican Valery Giscard d'Estaing (1974-81), Socialist Francois Mitterrand (1981-95), and neo-Gaullist Jacques Chirac (elected in spring 1995). <P> President Mitterrand's second seven-year term ended in May 1995. During his tenure, he stressed the importance of European integration and advocated the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty on European economic and political union, which France's electorate narrowly approved in September 1992. <P> Current President Jacques Chirac assumed office May 17, 1995, after a campaign focused on the need to combat France's stubbornly high unemployment rate. The center of domestic attention soon shifted, however, to the economic reform and belt-tightening measures required for France to meet the criteria for Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) laid out by the Maastricht Treaty. In late 1995, France experienced its worst labor unrest in at least a decade, as employees protested government cutbacks. On the foreign and security policy front, Chirac took a more assertive approach to protecting French peacekeepers in ex-Yugoslavia and helped promote the peace accords negotiated in Dayton and signed in Paris in December 1995. Chirac also took the major step of initiating discussions with NATO on possible French reintegration into NATO's military structure. # F Western Europe, bordering the Bay of Biscay and English Channel, between Belgium and Spain southeast of the UK; bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Italy and Spain # 547030 545630 1400 2892.40 Andorra 60 km, Belgium 620 km, Germany 451 km, Italy 488 km, Luxembourg 73 km, Monaco 4.4 km, Spain 623 km, Switzerland 573 km # 3427 24 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # 200 ? 12 generally cool winters and mild summers, but mild winters and hot summers along the Mediterranean # mostly flat plains or gently rolling hills in north and west; remainder is mountainous, especially Pyrenees in south, Alps in east # Rhone River delta -2 m Mont Blanc 4,807 m coal, iron ore, bauxite, fish, timber, zinc, potash # 33 2 20 27 18 16300 flooding # some forest damage from acid rain; air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from urban wastes, agricultural runoff # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # largest West European nation; occasional strong, cold, dry, north-to-northwesterly wind known as mistral # 58804944 19 5674417 5411685 65 19243919 19182933 16 3759565 5532425 0.31 11.68 9.12 0.58 1.05 1.04 1 0.67 ? 5.69 78.51 74.60 82.62 1.63 Frenchman(men), Frenchwoman(women) French Celtic and Latin with Teutonic, Slavic, North African, Indochinese, Basque minorities # Roman Catholic 90%, Protestant 2%, Jewish 1%, Muslim (North African workers) 1%, unaffiliated 6% # French 100%, rapidly declining regional dialects and languages (Provencal, Breton, Alsatian, Corsican, Catalan, Basque, Flemish) # age 15 and over can read and write # 99 99 99 French Republic France Republique Francaise # France .fr republic Paris 22 regions (regions, singular - region); Alsace, Aquitaine, Auvergne, Basse-Normandie, Bourgogne, Bretagne, Centre, Champagne-Ardenne, Corse, Franche-Comte, Haute-Normandie, Ile-de-France, Languedoc-Roussillon, Limousin, Lorraine, Midi-Pyrenees, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Pays de la Loire, Picardie, Poitou-Charentes, Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur, Rhone-Alpes note: metropolitan France is divided into 22 regions (including the "territorial collectivity" of Corse or Corsica) and is subdivided into 96 departments; see separate entries for the overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Reunion) and the overseas territorial collectivities (Mayotte, Saint Pierre and Miquelon) # Bassas da India, Clipperton Island, Europa Island, French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, New Caledonia, Tromelin Island, Wallis and Futuna # National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789) 28 September 1958, amended concerning election of president in 1962, amended to comply with provisions of EC Maastricht Treaty in 1992; amended to tighten immigration laws 1993 # civil law system with indigenous concepts; review of administrative but not legislative acts # 18 years of age; universal # President Jacques CHIRAC (since 17 May 1995) # Prime Minister Lionel JOSPIN (since 3 June 1997) # Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the suggestion of the prime minister # president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 23 April and 7 May 1995 (next to be held by May 2002); prime minister appointed by the president # Jacques CHIRAC elected president; percent of vote, second ballot - Jacques CHIRAC 52.64%, Lionel JOSPIN 47.36% # bicameral Parliament or Parlement consists of the Senate or Senat (321 seats - 296 for metropolitan France, 13 for overseas departments and territories, and 12 for French nationals abroad; members are indirectly elected by an electoral college to serve nine-year terms; elected by thirds every three years) and the National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (577 seats; members are elected under a single-member majoritarian system to serve five-year terms) # Senate - last held 24 September 1995 (next to be held September 1998); National Assembly - last held 25 May-1 June 1997 (next to be held NA May 2002) # Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 94, UDF 127, PS 75, PCF 15, other 10; National Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PS 245, RPR 140, UDF 109, PCF 37, PRS 13, Ecologists 8, MDC 7, LDI-MPF 1, FN 1, various left 9, various right 7 # Supreme Court of Appeals or Cour de Cassation, judges are appointed by the president from nominations of the High Council of the Judiciary; Constitutional Council or Conseil Constitutionnel, three members appointed by the president, three members appointed by the president of the National Assembly, and three appointed by the president of the Senate; Council of State or Conseil d'Etat # Rally for the Republic or RPR [Philippe SEGUIN]; Union for French Democracy or UDF (coalition of PR, FD, RAD, PPDF) [Francois LEOTARD]; Democratie Liberale or DL [Alain MADELIN]; Democratic Force or FD [Francois BAYROU]; Socialist Party or PS [Francois HOLLANDE]; Communist Party or PCF [Robert HUE]; National Front or FN [Jean-Marie LE PEN]; The Greens [Jean-Luc BENNAHMIAS]; Generation Ecology or GE [Brice LALONDE]; Citizens Movement or MDC [Jean Pierre CHEVENEMENT]; National Center of Independents and Peasants or CNIP [Oliver d'ORMESSON]; Radical Socialist Party or PRS (previously the Left Radical Movement or MRG) [Jean-Michel BAYLET]; Movement for France or LDI-MPF [Philippe DEVILLIERS]; Mouvement des Reformateurs [Jean-Pierre SOISSON]; Mouvement Ecologiste Independant [Jenevieve ANDUEZA]; Parti Populaire Pour la Democratie Francaise or PPDF [Herve de CHARETTE]; Parti Radical [Thierry CORNILLET]; Adherents Directs [Pierre-Andre WILTZER] # ? # ACCT, AfDB, AG (observer), AsDB, Australia Group, BDEAC, BIS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECA (associate), ECE, ECLAC, EIB, ESA, ESCAP, EU, FAO, FZ, G- 5, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MTCR, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OSCE, PCA, SPC, UN, UN Security Council, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WEU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC # three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red; known as the French Tricouleur (Tricolor); the design and colors are similar to a number of other flags, including those of Belgium, Chad, Ireland, Cote d'Ivoire, and Luxembourg; the official flag for all French dependent areas # One of the four West European trillion-dollar economies, France matches a growing services sector with a diversified industrial base and substantial agricultural resources. Services now account for more than 70% of GDP, while industry generates about one-quarter of GDP and more than 80% of export earnings. The government retains considerable influence over key segments of each sector, with majority ownership of railway, electricity, aircraft, and telecommunication firms. It nevertheless has been slowly relaxing its control over these sectors since the early 1990s, most recently selling 23% of France Telecom. The government also plans to sell its stakes in Air France and in the insurance, banking, and defense industries. Meanwhile, large tracts of fertile land, the application of modern technology, and subsidies have combined to make France the leading agricultural producer in Western Europe. A major exporter of wheat and dairy products, France is virtually self-sufficient in agriculture. The economy expanded by 2.3% last year, following a 1.3% gain in 1996. Persistently high unemployment still poses a major problem for the government, however, as does the need to control government spending to keep the economy internationally competitive and meet membership qualifications for the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) which is slated to introduce a common European currency in January 1999. Succeeding governments have shied away from cutting exceptionally generous social welfare benefits or the enormous state bureaucracy, preferring to pare defense spending and raise taxes to keep the deficit down. The JOSPIN administration has pledged both to lower unemployment and bring France into EMU, pinning its hopes for new jobs on economic growth and on legislation to gradually reduce the workweek from 39 to 35 hours by 2002. # 2.30 26050 1531869 2.40 26.50 71.10 2 25500000 services 69%, industry 26%, agriculture 5% (1995) # 12.40 222000 265000 steel, machinery, chemicals, automobiles, metallurgy, aircraft, electronics, mining, textiles, food processing, tourism # 4 102.94 467541 6841 wheat, cereals, sugar beets, potatoes, wine grapes; beef, dairy products; fish catch of 850,000 metric tons ranks among world's top 20 countries and is all used domestically # 275000 machinery and transportation equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs, agricultural products, iron and steel products, textiles and clothing # Germany 17%, Italy 9%, UK 9%, Spain 8%, Belgium-Luxembourg 8%, US 6%, Netherlands 4.5%, Japan 2%, Russia 0.7% (1996) # 256000 crude oil, machinery and equipment, agricultural products, chemicals, iron and steel products # Germany 17%, Italy 10%, US 9%, Belgium-Luxembourg 8%, UK 8%, Spain 7%, Netherlands 5%, Japan 3%, China 2% (1997 est.) # 117600 ? # ODA, $7.915 billion (1993) # 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes # 6.08 calendar year 35000000 extensive cable and microwave radio relay; extensive introduction of fiber-optic cable; domestic satellite system # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (with total of 5 antennas - 2 for Indian Ocean and 3 for Atlantic Ocean), NA Eutelsat, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region); HF radiotelephone communications with more than 20 countries # 41 800 0 49000000 846 29300000 32027 # 31,928 km 1.435-m gauge; 31,940 km are operated by French National Railways (SNCF); 13,805 km of SNCF routes are electrified and 12,132 km are double- or multiple-tracked # 99 km 1.000-m gauge # # 892500 892,500 km (including 9,500 km of expressways) # 0 km (1996 est.) # 14932 3059 4487 24746 Bordeaux, Boulogne, Cherbourg, Dijon, Dunkerque, La Rochelle, Le Havre, Lyon, Marseille, Mulhouse, Nantes, Paris, Rouen, Saint Nazaire, Saint Malo, Strasbourg # 62 1528107 2354235 bulk 5, cargo 5, chemical tanker 8, combination bulk 1, container 6, liquefied gas tanker 4, multi-function large load carrier 1, oil tanker 18, passenger 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 5, short-sea passenger 6, specialized tanker 1 # 473 266 13 29 95 73 56 207 ? ? 3 75 129 3 Army (includes Marines), Navy (includes Naval Air), Air Force (includes Air Defense, National Gendarmerie # 18 years of age # 14739065 12264824 407794 47700000000 2.50 Madagascar claims Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island; Comoros claims Mayotte; Mauritius claims Tromelin Island; Suriname claims part of French Guiana; territorial claim in Antarctica (Adelie Land); Matthew and Hunter Islands east of New Caledonia claimed by France and Vanuatu # transshipment point for and consumer of South American cocaine and Southwest Asian heroin # @French Guiana France ? # Original inhabitants included Arawak and Galibi indians. The first Spanish explorers arrived around 1500, followed by the French, who founded the town of Cayenne about 1634. It became a French territory in 1667 following the Peace of Breda. Slaves were imported to work on the sugar plantations. After the abolishment of slavery in 1848, Asian workers were recruited. Guiana sends one senator and one deputy to the French parliament. It is administered by a prefect and has a Council General of 16 elected members. # F Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Brazil and Suriname # 91000 89150 1850 1183 Brazil 673 km, Suriname 510 km # 378 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation # low-lying coastal plains rising to hills and small mountains # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Bellevue de l'Inini 851 m bauxite, timber, gold (widely scattered), cinnabar, kaolin, fish # 0 0 0 83 17 20 high frequency of heavy showers and severe thunderstorms; flooding # NA # NA # NA # mostly an unsettled wilderness # 162547 31 26003 24840 64 56034 47250 5 4245 4175 3.40 23.73 4.53 14.76 1.05 1.05 1.19 1.02 ? 13.48 76.34 73.12 79.71 3.35 French Guianese (singular and plural) French Guianese black or mulatto 66%, white 12%, East Indian, Chinese, Amerindian 12%, other 10% # Roman Catholic # French # age 15 and over can read and write # 83 84 82 Department of Guiana French Guiana DΘpartement de la Guyane # Guyane .gf NA Cayenne none (overseas department of France) # ? # National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789) 28 September 1958 (French Constitution) # French legal system # 18 years of age; universal # President of France Jacques CHIRAC (since 17 May 1995), represented by Prefect Dominique VIAN (since NA January 1997) # President of the General Council Stephan PHINERA (since NA March 1994); President of the Regional Council Antoine KARAM (since NA March 1992) # NA # representative of the French Government appointed by the president of France on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; presidents of the General and Regional Councils are appointed by the members of those councils, who vote on party lines # ? # unicameral General Council or Conseil General (19 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and a unicameral Regional Council or Conseil Regional (31 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) # General Council - last held 20-27 March 1994 (next to be held NA 2000); Regional Council - last held 22 March 1992 (next to be held NA 1998) # General Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PSG 8, FDG 4, RPR 1, other left 2, other right 2, other 2; Regional Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PSG 16, FDG 10, RPR 2, independents 3 note: one seat was elected to the French Senate on 24 September 1989 (next to be held NA September 1998); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDSE 1; 2 seats were elected to the French National Assembly on 25 May - 1 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 1, PSG 1 # Court of Appeals or Cour d'Appel (highest local court based in Martinique with jurisdiction over Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana) # Guianese Socialist Party or PSG [Leone MICHOTTE]; Socialist Party or PS [Jean BART] (may be a subset of PSG); Nationalist Popular Party of Guyana (Parti Nationaliste Populaire Guiana) or PNPG [Jose DORCY]; Union of Social Democrats (Union des Socialistes Democates) or USD [Leon BERTRAND] (umbrella group of RPR and UDF); Rally for the Republic or RPR [Leon BERTRAND]; Union for French Democracy or UDF [R. CHOW-CHINE]; Guyana Democratic Forces or FDG [Georges OTHILY]; Walwari Committee [Christine TAUBIRA-DELANON]; Action Democrate Guiana or ADG [Andre LECANTE]; Democratic and European Rally of the Senate or RDSE # ? # FZ, WCL, WFTU # the flag of France is used # The economy is tied closely to that of France through subsidies and imports. Besides the French space center at Kourou, fishing and forestry are the most important economic activities, with exports of fish and fish products (mostly shrimp) accounting for more than 60% of total revenue in 1992. The large reserves of tropical hardwoods, not fully exploited, support an expanding sawmill industry that provides sawn logs for export. Cultivation of crops is limited to the coastal area, where the population is largely concentrated. French Guiana is heavily dependent on imports of food and energy. Unemployment is a serious problem, particularly among younger workers. # ? 9410 1530 ? ? ? 2.50 46300 services, government, and commerce 60.6%, industry 21.2%, agriculture 18.2% (1980) # 24.10 176 350 construction, shrimp processing, forestry products, rum, gold mining # ? 0.17 420 2890 rice, corn, manioc, cocoa, vegetables, bananas, sugar; cattle, pigs, poultry # 81 shrimp, timber, gold, rum, rosewood essence, clothing # France 60%, EU 7% # 605 food (grains, processed meat), machinery and transport equipment, fuels and chemicals # France 62%, Germany 4%, Belgium-Luxembourg 4%, US 2% # 1200 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes # 6.08 calendar year 31000 fair open wire and microwave radio relay system # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 5 7 0 79000 9 22000 ? # # # # 1817 727 km # 1,090 km (1995 est.) # 460 ? ? ? Cayenne, Degrad des Cannes, Saint-Laurent du Maroni # ? ? ? ? # 11 4 1 ? ? 2 1 7 ? ? ? 3 4 ? French Forces, Gendarmerie # ? # 46136 29878 ? ? ? Suriname claims area between Riviere Litani and Riviere Marouini (both headwaters of the Lawa) # small amount of marijuana grown for local consumption; minor transshipment point to Europe # @French Polynesia France ? # # F Oceania, archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from South America to Australia # 4167 3660 507 ? ? # 2525 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical, but moderate # mixture of rugged high islands and low islands with reefs # Pacific Ocean 0 m Mount Orohena 2,241 m timber, fish, cobalt # 1 6 5 31 57 ? occasional cyclonic storms in January # NA # NA # NA # includes five archipelagoes; Makatea in French Polynesia is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean - the others are Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Nauru # 237844 33 40264 38770 62 77011 71100 5 5347 5352 1.81 22.67 5 0.39 1.05 1.04 1.08 1 ? 13.67 72.25 69.87 74.75 2.71 French Polynesian(s) French Polynesian Polynesian 78%, Chinese 12%, local French 6%, metropolitan French 4% # Protestant 54%, Roman Catholic 30%, other 16% # French (official), Tahitian (official) # age 14 and over can read and write, but definition of literacy not available # 98 98 98 Territory of French Polynesia French Polynesia Territoire de la Polynesie Francaise # Polynesie Francaise .pf NA Papeete none (overseas territory of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 5 archipelagic divisions named Archipel des Marquises, Archipel des Tuamotu, Archipel des Tubuai, Iles du Vent, and Iles Sous-le-Vent note: Clipperton Island is administered by France from French Polynesia # ? # National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789) 28 September 1958 (French Constitution) # based on French system # 18 years of age; universal # President of France Jacques CHIRAC (since 17 May 1995), represented by High Commissioner of the Republic Paul RONCIERE (since NA 1994) # President of the Territorial Government of French Polynesia Gaston FLOSSE (since 4 April 1991); President of the Territorial Assembly Justin ARAPARI (since 13 May 1996) # Council of Ministers; president submits a list of members of the Territorial Assembly for approval by them to serve as ministers # high commissioner appointed by the president of France on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; president of the Territorial Government and the president of the Territorial Assembly are elected by the members of the assembly # ? # unicameral Territorial Assembly or Assemblee Territoriale (41 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held 12 May 1996 (next to be held NA March 2001) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - People's Rally for the Republic (Gaullist) 22, Polynesian Liberation Front 10, New Fatherland Party 5, other 4 note: one seat was elected to the French Senate on 24 September 1989 (next to be held NA September 1998); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - UC 1; two seats were elected to the French National Assembly on 25 May - 1 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - People's Rally for the Republic (Gaullist) 2 # Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel; Court of the First Instance or Tribunal de Premiere Instance; Court of Administrative Law or Tribunal Administratif # People's Rally for the Republic (Tahoeraa Huiraatira) [Gaston FLOSSE]; Polynesian Union Party (includes Te Tiarama and Pupu Here Ai'a Party) [Jean JUVENTIN]; Independent Front for the Liberation of Polynesia (Tavini Huiraatira) [Oscar TEMARU]; New Fatherland Party (Ai'a Api) [Emile VERNAUDON]; Independent Party (Ia Mana Te Nunaa) [Jacques DROLLET]; Te Aratia Ote Nunaa (Tinomana Ebb); Haere i Mua [Alexandre LEONTIEFF]; Te e'a No Maohi Nui [Jean-Marius RAAPOTO]; Pupu Taina [Michel LAW]; Entente Polynesian [Arthur CHUNG]; Centrist Union or UC # ? # ESCAP (associate), FZ, ICFTU, SPC, WMO # two narrow red horizontal bands encase a wide white band; centered on the white band is a disk with blue and white wave pattern on the lower half and gold and white ray pattern on the upper half; a stylized red, blue and white ship rides on the wave pattern; the French flag is used for official occasions # Since 1962, when France stationed military personnel in the region, French Polynesia has changed from a subsistence economy to one in which a high proportion of the work force is either employed by the military or supports the tourist industry. Tourism accounts for about 20% of GDP and is a primary source of hard currency earnings. The small manufacturing sector primarily processes agricultural products. The territory will continue to benefit from a five-year (1994-98) development agreement with France aimed principally at creating new jobs. # ? 10250 2438 4 18 78 1.50 118744 agriculture 13%, industry 19%, services 68% (1992 est.) # 15 636 643 tourism, pearls, agricultural processing, handicrafts # ? 0.08 330 1500 coconuts, vanilla, vegetables, fruits; poultry, beef, dairy products # 245 cultured pearls 53.8%, coconut products, mother-of-pearl, vanilla, shark meat (1992) # France 33%, US 8.5% (1994) # 967 fuels, foodstuffs, equipment # France 44.7%, US 13.9% (1994) # ? ODA, $NA # ? # 1 CFP franc (CFPF) = 100 centimes # 110.60 calendar year 33200 NA # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean) # 5 2 0 116000 6 35000 ? # # # # 792 792 km (1995 est.) # ? # ? ? ? ? Mataura, Papeete, Rikitea, Uturoa # 3 4127 6710 passenger-cargo 2, refrigerated cargo 1 (1997 est.) # 43 25 2 ? 5 14 4 18 ? ? ? 7 11 ? French Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), Gendarmerie # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @French Southern and Antarctic Lands France ? # # south of Africa, islands in the southern Indian Ocean, about equidistant between Africa, Antarctica, and Australia; note - French Southern and Antarctic Lands includes Ile Amsterdam, Ile Saint-Paul, Iles Crozet, and Iles Kerguelen in the southern Indian Ocean, along with the French-claimed sector of Antarctica, "Adelie Land"; the US does not recognize the French claim to "Adelie Land" # 7781 7781 0 ? ? # 1232 ? ? # 200 ? 12 antarctic # volcanic # Indian Ocean 0 m Mont Ross on Kerguelen 1,850 m fish, crayfish # 0 0 0 0 100 0 Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul are extinct volcanoes # NA # NA # NA # remote location in the southern Indian Ocean # 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? Territory of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands French Southern and Antarctic Lands Territoire des Terres Australes et Antarctiques Francaises # Terres Australes et Antarctiques Francaises .tf ? ? none (overseas territory of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 3 districts named Ile Crozet, Iles Kerguelen, and Iles Saint-Paul et Amsterdam; excludes "Adelie Land" claim in Antarctica that is not recognized by the US # ? # ? ? # NA # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of France is used # Economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets. The fish catches landed on Iles Kerguelen by foreign ships are exported to France and Reunion. # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 61 ? # ? 14.20 ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only # ? ? ? bulk 2, cargo 4, chemical tanker 7, container 10, liquefied gas tanker 5, oil tanker 19, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 12 # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? "Adelie Land" claim in Antarctica is not recognized by the US # ? # @Gabon 0 La Concorde (The Concord) CHORUS Uni dans la Concorde et la fraternitΘ, Eveille toi Gabon, une aurore se lΦve, Encourage l'ardeur qui vibre et nous soulΦve! C'est enfin notre essor vers la fΘlicitΘ. (repeat) Eblouissant et fier, le jour sublime monte Pourchassant α jamais l'injustice et la honte. Qu'il monte, monte encore et calme nos alarmes, Qu'il prone la vertu et repousse les armes. CHORUS Oui que le temps heureux rΩvΘ par nos ancΩtres Arrive enfin chez nous, rejouisse les Ωtres, Et chasse les sorciers, ces perfides trompeurs. Qui semaient le poison et rΘpandaient la peur. CHORUS Afin qu'aux yeux du monde et des nations amies Le Gabon immortel reste digne d'envie, Oublion nos querelles, emsemble bΓtissons L'Θdifice nouveau au quel tous nous rΩvons. CHORUS Des bords de l'Ocean au coeur de la forΩt, Demeurons vigilants, sans faiblesse et sans haine! Autour de ce drapeau, qui vers l'honneurs nous mΦne, Saluons la Patrie et chantons sans arrΩt! CHORUS # During the last seven centuries, Bantu ethnic groups arrived in the area from several directions to escape enemies or to find new land. Little is known of tribal life before European contact, but tribal art suggests a rich cultural heritage. <P> Gabon's first European visitors were Portuguese traders who arrived in the 15th century and named the country after the Portuguese word gabao--a coat with sleeve and hood resembling the shape of the Como River estuary. The coast became a center of the slave trade. Dutch, British, and French traders came in the 16th century. France assumed the status of protector by signing treaties with Gabonese coastal chiefs in 1839 and 1841. American missionaries from New England established a mission at Baraka (Libreville) in 1842. In 1849, the French captured a slave ship and released the passengers at the mouth of the Como River. The slaves named their settlement Libreville meaning "free town." French explorers had penetrated Gabon's dense jungles by 1887. The most famous explorer--Savorgnan de Brazza--used Gabonese bearers and guides in his searches for the headwaters of the Congo River. <P> France occupied Gabon in 1885 but did not administer it until 1903. In 1910, Gabon became one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa, a federation that survived until 1959. The territories became independent in 1960 as the Central African Republic, Chad, Congo (Brazzaville), and Gabon. # G Western Africa, bordering the Atlantic Ocean at the Equator, between Republic of the Congo and Equatorial Guinea # 267670 257670 10000 2551 Cameroon 298 km, Republic of the Congo 1,903 km, Equatorial Guinea 350 km # 885 24 ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; always hot, humid # narrow coastal plain; hilly interior; savanna in east and south # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mont Iboundji 1,575 m petroleum, manganese, uranium, gold, timber, iron ore # 1 1 18 77 3 40 NA # deforestation; poaching # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # ? # 1207844 33 202364 202249 61 372157 364806 6 32718 33550 1.48 28 13.23 0 1.03 1 1.02 0.97 ? 85.43 56.51 53.55 59.56 3.81 Gabonese (singular and plural) Gabonese Bantu tribes including four major tribal groupings (Fang, Eshira, Bapounou, Bateke), other Africans and Europeans 154,000, including 6,000 French and 11,000 persons of dual nationality # Christian 55%-75%, Muslim less than 1%, animist # French (official), Fang, Myene, Bateke, Bapounou/Eschira, Bandjabi # age 15 and over can read and write # 63.20 73.70 53.30 Gabonese Republic Gabon Republique Gabonaise # Gabon .ga republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties legalized Libreville 9 provinces; Estuaire, Haut-Ogooue, Moyen-Ogooue, Ngounie, Nyanga, Ogooue-Ivindo, Ogooue-Lolo, Ogooue-Maritime, Woleu-Ntem # ? # Independence Day, 17 August (1960) (Gabon granted full independence adopted 14 March 1991 # based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; compulsory ICJ jurisdiction not accepted # 21 years of age; universal # President El Hadj Omar BONGO (since 2 December 1967) # Prime Minister Jean-Francois NTOUTOUME-EMANE # Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the president # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 5 December 1993 (next to be held NA 1998); prime minister appointed by the president # President Omar BONGO reelected; percent of vote - Omar BONGO 51% # bicameral legislature consists of a Senate (91 seats) and a National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (120 seats); members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms # National Assembly - last held in December 1996 (next to be held in December 2001); Senate - last held 12 January 1997 (next to be held in January 2002) # National Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDG 100, Morena-Bucherons/RNB 8, PUP 3, CLR 3, FAR 1, UPG 1, USG 2, PGP 2; Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDG 51, RNB 17, PGP 4, ADERA 3, RDP 1, others 15 note: the provision of the constitution for the establishment of a senate was implemented in the 12 January 1997 elections # Supreme Court or Cour Supreme consisting of three chambers - Judicial, Administrative, and Accounts; Constitutional Court; Courts of Appeal; Court of State Security; County Courts # Action Forum for Renewal or FAR [Leon MBOU-YEMBI, secretary general]; Circle of Liberal Reformers or CLR [General Jean Boniface ASSELE]; Gabonese Democratic Party or PDG, former sole party [Simplice Guedet MANZELA, secretary general]; Gabonese Party for Progress or PGP [Pierre-Louis AGONDJO-OKAWE, president]; Gabonese People's Union or UPG [Pierre MAMBOUNDOU]; Gabonese Socialist Union or USG [Dr. Serge Mba BEKALE]; National Recovery Movement - Lumberjacks or Morena-Bucherons/RNB [Fr. Paul M'BA-ABESSOLE]; People's Unity Party or PUP [Louis Gaston MAYILA]; ADERA; Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP [Akexandre SAMBAT, president] # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, UDEAC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and blue # Gabon enjoys a per capita income four times that of most nations of sub-Saharan Africa. This has supported a sharp decline in extreme poverty but because of high income inequality a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon depended on timber and manganese until oil was discovered offshore in the early 1970s. The oil sector now accounts for 50% of GDP. Gabon continues to face fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, manganese, and uranium exports. Despite the abundance of natural wealth and a manageable rate of population growth, the economy is hobbled by poor fiscal management. In 1992, the fiscal deficit widened to 2.4% of GDP, and Gabon failed to settle arrears on its bilateral debt, leading to a cancellation of rescheduling agreements with official and private creditors. Devaluation of its Francophone currency by 50% on 12 January 1994 sparked a one-time inflationary surge, to 35%; the rate dropped to 6% in 1996. The IMF provided a one-year standby arrangement in 1994-95 and a three-year Enhanced Financing Facility (EFF) at near commercial rates beginning in late 1995. Those agreements mandate progress in privatization and fiscal discipline. France provided additional financial support in January 1997 after Gabon had met IMF targets for mid-1996. In 1997, an IMF mission to Gabon chastened the government for overspending on off-budget items, overborrowing from the central bank, and slipping on its schedule for privatization and administrative reform (such as reduced public sector employment and salary growth). # 3 4230 5109 7.10 54.60 38.30 6.20 ? agriculture 65%, industry and commerce, services # 10 1500 1300 food and beverage; textile; lumbering and plywood; cement; petroleum extraction and refining; manganese, uranium, and gold mining; chemicals; ship repair # 2.30 0.31 925 800 cocoa, coffee, sugar, palm oil; rubber; okoume (a tropical softwood); cattle; small fishing operations (provide a catch of about 30,000 metric tons) # 3100 crude oil 81%, timber 12%, manganese 5%, uranium (1996) # US 50%, France 16%, Japan 8%, China, Spain, Germany (1996) # 969 machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, petroleum products, construction materials # France 39%, Cote d'Ivoire 13%, US 6%, Netherlands 5%, Japan # 3900 ? # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes # 608.36 calendar year 22000 adequate system of cable, microwave radio relay, tropospheric scatter, radiotelephone communication stations, and a domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations # satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 6 6 0 250000 3 40000 649 # 649 km 1.435-m gauge; single track (1994) # # # 7670 629 km (including 30 km of expressways) # 7,041 km (1996 est.) # 1600 270 14 ? Cape Lopez, Kango, Lambarene, Libreville, Mayumba, Owendo, Port-Gentil # 3 37003 60663 ? # 64 10 1 1 7 1 26 54 ? ? 10 18 ? ? Army, Navy, Air Force, Republican Guard (charged with protecting the president and other senior officials), National Gendarmerie, National Police # 20 years of age # 277850 142334 11352 154000000 2.40 maritime boundary dispute with Equatorial Guinea because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay # ? # @Gambia 0 For The Gambia, our homeland We strive and work and pray, That all may live in unity, Freedom and peace each day. Let justice guide our actions Twords the common good, And join our diverse peoples To prove man's brotherhood. We pledge our firm allegiance, Our promice we renew; Keep us, great God of nations, To The Gambia ever true. # The tribes of Gambia were once part of the empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit in 1455. Gambia became a British colony in 1888, though much power was allowed to remain in the hands of tribal chiefs. The first political parties appeared in the 1950's, with a reduction of the power of the chiefs in favour of the ordinary citizen as a major objective. Gambia became independent on 18 February 1965. Republic status within the Commonwealth was achieved in April 1970. It remains one of the few functioning democracies in Africa. A treaty with Senegal, dating from February 1982, foresees a confederation of the two countries under the name of Senegambia, each country retaining its sovereignty. Executive power lies with the president, who nominates his vice-president and ministers. He is elected for a five-year term. Elections take place simultaneously for 35 of the 49 seats of the House of representatives. 5 seats are reserved for tribal chiefs, 8 for nominated members and one for the attorney-general. Gambia is divided into 35 districts, each led by a chief. These form part of 6 regional councils, made up of the chiefs and elected members. # WAG Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and Senegal # 11300 10000 1300 740 Senegal 740 km # 80 18 not specified # ? 200 12 tropical; hot, rainy season (June to November); cooler, dry season (November to May) # flood plain of the Gambia River flanked by some low hills # Atlantic Ocean 0 m unnamed location 53 m fish # 18 0 9 28 45 150 rainfall has dropped by 30% in the last 30 years # deforestation; desertification; water-borne diseases prevalent # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # almost an enclave of Senegal; smallest country on the continent of Africa # 1291858 46 296108 295136 52 330215 336056 2 18194 16149 3.42 43.30 12.93 3.77 1.03 1 0.98 1.12 ? 77.07 53.91 51.59 56.29 5.91 Gambian(s) Gambian African 99% (Mandinka 42%, Fula 18%, Wolof 16%, Jola 10%, Serahuli 9%, other 4%), non-African 1% # Muslim 90%, Christian 9%, indigenous beliefs 1% # English (official), Mandinka, Wolof, Fula, other indigenous vernaculars # age 15 and over can read and write # 38.60 52.80 24.90 Republic of The Gambia The Gambia ? # ? .gm republic under multiparty democratic rule Banjul 5 divisions and 1 city*; Banjul*, Lower River, MacCarthy Island, North Bank, Upper River, Western note: it has been reported but not verified that the name of the MacCarthy Island division has been changed to Central River # ? # Independence Day, 18 February (1965) 24 April 1970; suspended July 1994; rewritten and approved by national referendum 8 August 1996; reestablished in January 1997 # based on a composite of English common law, Koranic law, and customary law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal # President Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH (since 12 October 1996); Vice President Isaton Njie SAIDY (since 20 March 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH (since 18 October 1996); Vice President Isaton Njie SAIDY (since 20 March 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet is appointed by the president # the president is elected by popular vote to a five-year term; the number of terms is not restricted; election last held 26 September 1996 (next to be held NA 2001) # percent of vote - President Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH 55.5%, Ousinou DARBOE 35.8% # unicameral National Assembly; 49 seats (45 elected, 4 appointed by the president) # last popular election held 2 January 1997 (next to be held NA) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - APRC 33, UDP 7, NRP 2, PDOIS 1, independents 2 # Supreme Court # Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction or APRC [Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH]; National Reconciliation Party or NRP [Hamat N. K. BAH]; People's Democratic Organization for Independence and Socialism or PDOIS [Sidia JATTA]; United Democratic Party or UDP [Ousainou DARBOE]; note - in August 1996 the government banned the following from participation in the elections of 1996: People's Progressive Party or PPP [former President Dawda K. JAWARA (in exile)], and two opposition parties - the National Convention Party or NCP [former vice president Sheriff DIBBA] and the Gambian People's Party or GPP [Hassan Musa CAMARA] # ? # ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue with white edges, and green # The Gambia has no important mineral or other natural resources and has a limited agricultural base. About 75% of the population depends on crops and livestock for its livelihood. Small-scale manufacturing activity features the processing of peanuts, fish, and hides. Reexport trade normally constitutes a major segment of economic activity, but the 50% devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 made Senegalese goods more competitive and hurt the reexport trade. The Gambia has benefited from a rebound in tourism after its decline in response to the military's takeover in July 1994. Short-run economic progress remains highly dependent on sustained bilateral and multilateral aid and on responsible government economic management. # 2.10 350 452 27 15 58 2.20 ? agriculture 75.0%, industry, commerce, and services 18.9%, government 6.1% # ? 88.60 98.20 processing peanuts, fish, and hides; tourism; beverages; agricultural machinery assembly, woodworking, metalworking; clothing # ? 0.03 73 74 peanuts, millet, sorghum, rice, corn, cassava (tapioca), palm kernels; cattle, sheep, goats; forest and fishing resources not fully exploited # 160 peanuts and peanut products 70%, fish, cotton lint, palm kernels # Japan, Senegal, Hong Kong, France, Switzerland, UK, Indonesia # 140 foodstuffs, manufactures, raw materials, fuel, machinery and transport equipment # China, Cote d'Ivoire, Hong Kong, UK, Germany # 426 bilateral $36.1 million; multilateral $34.7 million (1994) # ? # 1 dalasi (D) = 100 butut # 10.51 1 July - 30 June 11000 adequate network of microwave radio relay and open wire # microwave radio relay links to Senegal and Guinea-Bissau; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 2 5 0 180000 1 ? ? # # # # 2700 956 km # 1,744 km (1996 est.) # 400 ? ? ? Banjul # ? ? ? ? # 1 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Army, Navy, National Police, National Guard # ? # 286847 144547 ? 1200000 3.80 short section of boundary with Senegal is indefinite # ? # @Georgia 0 ? # Georgian history dates back more than 2,500 years, and Georgian is one of the oldest living languages in the world. Tbilisi, located in a picturesque valley divided by the Mtkvari River, is more than 1,500 years old. Much of Georgia's territory was besieged by its Persian and Turkish neighbors along with Arabs and Mongols over the course of the 7th to the 18th centuries. After 11 centuries of mixed fortunes of various Georgian kingdoms, including a golden age from the 11th to 12th centuries, Georgia turned to Russia for protection. Russia essentially annexed Georgia and exiled the royalty in 1801. Pockets of Georgian resistance to foreign rule continued, and the first Republic of Georgia was established on May 26, 1918 after the collapse of Tsarist Russia. By March 1921, the Red army had reoccupied the country and Georgia became part of the Soviet Union. On April 9, 1991, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia declared independence from the U.S.S.R. <P> Beset by ethnic and civil strife from independence in 1991, Georgia began to stabilize in 1995. However, more than 230,000 internally displaced persons present an enormous strain on local politics. Peace in the separatist areas of Abkhazia and south Ossetia, overseen by Russian peacekeepers and international organizations, will continue to be fragile, requiring years of economic development and negotiation to overcome local enmities. Considerable progress has been made in negotiations on the Ossetian-Georgian conflict, and negotiations are continuing in the Georgia-Abkhazia conflict. <P> The Georgian Government is committed to economic reform in cooperation with the IMF and World Bank, and stakes much of its future on the revival of the ancient Silk Road as the Eurasian corridor, using Georgia's geography as a bridge for transit of goods between Europe and Asia. # SAK Southwestern Asia, bordering the Black Sea, between Turkey and Russia # 69700 69700 0 1461 Armenia 164 km, Azerbaijan 322 km, Russia 723 km, Turkey 252 km # 310 ? ? # ? ? ? warm and pleasant; Mediterranean-like on Black Sea coast # largely mountainous with Great Caucasus Mountains in the north and Lesser Caucasus Mountains in the south; Kolkhida Lowland opens to the Black Sea in the west; Mtkvari River Basin in the east; good soils in river valley flood plains, foothills of Kolkhida Lowland # Black Sea 0 m Mt'a Mqinvartsveri (Gora Kazbek) 5,048 m forests, hydropower, manganese deposits, iron ore, copper, minor coal and oil deposits; coastal climate and soils allow for important tea and citrus growth # 9 4 25 34 28 4000 NA # air pollution, particularly in Rust'avi; heavy pollution of Mtkvari River and the Black Sea; inadequate supplies of potable water; soil pollution from toxic chemicals # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution # Desertification # ? # 5108527 22 562623 540378 66 1631296 1756087 12 235042 383101 -0.92 11.72 14.10 -6.79 1.05 1.04 0.92 0.61 ? 51.07 64.79 61.36 68.40 1.54 Georgian(s) Georgian Georgian 70.1%, Armenian 8.1%, Russian 6.3%, Azeri 5.7%, Ossetian 3%, Abkhaz 1.8%, other 5% # Christian Orthodox 75% (Georgian Orthodox 65%, Russian Orthodox 10%), Muslim 11%, Armenian Apostolic 8%, unknown 6% # Armenian 7%, Azeri 6%, Georgian 71% (official), Russian 9%, other 7% # age 15 and over can read and write # 99 100 98 none Georgia none # Sak'art'velo .ge republic T'bilisi 53 rayons (raionebi, singular - raioni), 9 cities* (k'alak'ebi, singular - k'alak'i), and 2 autonomous republics** (avtomnoy respubliki, singular - avtom respublika); Abashis, Abkhazia or Ap'khazet'is Avtonomiuri Respublika** (Sokhumi), Adigenis, Ajaria or Acharis Avtonomiuri Respublika** (Bat'umi), Akhalgoris, Akhalk'alak'is, Akhalts'ikhis, Akhmetis, Ambrolauris, Aspindzis, Baghdat'is, Bolnisis, Borjomis, Chiat'ura*, Ch'khorotsqus, Ch'okhatauris, Dedop'listsqaros, Dmanisis, Dushet'is, Gardabanis, Gori*, Goris, Gurjaanis, Javis, K'arelis, Kaspis, Kharagaulis, Khashuris, Khobis, Khonis, K'ut'aisi*, Lagodekhis, Lanch'khut'is, Lentekhis, Marneulis, Martvilis, Mestiis, Mts'khet'is, Ninotsmindis, Onis, Ozurget'is, P'ot'i*, Qazbegis, Qvarlis, Rust'avi*, Sach'kheris, Sagarejos, Samtrediis, Senakis, Sighnaghis, T'bilisi*, T'elavis, T'erjolis, T'et'ritsqaros, T'ianet'is, Tqibuli*, Ts'ageris, Tsalenjikhis, Tsalkis, Tsqaltubo*, Vanis, Zestap'onis, Zugdidi*, Zugdidis note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses) # ? # Independence Day, 26 May (1991) adopted 17 October 1995 # based on civil law system # 18 years of age; universal # President Eduard Amvrosiyevich SHEVARDNADZE (previously elected chairman of the Government Council 10 March 1992, Council has since been disbanded; previously elected chairman of Parliament 11 October 1992; elected president 5 November 1995; inaugurated 26 November 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Eduard Amvrosiyevich SHEVARDNADZE (previously elected chairman of the Government Council 10 March 1992, Council has since been disbanded; previously elected chairman of Parliament 11 October 1992; elected president 5 November 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet of Ministers # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 5 November 1995 (next to be held NA April 2000) # Eduard SHEVARDNADZE elected president; percent of vote - Eduard SHEVARDNADZE 74% # unicameral Supreme Council or Umaghiesi Sabcho (235 seats; members are elected to serve four-year terms) # last held 5 November 1995 (next to be held NA November 1999) # percent of vote by party - CUG 24%, NDP 8%, AGUR 7%, all other parties received less than 5% each; seats by party - CUG 107, NDP 34, AGUR 32, Progress Bloc (DUG, Political Association "Georgian Proprietors," Political Union of Young Democrats, Solidarity) 4, SPG 4, others 9, Abkazian deputies 12, independents 29, not filled 4 # Supreme Court, judges elected by the Supreme Council on the president's recommendation; Constitutional Court # Citizen's Union of Georgia or CUG [Eduard SHEVARDNADZE]; National Democratic People's Party [Mamuka GIORGADZE]; National Democratic Party or NDP [Irina SARISHVILI-CHANTARIA]; Union for "Revival" Party or AGUR [Alsan ABASHIDZE]; Union of Traditionalists or UGT [Akaki ASTANTIANI]; Socialist Party or SPG [Vakhtang RCHEULISHVILI]; Georgian United Communist Party or UCPG [Panteleimon GIORGADZE, chairman]; Greens Party [Giorgi GACHECHILADZE]; United Republican Party or URP [Nodar NATADZE, chairman]; National Independent Party or NIP [Irakli TSERETELI, chairman]; Social Democratic Party or GSDP [Guram MUCHAIDZE, secretary general]; Conservative-Monarchist Party or GCMP [Temur ZHORZHOLIANI] # ? # BSEC, CCC, CE (guest), CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) # maroon field with small rectangle in upper hoist side corner; rectangle divided horizontally with black on top, white below # Georgia's economy has traditionally revolved around Black Sea tourism; cultivation of citrus fruits, tea, and grapes; mining of manganese and copper; and output of a small industrial sector producing wine, metals, machinery, chemicals, and textiles. The country imports the bulk of its energy needs, including natural gas and oil products. Its only sizable internal energy resource is hydropower. Despite the severe damage the economy has suffered due to civil strife, Georgia, with the help of the IMF and World Bank, has made substantial economic gains in 1995-97, increasing GDP growth and slashing inflation. Georgia still suffers from energy shortages, although energy deliveries are steadily improving. Georgia is pinning its hopes for long-term recovery on the development of an international transportation corridor through the key Black Sea ports of P'ot'i and Bat'umi. The construction of a Caspian oil pipeline through Georgia - scheduled to open in early 1999 - should spur greater western investment in the economy. A growing trade deficit, continuing problems with corruption, and political uncertainties cloud the short-term economic picture. # 11.80 840 4291 29 16 55 7.10 2200000 industry and construction 31%, agriculture and forestry 25%, other 44% (1990) # 16 441 606 steel, aircraft, machine tools, foundry equipment, electric locomotives, tower cranes, electric welding equipment, machinery for food preparation and meat packing, electric motors, process control equipment, trucks, tractors, textiles, shoes, chemicals, wood products, wine # 8.10 4.56 7100 1175 citrus, grapes, tea, vegetables, potatoes; small livestock sector # 400 citrus fruits, tea, wine, other agricultural products; diverse types of machinery; ferrous and nonferrous metals; textiles; chemicals; fuel re-exports # Russia, Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria (1996) # 733 fuel, grain and other foods, machinery and parts, transport equipment # Russia, Turkey, Azerbaijan (1996); note - EU and US send humanitarian food shipments # 1300 ODA, $28 million (1993) # ? # lari introduced September 1995 replacing the coupon # 1 calendar year 672000 NA # landline to CIS members and Turkey; satellite earth station - 1 Eutelsat; leased connections with other countries via the Moscow international gateway switch; international electronic mail and telex service available # ? ? ? ? 3 ? 1583 1,583 km 1.520-m gauge (1993) # # # # 20700 19,354 km # 1,346 km (1996 est.) # ? 370 ? 440 Bat'umi, P'ot'i, Sokhumi # 9 87730 122769 cargo 3, oil tanker 5, short-sea passenger 1 (1997 est.) # 28 14 1 7 4 1 1 14 1 1 1 5 6 ? Ground Forces, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Forces, National Guard, Republic Security Forces (internal and border troops) # 18 years of age # 1286126 1017954 40946 79000000 8.80 none # limited cultivation of cannabis and opium poppy, mostly for domestic consumption; used as transshipment point for opiates to Western Europe # @Germany 0 Lied der Deutschen (written by the poet August Heinrich von Fallersleben in 1841) Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit, fuer das deutsche Vaterland! Danach lasst uns alle streben, bruederlich mit Herz und Hand! Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit, sind des Glueckes Unterpfand. Blueh im Glanze dieses Gluekkes, bluehe deutsches Vaterland! # The rise of Prussian power in the 19th century, supported by growing German nationalism, eventually ended inter-state fighting and resulted in the formation of the German empire in 1871 under the chancellorship of Otto von Bismarck. Although authoritarian in many respects, the empire eventually permitted the development of political parties, and Bismarck was credited with passing the most advanced social welfare legislation of the age. Dynamic expansion of military power, however, contributed to tensions on the continent. The fragile European balance of power broke down in 1914, and World War I and its aftermath, including the Treaty of Versailles, led to the collapse of the German empire. <P> Fascism's Rise and Defeat <P> The postwar Weimar Republic (1919-33) was an attempt to establish a peaceful, liberal democratic regime in Germany. This government was severely handicapped and eventually doomed by economic problems and the inherent weakness of the Weimar state. The inflation of the early 1920s, the world depression of the 1930s, and the social unrest stemming from the draconian conditions of the Versailles Treaty worked to destroy the Weimar government from inside and out. <P> The National Socialist (Nazi) Party, led by Adolf Hitler, stressed nationalist themes and promised to put the unemployed back to work. The party blamed many of Germany's ills on alleged Jewish conspiracies. Nazi support expanded rapidly in the early 1930s. Hitler was asked to form a government as Reich Chancellor in January 1933. After President Paul von Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler assumed that office as well. Once in power, Hitler and his party first undermined then abolished democratic institutions and opposition parties.The Nazi leadership attempted to remove or subjugate all non-German peoples in Germany by forced migration and, ultimately, genocide. Hitler restored Germany's economic and military strength, but his ambitions led Germany into World War II. For Germany, World War II resulted in the destruction of its political and economic infrastructures, led to its division, and left a humiliating legacy. <P> After Germany's unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the U.S.S.R. occupied the country and assumed responsibility for its administration. The commanders-in- chief exercised supreme authority in their respective zones and acted in concert on questions affecting the whole country. France was later given a separate zone of occupation. <P> Although the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union agreed at Potsdam in August 1945 to a broad program of decentralization, treating Germany as a single economic unit with some central administrative departments, these plans failed. The turning point came in 1948, when the Soviets withdrew from the Four Power governing bodies and blockaded Berlin. Until May 1949, West Berlin was kept supplied only by an Allied airlift. <P> Political Developments In West Germany <P> The United States and the United Kingdom moved to establish a nucleus for a future German government by expanding the size and powers of the German Economic Council in their two zones. The program provided for a West German constituent assembly, an occupation statute governing relations between the Allies and the German authorities, and the economic merger of the French with the British and American zones. <P> On May 23, 1949, the Basic Law, the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, was promulgated. The first federal government was formed by Konrad Adenauer on September 20, 1949. The next day, the occupation statute came into force, granting powers of self- government with certain exceptions. <P> The F.R.G. quickly progressed toward fuller sovereignty and association with its European neighbors and the Atlantic community. The London and Paris agreements of 1954 restored full sovereignty (with some exceptions) to the F.R.G. in May 1955 and opened the way for German membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Western European Union (WEU). <P> The three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within the F.R.G. for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements. With the exception of 45,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.) <P> Political life in the F.R.G. was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949-63) was followed by a brief period under Ludwig Erhard (1963-66) who, in turn, was replaced by Kurt Georg Kiesinger (1966-69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by the united caucus of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and Christian Social Union (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller Free Democratic Party (FDP). Kiesinger's 1966-69 "Grand Coalition" included the F.R.G.'s two largest parties, CDU/CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). In the 1969 election, the SPD--headed by Willy Brandt--gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Chancellor Brandt remained head of government until May 1974, when he resigned after a senior member of his staff was convicted of spying for the East German intelligence service. <P> Finance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) formed a government and received the unanimous support of coalition members. He served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to "the political unification of Europe in partnership with the U.S.A." <P> In October 1982, the SPD-FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 6% of the vote. <P> In January 1987, the Kohl-Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 49% of the vote in 1983 to 44%. The SPD fell to 37%; long-time SPD Chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by Hans-Jochen Vogel. The FDP's share rose from 7% to 9%, its best showing since 1980. The Greens' share rose to 8% from their 1983 share of 6%. <P> Political Developments In East Germany <P> In the Soviet zone, the Social Democratic Party was forced to merge with the Communist Party in 1946 to form a new party, the Socialist Unity Party (SED). The October 1946 elections resulted in coalition governments in the five Land (state) parliaments with the SED as the undisputed leader. <P> A series of people's congresses were called in 1948 and early 1949 by the SED. Under Soviet direction, a constitution was drafted on May 30, 1949, and adopted on October 7, which was celebrated as the day when the German Democratic Republic was proclaimed. The People's Chamber (Volkskammer)--the lower house of the G.D.R. parliament--and an upper house--the States Chamber (Laenderkammer)--were created. (The Laenderkammer was abolished in 1958.) On October 11, 1949, the two houses elected Wilhelm Pieck as President, and a SED government was set up. The Soviet Union and its East European allies immediately recognized the G.D.R., although it remained largely unrecognized by non-communist countries until 1972-73. <P> The G.D.R. established the structures of a single-party, centralized, communist state. On July 23, 1952, the traditional Laender were abolished and, in their place, 14 Bezirke (districts) were established. Effectively, all government control was in the hands of the SED, and almost all important government positions were held by SED members. <P> The National Front was an umbrella organization nominally consisting of the SED, four other political parties controlled and directed by the SED, and the four principal mass organizations (youth, trade unions, women, and culture). However, control was clearly and solely in the hands of the SED. Balloting in G.D.R. elections was not secret. As in other Soviet bloc countries, electoral participation was consistently high, with nearly unanimous candidate approval. <P> Inter-German Relations <P> The constant stream of East Germans fleeing to West Germany placed great strains on F.R.G.-G.D.R. relations in the 1950s. On August 13, 1961, the G.D.R. began building a wall through the center of Berlin to divide the city and slow the flood of refugees to a trickle. The Berlin Wall became the symbol of the East's political debility and the division of Europe. <P> In 1969, Chancellor Brandt announced that the F.R.G. would remain firmly rooted in the Atlantic alliance but would intensify efforts to improve relations with Eastern Europe and the G.D.R. The F.R.G. commenced this Ostpolitik by negotiating non-aggression treaties with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Hungary. <P> The F.R.G.'s relations with the G.D.R. posed particularly difficult questions. Though anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, the F.R.G. under Brandt was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation." Relations improved, however, and in September 1973, the F.R.G. and the G.D.R. were admitted to the UN. The two Germanys exchanged permanent representatives in 1974, and, in 1987, G.D.R. head of state Erich Honecker paid an official visit to the F.R.G. <P> German Unification <P> During the summer of 1989, rapid changes took place in the G.D.R., which ultimately led to German unification. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to the F.R.G. via Hungary after the Hungarians decided not to use force to stop them. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at F.R.G. diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within the G.D.R. for political change, and mass demonstrations in several cities--particularly in Leipzig--continued to grow. On October 7, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Berlin to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the establishment of the G.D.R. and urged the East German leadership to pursue reform. <P> On October 18, Erich Honecker resigned as head of the SED and as head of state and was replaced by Egon Krenz. But the exodus continued unabated and pressure for political reform mounted. On November 4, a demonstration in East Berlin drew as many as 1 million East Germans. Finally, on November 9, the Berlin Wall was opened and East Germans were allowed to travel freely. Thousands poured through the wall into the western sectors of Berlin, and on November 12, the G.D.R. began dismantling it. <P> On November 28, F.R.G. Chancellor Kohl outlined a 10-point plan for the peaceful unification of the two Germanys based on free elections in the G.D.R. and a unification of their two economies. In December, the G.D.R. Volkskammer eliminated the SED monopoly on power, and the entire Politburo and Central Committee--including Krenz--resigned. The SED changed its name to the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) and the formation and growth of numerous political groups and parties marked the end of the communist system. Prime Minister Hans Modrow headed a caretaker government which shared power with the new, democratically oriented parties. On December 7, 1989, agreement was reached to hold free elections in May 1990 and rewrite the G.D.R. constitution. On January 28, all the parties agreed to advance the elections to March 18, primarily because of an erosion of state authority and because the East German exodus was continuing apace; more than 117,000 left in January and February 1990. <P> In early February 1990, the Modrow government's proposal for a unified, neutral German state was rejected by Chancellor Kohl, who affirmed that a unified Germany must be a member of NATO. Finally, on March 18, the first free elections were held in the G.D.R., and a government led by Lothar de Maiziere (CDU) was formed under a policy of expeditious unification with the F.R.G. The freely elected representatives of the Volkskammer held their first session on April 5, and the G.D.R. peacefully evolved from a communist to a democratically elected government. Free and secret communal (local) elections were held in the G.D.R. on May 6, and the CDU again won. On July 1, the two Germanys entered into an economic and monetary union. <P> Four Power Control Ends <P> During 1990, in parallel with internal German developments, the Four Powers--the United States, U.K., France, and the Soviet Union-- negotiated to end Four Power reserved rights for Berlin and Germany as a whole. These "Two-plus-Four" negotiations were mandated at the Ottawa Open Skies conference on February 13, 1990. The six foreign ministers met four times in the ensuing months in Bonn (May 5), Berlin (June 22), Paris (July 17), and Moscow (September 12). The Polish Foreign Minister participated in the part of the Paris meeting that dealt with the Polish-German borders. <P> Of key importance was overcoming Soviet objections to a united Germany's membership in NATO. This was accomplished in July when the alliance, led by President Bush, issued the London Declaration on a transformed NATO. On July 16, President Gorbachev and Chancellor Kohl announced agreement in principle on a united Germany in NATO. This cleared the way for the signing in Moscow on September 12 of the Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany. In addition to terminating Four Power rights, the treaty mandated the withdrawal of all Soviet forces from Germany by the end of 1994, made clear that the current borders were final and definitive, and specified the right of a united Germany to belong to NATO. It also provided for the continued presence of British, French, and American troops in Berlin during the interim period of the Soviet withdrawal. In the treaty, the Germans renounced nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons and stated their intention to reduce German armed forces to 370,000 within three to four years after the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty, signed in Paris on November 19, 1990, entered into force. <P> Conclusion of the final settlement cleared the way for unification of the F.R.G. and G.D.R. Formal political union occurred on October 3, 1990, with the accession (in accordance with Article 23 of the F.R.G.'s Basic Law) of the five Laender which had been reestablished in the G.D.R. On December 2, 1990, all-German elections were held for the first time since 1933. # D Central Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, between the Netherlands and Poland, south of Denmark # 356910 349520 7390 3621 Austria 784 km, Belgium 167 km, Czech Republic 646 km, Denmark 68 km, France 451 km, Luxembourg 138 km, Netherlands 577 km, Poland 456 km, Switzerland 334 km # 2389 ? 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # 200 ? 12 temperate and marine; cool, cloudy, wet winters and summers; occasional warm, tropical foehn wind; high relative humidity # lowlands in north, uplands in center, Bavarian Alps in south # Freepsum Lake -2 m Zugspitze 2,962 m iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel # 33 1 15 31 20 4750 NA # emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries and lead emissions from vehicle exhausts (the result of continued use of leaded fuels) contribute to air pollution; acid rain, resulting from sulfur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests; heavy pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in eastern Germany; hazardous waste disposal # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # Air Pollution-Sulphur 94 # strategic location on North European Plain and along the entrance to the Baltic Sea # 82079454 16 6570582 6240671 68 28688052 27532099 16 4866122 8181928 0.02 8.84 10.77 2.08 1.06 1.05 1.04 0.59 ? 5.20 76.99 73.83 80.33 1.25 German(s) German German 91.5%, Turkish 2.4%, Italians 0.7%, Greeks 0.4%, Poles 0.4%, other 4.6% (made up largely of people fleeing the war in the former Yugoslavia) # Protestant 38%, Roman Catholic 34%, Muslim 1.7%, unaffiliated or other 26.3% # German # age 15 and over can read and write # 99 ? ? Federal Republic of Germany Germany Bundesrepublik Deutschland # Deutschland .de federal republic Berlin 16 states (laender, singular - land); Baden-Wuerttemberg, Bayern, Berlin, Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Hessen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Niedersachsen, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Saarland, Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein, Thueringen # ? # German Unity Day (Day of Unity), 3 October (1990) 23 May 1949, known as Basic Law; became constitution of the united German people 3 October 1990 # civil law system with indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in the Federal Constitutional Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Roman HERZOG (since 1 July 1994) # Chancellor Gerhard SCHROEDER # Cabinet appointed by the president upon the proposal of the chancellor # president elected by the Federal Convention including members of the Federal Assembly and an equal number of members elected by the Land Parliaments for a five-year term; election last held 23 May 1994 (next to be held NA 1999); chancellor elected by an absolute majority of the Federal Assembly for a four-year term; election last held 27 September 1998 # Roman HERZOG elected president; percent of Federal Convention vote - NA; Gerhard SCHROEDER elected chancellor; percent of Federal Assembly - NA # bicameral chamber (no official name for the two chambers as a whole) consists of the Federal Assembly or Bundestag (656 seats usually, but 672 for the 1994 term; elected by direct popular vote under a system combining direct and proportional representation; a party must win 5% of the national vote or three direct mandates to gain representation; members serve four-year terms) and the Federal Council or Bundesrat (68 votes; state governments are directly represented by votes; each has 3 to 6 votes depending on population and are required to vote as a block; term is not fixed) # Federal Assembly - last held 27 September 1998; Federal Council - last held NA (next to be held NA) # NA # Federal Constitutional Court or Bundesverfassungsgericht, half the judges are elected by the Bundestag and half by the Bundesrat # Christian Democratic Union or CDU [Helmut KOHL, chairman]; Christian Social Union or CSU [Theodor WAIGEL, chairman]; Free Democratic Party or FDP [Wolfgang GERHARDT, chairman]; Social Democratic Party or SPD [Oskar LAFONTAINE, chairman]; Alliance '90/Greens [Christa NICKELS]; Party of Democratic Socialism or PDS [Lothar BISKY, chairman]; Republikaner [Rolf SCHLIERER, chairman]; National Democratic Party or NPD [Gunter DECKERT]; Communist Party or DKP [Rolf PRIEMER and Heinz STEHR, cochairpersons] # ? # AfDB, AG (observer), AsDB, Australia Group, BDEAC, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 5, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINUGUA, MTCR, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNOMIG, UPU, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC # three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and gold # In 1997 the German economy, the world's third most powerful, benefited from robust exports, particularly to other members of the EU and the US, as well as strengthening equipment investment. But anemic private consumption and a contraction in the construction industry limited the expansion. Unemployment continued to set post-war monthly records through the end of 1997 and averaged 4.3 million for the year. In preparation for the 1 January 1999 start of the European Monetary Union, the government has made major efforts in 1996-97 to reduce the fiscal deficit. This effort has been complicated by growing unemployment, an erosion of the tax base, and the continuing transfer of roughly $100 billion a year to eastern Germany to refurbish this ex-communist area. In recent years business and political leaders have become increasingly concerned about Germany's decline in attractiveness as an investment target. They cite increasing preference by German companies to locate new manufacturing facilities in foreign countries, including the US, rather than in Germany, to be closer to the markets and to avoid Germany's high tax rates, high wage costs, rigid labor structures, and extensive regulations. For similar reasons foreign investment in Germany has been lagging in recent years. # 2.40 28260 2319565 1.10 34.50 64.40 1.80 38700000 industry 41%, agriculture 3%, services 56% (1995) # 12 755000 832100 western: among world's largest and technologically advanced producers of iron, steel, coal, cement, chemicals, machinery, vehicles, machine tools, # 3 109.73 495875 6154 western: potatoes, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruit, cabbage; cattle, # 521100.00 manufactures 88.2% (including machines and machine tools, chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel products), agricultural products 5.0%, raw materials 2.3%, fuels 1.0%, other 3.5% (1995) # EU 57.7% (France 11.7%, UK 8.1%, Italy 7.6%, Netherlands 7.5%, Belgium-Luxembourg 6.5%, Austria 5.5%), Eastern Europe 8.0%, other West European countries 7.5%, US 7.3%, NICs 5.6%, Japan 2.5%, OPEC 2.2%, China 1.4% (1996 est.) # 455700.00 manufactures 74.2%, agricultural products 9.9%, fuels 6.4%, raw materials 5.9%, other 3.6% (1995) # EU 55.5% (France 10.8%, Netherlands 8.6%, Italy 8.4%, Belgium-Luxembourg 6.6%, UK 6.4%, Austria 3.9%), Eastern Europe 8.7%, other West European countries 7.2%, US 6.8%, Japan 5.3%, NICs 5.3%, China 2.4%, OPEC 1.7%, other 7.1% (1995) # ? ? # ODA, $9 billion (1996 est.) # 1 deutsche mark (DM) = 100 pfennige # 1.82 calendar year 44000000 the region which was formerly West Germany is served by an extensive system of automatic telephone exchanges connected by modern networks of fiber-optic cable, coaxial cable, microwave radio relay, and a domestic satellite system; cellular telephone service is widely available and includes roaming service to many foreign countries; since the reunification of Germany, the telephone system of the eastern region has been upgraded and enjoys many of the advantages of the national system # satellite earth stations - 14 Intelsat (12 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean), 1 Eutelsat, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region), 2 Intersputnik (1 Atlantic Ocean region and 1 Indian Ocean region); 6 submarine cable connections; 2 HF radiotelephone communication centers; tropospheric scatter links # 80 470 0 70000000 246 44800000 43966 # 43,531 km 1.435-m; 40,355 km are owned by Deutsche Bahn AG (DB); 17,015 km of the DB system are electrified and 16,941 km are double- or more-tracked # 389 km 1.000-m gauge (DB operates 146 km of 1.000-m gauge); 7 km 0.900-m gauge; 39 km 0.750-m gauge # # 633000 627,303 km (including 11,300 km of expressways) # 5,697 km all-weather (1996 est.) # 0 3644 3946 97564 Berlin, Bonn, Brake, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Cologne, Dresden, Duisburg, Emden, Hamburg, Karlsruhe, Kiel, Lubeck, Magdeburg, Mannheim, Rostock, Stuttgart # 515 6448105 7940824 cargo 202, chemical tanker 10, combination bulk 2, container 253, liquefied gas tanker 6, multifunction large-load carrier 6, oil tanker 9, passenger 4, railcar carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 12, short-sea passenger 7 # 620 321 14 61 70 53 123 299 2 6 6 57 228 63 Army, Navy (includes Naval Air Arm), Air Force, Medical Corps, Border Police, Coast Guard # 18 years of age # 20915978 17888396 465179 42800000000 1.50 individual Sudeten German claims for restitution of property confiscated in connection with their expulsion after World War II # source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for and consumer of Southwest Asian heroin and hashish, Latin American cocaine, and European-produced synthetic drugs # @Ghana 0 God bless our homeland Ghana, And make our nation great and strong, Bold to defend forever The cause of Freedom and of Right. Fill our hearts with true humility Make us cherish fearless honesty, And help us to resist oppressors' rule With all our will and might evermore. Hail to thy name, O Ghana To thee we make our solemn vow; Steadfast to build together A nation strong in Unity; With our gifts of mind and strength of arm, Whether night or day, in the midst of storm, In every need whate'er the call may be, To serve thee, Ghana, now and evermore. Raise high the flag of Ghana, And one with Africa advance; Black star of hope and honor, To all who thirst for liberty; Where the banner of Ghana free flies, May the way to freedom truly lie Arise, arise, O sons of Ghanaland, And under God march on forevermore. # Having found gold here in 1471, the Portuguese named this part of Africa the Gold Coast. The name Ghana is that of an African empire along the Niger River, far to the north-west of present-day Ghana, between 400 and 1240 AD. After having been under British rule for 113 years, Ghana gained independence and adopted its new name on March 6 1957. In 1960 it attained republic status within the Commonwealth. Independent Ghana became a symbol of freedom for black Africa. In the 1960's and 70's, however, a series of repressive civil and military governments led to economic stagnation. Since the coup of 1981, executive and legislative powers lie with the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC), which rules by decree. There are 10 regions in Ghana, divided into 64 smaller administrative units. The history of the Gold Coast before the last quarter of the 15th century is derived primarily from oral tradition that refers to migrations from the ancient kingdoms of the western Soudan (the area of Mauritania and Mali). The Gold Coast was renamed Ghana upon independence in 1957 because of indications that present-day inhabitants descended from migrants who moved south from the ancient kingdom of Ghana. <P> The first contact between Europe and the Gold Coast dates from 1470, when a party of Portuguese landed. In 1482, the Portuguese built Elmina Castle as a permanent trading base. The first recorded English trading voyage to the coast was made by Thomas Windham in 1553. During the next three centuries, the English, Danes, Dutch, Germans, and Portuguese controlled various parts of the coastal areas. <P> In 1821, the British Government took control of the British trading forts on the Gold Coast. In 1844, Fanti chiefs in the area signed an agreement with the British that became the legal steppingstone to colonial status for the coastal area. <P> From 1826 to 1900, the British fought a series of campaigns against the Ashantis, whose kingdom was located inland. In 1902, they succeeded in establishing firm control over the Ashanti region and making the northern territories a protectorate. British Togoland, the fourth territorial element eventually to form the nation, was part of a former German colony administered by the United Kingdom from Accra as a League of Nations mandate after 1922. In December 1946, British Togoland became a UN Trust Territory, and in 1957, following a 1956 plebiscite, the United Nations agreed that the territory would become part of Ghana when the Gold Coast achieved independence. <P> The four territorial divisions were administered separately until 1946, when the British Government ruled them as a single unit. In 1951, a constitution was promulgated that called for a greatly enlarged legislature composed principally of members elected by popular vote directly or indirectly. An executive council was responsible for formulating policy, with most African members drawn from the legislature and including three ex officio members appointed by the governor. A new constitution, approved on April 29, 1954, established a cabinet comprising African ministers drawn from an all-African legislature chosen by direct election. In the elections that followed, the Convention People's Party (CPP), led by Kwame Nkrumah, won the majority of seats in the new Legislative Assembly. In May 1956, Prime Minister Nkrumah's Gold Coast government issued a white paper containing proposals for Gold Coast independence. The British Government stated it would agree to a firm date for independence if a reasonable majority for such a step were obtained in the Gold Coast Legislative Assembly after a general election. This election, held in 1956, returned the CPP to power with 71 of the 104 seats in the Legislative Assembly. Ghana became an independent state on March 6, 1957, when the United Kingdom relinquished its control over the Colony of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, the Northern Territories Protectorate, and British Togoland. <P> In subsequent reorganizations, the country was divided into 10 regions, which currently are subdivided into 110 districts. The original Gold Coast Colony now comprises the Western, Central, Eastern, and Greater Accra Regions, with a small portion at the mouth of the Volta River assigned to the Volta Region; the Ashanti area was divided into the Ashanti and Brong-Ahafo Regions; the Northern Territories into the Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions; and British Togoland essentially is the same area as the Volta Region. <P> Post-Independence Politics <P> After independence, the CPP government under Nkrumah sought to develop Ghana as a modern, semi-industrialized, unitary socialist state. The government emphasized political and economic organization, endeavoring to increase stability and productivity through labor, youth, farmers, cooperatives, and other organizations integrated with the CPP. The government, according to Nkrumah, acted only as "the agent of the CPP" in seeking to accomplish these goals. <P> The CPP's control was challenged and criticized, and Prime Minister Nkrumah used the Preventive Detention Act (1958), which provided for detention without trial for up to 5 years (later extended to 10 years). On July 1, 1960, a new constitution was adopted, changing Ghana from a parliamentary system with a prime minister to a republican form of government headed by a powerful president. In August 1960, Nkrumah was given authority to scrutinize newspapers and other publications before publication. This political evolution continued into early 1964, when a constitutional referendum changed the country to a one-party state. <P> On February 24, 1966, the Ghanaian Army and police overthrew Nkrumah's regime. Nkrumah and all his ministers were dismissed, the CPP and National Assembly were dissolved, and the constitution was suspended. The new regime cited Nkrumah's flagrant abuse of individual rights and liberties, his regime's corrupt, oppressive, and dictatorial practices, and the rapidly deteriorating economy as the principal reasons for its action. <P> Post-Nkrumah Politics <P> The leaders of the February 24 coup established the new government around the National Liberation Council (NLC) and pledged an early return to a duly constituted civilian government. Members of the judiciary and civil service remained at their posts and committees of civil servants were established to handle the administration of the country. <P> Ghana's government returned to civilian authority under the Second Republic in October 1969 after a parliamentary election in which the Progress Party, led by Kofi A. Busia, won 105 of the 140 seats. Until mid-1970, the powers of the chief of state were held by a presidential commission led by Brigadier A.A. Afrifa. In a special election on August 31, 1970, former Chief Justice Edward Akufo-Addo was chosen president, and Dr. Busia became prime minister. <P> Faced with mounting economic problems, Prime Minister Busia's government undertook a drastic devaluation of the currency in December 1971. The government's inability to control the subsequent inflationary pressures stimulated further discontent, and military officers seized power in a bloodless coup on January 13, 1972. <P> The coup leaders, led by Col. I.K. Acheampong, formed the National Redemption Council (NRC) to which they admitted other officers, the head of the police, and one civilian. The NRC promised improvements in the quality of life for all Ghanaians and based its programs on nationalism, economic development, and self-reliance. In 1975, a government reorganization resulted in the NRC's replacement by the Supreme Military Council (SMC), also headed by now-General Acheampong. <P> Unable to deliver on its promises, the NRC/SMC became increasingly marked by mismanagement and rampant corruption. In 1977, General Acheampong brought forward the concept of union government (UNIGOV), which would make Ghana a non-party state. Perceiving this as a ploy by Acheampong to retain power, professional groups and students launched strikes and demonstrations against the government in 1977 and 1978. The steady erosion in Acheampong's power led to his arrest in July 1978 by his chief of staff, Lt. Gen. Frederick Akuffo, who replaced him as head of state and leader of what became known as the SMC-2. <P> Akuffo abandoned UNIGOV and established a plan to return to constitutional and democratic government. A Constitutional Assembly was established, and political party activity was revived. Akuffo was unable to solve Ghana's economic problems, however, or to reduce the rampant corruption in which senior military officers played a major role. On June 4, 1979, his government was deposed in a violent coup by a group of junior and non-commissioned officers--Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC)--with Flt. Lt. Jerry John Rawlings as its chairman. <P> The AFRC executed eight senior military officers, including former chiefs of state Acheampong and Akuffo; established Special Tribunals that, secretly and without due process, tried dozens of military officers, other government officials, and private individuals for corruption, sentencing them to long prison terms and confiscating their property; and, through a combination of force and exhortation, attempted to rid Ghanaian society of corruption and profiteering. At the same time, the AFRC accepted, with a few amendments, the draft constitution that had been submitted, permitted the scheduled presidential and parliamentary elections to take place in June and July, promulgated the constitution, and handed over power to the newly elected president and parliament of the Third Republic on September 24, 1979. <P> The 1979 constitution was modeled on those of Western democracies. It provided for the separation of powers among an elected president and a unicameral parliament, an independent judiciary headed by a Supreme Court, which protected individual rights, and other autonomous institutions, such as the Electoral Commissioner and the Ombudsman. The new president, Dr. Hilla Limann, was a career diplomat from the north and the candidate of the People's National Party (PNP), the political heir of Nkrumah's CPP. Of the 140 members of parliament, 71 were PNP. <P> The PNP government established the constitutional institutions and generally respected democracy and individual human rights. It failed, however, to halt the continuing decline in the economy; corruption flourished, and the gap between rich and poor widened. On December 31, 1981, Flight Lt. Rawlings and a small group of enlisted and former soldiers launched a coup that succeeded against little opposition in toppling President Limann. <P> The PNDC Era <P> Rawlings and his colleagues suspended the 1979 constitution, dismissed the president and his cabinet, dissolved the parliament, and proscribed existing political parties. They established the Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC), initially composed of seven members with Rawlings as chairman, to exercise executive and legislative powers. The existing judicial system was preserved, but alongside it the PNDC created the National Investigation Committee to root out corruption and other economic offenses, the anonymous Citizens' Vetting Committee to punish tax evasion, and the Public Tribunals to try various crimes. The PNDC proclaimed its intent to allow the people to exercise political power through defense committees to be established in communities, workplaces, and in units of the armed forces and police. Under the PNDC, Ghana remained a unitary government. <P> In December 1982, the PNDC announced a plan to decentralize government from Accra to the regions, the districts, and local communities, but it maintained overall control by appointing regional and district secretaries who exercised executive powers and also chaired regional and district councils. Local councils, however, were expected progressively to take over the payment of salaries, with regions and districts assuming more powers from the national government. In 1984, the PNDC created a National Appeals Tribunal to hear appeals from the public tribunals, changed the Citizens' Vetting Committee into the Office of Revenue Collection and replaced the system of defense committees with Committees for the Defense of the Revolution. <P> In 1984, the PNDC also created a National Commission on Democracy to study ways to establish participatory democracy in Ghana. The commission issued a "Blue Book" in July 1987 outlining modalities for district-level elections, which were held in late 1988 and early 1989, for newly created district assemblies. One-third of the assembly members are appointed by the government. <P> Under international and domestic pressure for a return to democracy, the PNDC allowed the establishment of a 258-member Consultative Assembly made up of members representing geographic districts as well as established civic or business organizations. The assembly was charged to draw up a draft constitution to establish a fourth republic, using PNDC proposals. The PNDC accepted the final product without revision, and it was put to a national referendum on April 28, 1992, in which it received 92% approval. On May 18, 1992, the ban on party politics was lifted in preparation for multi-party elections. The PNDC and its supporters formed a new party, the National Democratic Congress (NDC), to contest the elections. Presidential elections were held on November 3 and parliamentary elections on December 29 of that year. Members of the opposition boycotted the parliamentary elections, however, which resulted in a 200 seat Parliament with only 17 opposition party members and two independents. <P> The Constitution entered into force on January 7, 1993, to found the Fourth Republic. On that day, Flt. Lt. Jerry John Rawlings was inaugurated as President and members of Parliament swore their oaths of office. In 1996, the opposition fully contested the presidential and parliamentary elections, which were described as peaceful, free, and transparent by domestic and international observers. In that election, President Rawlings was re-elected with 57% of the popular vote. In addition, Rawlings' NDC party won 133 of the Parliament's 200 seats, just one seat short of the two-thirds majority needed to amend the Constitution, although the election returns of two parliamentary seats face legal challenges. # GH Western Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea, between Cote d'Ivoire and Togo # 238540 230020 8520 2093 Burkina 548 km, Cote d'Ivoire 668 km, Togo 877 km # 539 24 200 nm # 200 ? 12 tropical; warm and comparatively dry along southeast coast; hot and humid in southwest; hot and dry in north # mostly low plains with dissected plateau in south-central area # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mount Afadjato 880 m gold, timber, industrial diamonds, bauxite, manganese, fish, rubber # 12 7 22 35 24 60 dry, dusty, harmattan winds occur from January to March; droughts # recent drought in north severely affecting agricultural activities; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; poaching and habitat destruction threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling # Marine Life Conservation # Lake Volta is the world's largest artificial lake; northeasterly harmattan wind (January to March) # 18497206 43 3985219 3947640 54 4905442 5077521 3 275192 306192 2.13 32.81 10.63 -0.90 1.03 1 0.96 0.89 ? 77.53 56.82 54.77 58.92 4.27 Ghanaian(s) Ghanaian black African 99.8% (major tribes - Akan 44%, Moshi-Dagomba 16%, Ewe 13%, Ga 8%), European and other 0.2% # indigenous beliefs 38%, Muslim 30%, Christian 24%, other 8% # English (official), African languages (including Akan, Moshi-Dagomba, Ewe, and Ga) # age 15 and over can read and write # 64.50 75.90 53.50 Republic of Ghana Ghana ? # ? .gh constitutional democracy Accra 10 regions; Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Greater Accra, Northern, Upper East, Upper West, Volta, Western # ? # Independence Day, 6 March (1957) new constitution approved 28 April 1992 # based on English common law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Jerry John RAWLINGS (since 7 January 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Jerry John RAWLINGS (since 7 January 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Council of Ministers; president nominates members subject to approval by the Parliament # president and vice president elected by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 7 December 1996 (next to be held NA 2000) # Jerry John RAWLINGS elected president; percent of vote - RAWLINGS 57% # unicameral Parliament (200 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms) # last held 7 December 1996 (next to be held NA December 2000) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NDC 133, NPP 61, PCP 5, PNC 1 # Supreme Court # National Democratic Congress or NDC [Dr. Huudu YAHAYA, general secretary]; New Patriotic Party or NPP [Peter Ala ADJETY]; People's Heritage Party or PHP [Emmanuel Alexander ERSKINE]; National Convention Party or NCP [Sarpong KUMA-KUMA]; Every Ghanian Living Everywhere or EGLE [Owuraku AMOFA, chairman]; Peoples Convention Party or PCP [P. K. DONKOH-AYIFI, acting chairman]; Peoples National Convention or PNC [Edward MAHAMA] # ? # ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM, OAU, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMOP, UNPREDEP, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Bolivia, which has a coat of arms centered in the yellow band # Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana has twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa. Even so, Ghana remains heavily dependent on international financial and technical assistance. Gold, timber, and cocoa production are major sources of foreign exchange. The domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 41% of GDP and employs 60% of the work force, mainly small landholders. In 1995-97, Ghana made mixed progress under a three-year structural adjustment program in cooperation with the IMF. On the minus side, public sector wage increases and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, depreciation of the cedi, and rising public discontent with Ghana's austerity measures. # 3 370 6844 41 14 45 27.70 ? agriculture and fishing 61%, industry 10%, services 29% (1996 est.) # 20 1390.00 1470 mining, lumbering, light manufacturing, aluminum smelting, food processing # 4.20 1.30 600 373 cocoa, rice, coffee, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, corn, shea nuts, bananas; timber # 1570 gold 39%, cocoa 35%, timber 9.4%, tuna, bauxite, aluminum, manganese ore, and diamonds (1996 est.) # UK, Germany, US, Netherlands, Japan, Nigeria # 1840.00 capital equipment, petroleum, consumer goods, foods, intermediate goods # UK, Nigeria, US, Germany, Japan, Netherlands # 5200 ODA, $472 million (1993) # ? # 1 new cedi (C) = 100 pesewas # 2271.70 calendar year 100000 primarily microwave radio relay # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 4 23 0 12500000 3 1900000 953 # # 953 km 1.067-m gauge (32 km double track) (1997 est.) # # 39409 11,653 km (including 30 km of expressways) # 27,756 km (1997 est.) # 168 ? ? ? Takoradi, Tema # 4 17037 22747 cargo 1, oil tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 2 (1997 est.) # 12 6 ? 1 3 2 2 6 ? ? 1 3 ? ? Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police Force, Palace Guard, Civil Defense # 18 years of age # 4386728 2434732 181169 30000000 0.80 none # illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; transit hub for Southwest and Southeast Asian heroin and South American cocaine destined for Europe and the US # @Gibraltar United Kingdom ? # The Rock of Gibraltar, a limestone promontory at the tip of southern Spain. Settled by Moors in 711; taken by Spain in 1462; ceded to Britain in 1713; a British crown colony (1830-1969); still politically associated with Britain # GB Southwestern Europe, bordering the Strait of Gibraltar, which links the Mediterranean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southern coast of Spain # 6.50 6.50 0 1.20 Spain 1.2 km # 12 ? ? # ? ? 3 Mediterranean with mild winters and warm summers # a narrow coastal lowland borders the Rock of Gibraltar # Mediterranean Sea 0 m Rock of Gibraltar 426 m NEGL # ? ? ? ? 100 ? NA # limited natural freshwater resources, so large concrete or natural rock water catchments collect rain water # NA # NA # strategic location on Strait of Gibraltar that links the North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea # 29045 20 3131 2731 66 10835 8262 14 1684 2402 0.43 13.01 8.78 0.10 1.05 1.15 1.31 0.70 ? 6.61 78.19 74.90 81.64 2.19 Gibraltarian(s) Gibraltar Italian, English, Maltese, Portuguese, Spanish # Roman Catholic 74%, Protestant 11% (Church of England 8%, other 3%), Muslim 8%, Jewish 2%, none or other 5% (1981) # English (used in schools and for official purposes), Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Russian # NA # 95 ? ? none Gibraltar ? # ? .gi NA Gibraltar none (dependent territory of the UK) # ? # Commonwealth Day (second Monday of March) 30 May 1969 # English law # 18 years of age; universal, plus other UK subjects resident six months or more # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Admiral Sir Richard LUCE (24 February 1997) # Chief Minister Peter CARUANA (since 17 May 1996) # Council of Ministers appointed from among the elected members of the House of Assembly by the governor in consultation with the chief minister # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor appointed by the queen; chief minister appointed by the governor # ? # unicameral House of Assembly (18 seats, 15 elected, the Speaker, and 2 ex officio; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # last held 16 May 1996 (next to be held NA May 2000) # percent of vote by party - SD 53%, SL 42%, NP 3%; seats by party - SD 8, SL 7 # Supreme Court; Court of Appeal # Gibraltar Socialist Labor Party or SL [Joe BOSSANO]; Gibraltar Labor Party/Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights or GCL/AACR [Adolfo CANEPA]; Gibraltar Social Democrats or SD [Peter CARUANA]; Gibraltar National Party or NP [Joe GARCIA] # ? # Interpol (subbureau) # two horizontal bands of white (top, double width) and red with a three-towered red castle in the center of the white band; hanging from the castle gate is a gold key centered in the red band # Gibraltar benefits from an extensive shipping trade, offshore banking, and its position as an international conference center. The British military presence has been sharply reduced and now contributes about 11% to the local economy. The financial sector accounts for 15% of GDP; tourism (more than 5 million visitors in 1995), shipping services fees, and duties on consumer goods also generate revenue. Because more than 70% of the economy is in the public sector, changes in government spending have a major impact on the level of employment. # ? 12500 363 ? ? ? 2.10 14800 services 60%, industry 40%, agriculture NEGL # 13.50 111.60 115.60 tourism, banking and finance, ship-building and repairing; support to large UK naval and air bases; tobacco, mineral waters, beer, canned fish # ? 0.03 85 2667 none # 83.70 (principally reexports) petroleum 51%, manufactured goods 41%, other 8% # UK, Morocco, Portugal, Netherlands, Spain, US, FRG # 778 fuels, manufactured goods, and foodstuffs # UK, Spain, Japan, Netherlands # ? ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Gibraltar pound (£G) = 100 pence # 0.61 1 July - 30 June 19356 automatic exchange facilities # radiotelephone; microwave radio relay; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 1 6 0 ? 4 ? ? # # # # 49.90 49.9 km # 0 km # ? ? ? ? Gibraltar # 18 360880 627429 bulk 1, cargo 1, chemical tanker 2, container 1, oil tanker 12, roll-on/roll-off cargo 1 (1997 est.) # 1 1 ? ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? British Army, Royal Navy, Royal Air Force # ? # ? ? ? ? ? source of friction between Spain and the UK # ? # @Glorioso Islands France ? # # Southern Africa, group of islands in the Indian Ocean, northwest of Madagascar # 5 5 0 ? ? # 35.20 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical # NA # Indian Ocean 0 m unnamed location 12 m guano, coconuts # ? ? ? ? 100 0 periodic cyclones # NA # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? none Glorioso Islands none # Iles Glorieuses .? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # NA # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of France is used # no economic activity # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 1 ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only # ? ? ? ? # 1 ? ? ? ? 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? claimed by Madagascar # ? # @Greece 0 Se gnoriso apo tin kopsi. Tou spathiou tin tromeri, Se gnoriso apo tin opsi Pou me via metra tin yi. Ap' ta kokala vialmeni Ton Ellinon ta iera, Ke san prota andriomeni, Haire, o haire, Eleftheria! (repeat previous two lines three times) # The oldest inhabitants of Greece lived in the Stone Age. The first important centre of culture developed on Crete between 1700 and 1400 BC. By the 5th century BC, Greece had reached the height of its glory and power. It fell under Roman rule in the 2nd century BC. In the 4th century AD, it became part of the Byzantine empire. With the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, Greece became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1453. <P> The Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire began in 1821 and concluded with the winning of independence in 1830. With the support of England, France, and Russia, a monarchy was established. A Bavarian prince, Otto, was named king in 1833. He was deposed 30 years later, and the Great Powers chose a prince of the Danish House of Glucksberg as his successor. He became George I, King of the Hellenes. <P> The Megali Idea (Great Idea), a vision of uniting all Greeks of the declining Ottoman Empire within the newly independent Greek State, exerted strong influence on the early Greek state. At independence, Greece had an area of 47,515 square kilometers (18,346 square mi.), and its northern boundary extended from the Gulf of Volos to the Gulf of Arta. The Ionian Islands were added in 1864; Thessaly and part of Epirus in 1881; Macedonia, Crete, Epirus, and the Aegean Islands in 1913; Western Thrace in 1918; and the Dodecanese Islands in 1947. <P> Greece entered World War I in 1917 on the side of the Allies. After the war, Greece took part in the Allied occupation of Turkey, where many Greeks still lived. In 1921, the Greek army attacked from its base in Smyrna (now Izmir), and marched toward Ankara. The Greeks were defeated by Turkish forces led by Mustafa Kemal (later Ataturk) and were forced to withdraw in the summer of 1922. Smyrna was sacked by the Turks, and more than 1.3 million Greek refugees from Turkey poured into Greece, creating enormous challenges for the Greek economy and society and effectively ending the Megali Idea. <P> Greek politics, particularly between the two world wars, involved a struggle for power between monarchists and republicans. Greece was proclaimed a republic in 1924, but George II returned to the throne in 1935, and a plebiscite in 1946 upheld the monarchy. It was finally abolished, however, by referendum on December 8, 1974, when more than two-thirds of the voters supported the establishment of a republic. <P> Greece's entry into World War II was precipitated by the Italian invasion on October 28, 1940. That date is celebrated in Greece by the one-word reply--ochi ("no")--symbolizing the Greek Prime Minister's rejection of the surrender demand made by Mussolini. Despite Italian superiority in numbers and equipment, determined Greek defenders drove the invaders back into Albania. Hitler was forced to divert German troops to protect his southern flank and attacked Greece in early April 1941. By the end of May, the Germans had overrun most of the country, although Greek resistance was never entirely suppressed. German forces withdrew in October 1944, and the government in exile returned to Athens. <P> After the German withdrawal, the principal Greek resistance movement, which was controlled by the communists, refused to disarm. A banned demonstration by resistance forces in Athens in December 1944 ended in violence and was followed by an intense, house-to-house battle with Greek Government and British forces. After 3 weeks, the communists were defeated and an unstable coalition government was formed. Continuing tensions led to the dissolution of that government and the outbreak of full-fledged civil war in 1946. First the United Kingdom and later the U.S. gave extensive military and economic aid to the Greek Government. Communist successes in 1947-48 enabled them to move freely over much of mainland Greece, but with extensive reorganization and American material support, the Greek National Army was slowly able to regain control over most of the countryside. Yugoslavia closed its borders to the insurgent forces in 1949, after Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia broke with Stalin and the Soviet Union. <P> In August 1949, the National Army under Marshal Alexander Papagos launched a final offensive that forced the remaining insurgents to surrender or flee across the northern border into the territory of Greece's communist neighbors. The insurgency resulted in 100,000 killed and caused catastrophic economic disruption. In addition, at least 25,000 Greeks were either voluntarily or forcibly evacuated to Eastern Bloc countries, while 700,000 became displaced persons inside the country. <P> <P> After the 1944-49 Greek civil war, Greece sought to join the Western democracies and became a member of NATO in 1952. From 1952 to late 1963, Greece was governed by conservative parties -- the Greek Rally of Marshal Alexandros Papagos and its successor, the National Radical Union (ERE) of Constantine Karamanlis. In 1963, the Center Union Party of George Papandreou was elected and governed until July 1965. It was followed by a succession of unstable coalition governments. <P> On April 21, 1967, just before scheduled elections, a group of colonels led by Col. George Papadopoulos seized power in a coup d'etat. Civil liberties were suppressed, special military courts were established, and political parties were dissolved. Several thousand political opponents were imprisoned or exiled to remote Greek islands. In November 1973, following an uprising of students at the Athens Polytechnic University, Gen. Dimitrios Ioannides replaced Papadopoulos and tried to continue the dictatorship. <P> Gen. Ioannides' attempt in July 1974 to overthrow Archbishop Makarios, the President of Cyprus, brought Greece to the brink of war with Turkey, which invaded Cyprus and occupied part of the island. Senior Greek military officers then withdrew their support from the junta, which toppled. Leading citizens persuaded Karamanlis to return from exile in France to establish a government of national unity until elections could be held. Karamanlis' newly organized party, New Democracy (ND), won elections held in November 1974, and he became Prime Minister. <P> Following the 1974 referendum which resulted in the rejection of the monarchy, a new constitution was approved by parliament on June 19, 1975, and parliament elected Constantine Tsatsos as President of the republic. In the parliamentary elections of 1977, New Democracy again won a majority of seats. In May 1980, Prime Minister Karamanlis was elected to succeed Tsatsos as president. George Rallis was then chosen party leader and succeeded Karamanlis as Prime Minister. <P> On January 1, 1981, Greece became the 10th member of the European Community (now the European Union). In parliamentary elections held on October 18, 1981, Greece elected its first socialist government when the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), led by Andreas Papandreou, won 172 of 300 seats. On March 29, 1985, after Prime Minister Papandreou declined to support President Karamanlis for a second term, Supreme Court Justice Christos Sartzetakis was elected president by the Greek parliament. <P> Greece had two rounds of parliamentary elections in 1989; both produced weak coalition governments with limited mandates. Party leaders withdrew their support in February 1990, and elections were held on April 8. In the April 1990 election, ND won 150 seats and subsequently gained 2 others. After Mitsotakis fired his first Foreign Minister--Andonis Samaras--in 1992, Samaras formed his own political party, Political Spring. A split between Mitsotakis and Samaras led to the collapse of the ND government and new elections in September 1993. <P> On January 17, 1996, following a protracted illness, Prime Minister Papandreou resigned and was replaced as Prime Minister by former Minister of Industry Constantine Simitis. In elections held in September 1996, Constantine Simitis was elected Prime Minister. PASOK won 162 seats, New Democracy 108. # GR Southern Europe, bordering the Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea, between Albania and Turkey # 131940 130800 1140 1210 Albania 282 km, Bulgaria 494 km, Turkey 206 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 228 km # 13676 ? 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # ? ? 6 temperate; mild, wet winters; hot, dry summers # mostly mountains with ranges extending into sea as peninsulas or chains of islands # Mediterranean Sea 0 m Mount Olympus 2,917 m bauxite, lignite, magnesite, petroleum, marble # 19 8 41 20 12 13140 severe earthquakes # air pollution; water pollution # Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds # strategic location dominating the Aegean Sea and southern approach to Turkish Straits; a peninsular country, possessing an archipelago of about 2,000 islands # 10662138 16 890673 830945 67 3602473 3577961 17 780029 980057 0.43 9.65 9.37 4 1.07 1.07 1 0.79 ? 7.26 78.31 75.76 81.04 1.31 Greek(s) Greek Greek 98%, other 2% note: the Greek Government states there are no ethnic divisions in Greece # Greek Orthodox 98%, Muslim 1.3%, other 0.7% # Greek (official), English, French # age 15 and over can read and write # 95 98 93 Hellenic Republic Greece Elliniki Dhimokratia # Ellas .gr parliamentary republic; monarchy rejected by referendum 8 December 1974 Athens 51 prefectures (nomoi, singular - nomos)and 1 autonomous region*; Ayion Oros* (Mt. Athos), Aitolia kai Akarnania, Akhaia, Argolis, Arkadhia, Arta, Attiki, Dhodhekanisos, Drama, Evritania, Evros, Evvoia, Florina, Fokis, Fthiotis, Grevena, Ilia, Imathia, Ioannina, Irakleion, Kardhitsa, Kastoria, Kavala, Kefallinia, Kerkyra, Khalkidhiki, Khania, Khios, Kikladhes, Kilkis, Korinthia, Kozani, Lakonia, Larisa, Lasithi, Lesvos, Levkas, Magnisia, Messinia, Pella, Pieria, Preveza, Rethimni, Rodhopi, Samos, Serrai, Thesprotia, Thessaloniki, Trikala, Voiotia, Xanthi, Zakinthos # ? # Independence Day, 25 March (1821) (proclamation of the war of independence) 11 June 1975 # based on codified Roman law; judiciary divided into civil, criminal, and administrative courts # 18 years of age; universal and compulsory # President Konstandinos (Kostis) STEPHANOPOULOS (since 10 March 1995) # Prime Minister Konstandinos SIMITIS (since 19 January 1996) # Cabinet appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister # president elected by Chamber of Deputies for a five-year term; election last held 10 March 1995 (next to be held by NA March 2000); prime minister appointed by the president # Konstandinos STEPHANOPOULOS elected president; percent of Chamber of Deputies vote - NA # unicameral Parliament or Vouli ton Ellinon (300 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms) # elections last held 22 September 1996 (next to be held by NA September 2000) # percent of vote by party - PASOK 41.5%, ND 38.1%, KKE 5.6%, Coalition of the Left and Progress 5.1%, DIKKI 4.4%, Political Spring 2.9%; seats by party - PASOK 162, ND 108, KKE 11, Coalition of the Left and Progress 10, DIKKI 9; note - seating has subsequently changed as a result of disciplinary actions by PASOK, ND, and DIKKI; as of 3 February 1998 seating is PASOK 159, ND 102, KKE 11, Coalition of the Left and Progress 10, DIKKI 8, independents 10 # Supreme Judicial Court, judges appointed for life by the president after consultation with a judicial council; Special Supreme Tribunal, judges appointed for life by the president after consultation with a judicial council # New Democracy or ND (conservative) [Konstandinos KARAMANLIS]; Panhellenic Socialist Movement or PASOK [Konstandinos SIMITIS]; Communist Party or KKE [Aleka PAPARIGA]; Political Spring [Andonios SAMARAS]; Coalition of the Left and Progress (Synaspismos) [Nikolaos KONSTANDOPOULOS]; Democratic Social Movement or DIKKI [Dhimitrios TSOVOLAS]; Rainbow Coalition [Pavlos VOSKOPOULOS] # ? # Australia Group, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EU, FAO, G- 6, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MTCR, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNOMIG, UPU, WEU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC # nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white; there is a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross; the cross symbolizes Greek Orthodoxy, the established religion of the country # Greece has a mixed capitalist economy with the public sector accounting for roughly half of GDP. Tourism provides a major portion of foreign exchange. Greece is among the poorest EU countries in terms of per capita income; Athens continues to rely heavily on EU aid, which currently amounts to about 4.5% of GDP. Macroeconomic problems include the huge public sector, substantial budget and balance of payments deficits, and 10% unemployment. Economic growth is strengthening, and the government's strict fiscal and monetary policies are responsible for the decline in inflation and the budget deficit. Despite widespread protests from labor unions and farmers over austerity, the government is taking further steps to enhance revenue collection and reduce expenditures to prepare Greece for participation in the EU's single currency by 2001. Greece entered the exchange rate mechanism - a requirement for European Monetary Union (EMU) membership - in March 1998. GDP growth is projected at 3.5% for 1998, inflation at 4%, and unemployment at 8.5% # 3.70 12010 128052 11 25 64 6 4210000 services 52%, agriculture 23%, industry 25% (1995) # 10 37000 45000 tourism; food and tobacco processing, textiles; chemicals, metal products; mining, petroleum # 0.50 8.61 38814 3720 wheat, corn, barley, sugar beets, olives, tomatoes, wine, tobacco, potatoes; meat, dairy products # 9800.00 manufactured goods 53%, foodstuffs 34%, fuels 5% (1994) # EU 60% (Germany 22%, Italy 14%, France 6%, UK 6%), US 3% (1995) # 27000 manufactured goods 72%, foodstuffs 15%, fuels 10% (1994) # EU 70% (Italy 18%, Germany 16%, France 8%, UK 6%) US 4% (1995) # 33000 EU, $5.4 billion (1997 est.) # ? # 1 drachma (Dr) = 100 lepta # 286.99 calendar year 5571293 microwave radio relay, open wire, and submarine cable # tropospheric scatter; 8 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Eutelsat, and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean Region) # 29 17 0 ? 361 2300000 2474 # 1,565 km 1.435-m gauge (36 km electrified; 100 km double track) # 887 km 1.000-m gauge; 22 km 0.750-m gauge (a rack type railway for steep grades) # # 117000 107,406 km (including 470 km of expressways) # 9,594 km (1996 est.) # 80 26 547 ? Alexandroupolis, Elefsis, Irakleion (Crete), Kavala, Kerkyira, Chalkis, Igoumenitsa, Lavrion, Patrai, Peiraiefs (Piraeus), Thessaloniki, Volos # 875 25264916 45188813 bulk 354, cargo 74, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 13, combination ore/oil 15, container 43, liquefied gas tanker 4, multi-function large load carrier 1, oil tanker 229, passenger 14, passenger-cargo 2, refrigerated cargo 4, roll-on/roll-off cargo 18, short-sea passenger 79, specialized tanker 3 # 78 63 5 16 16 17 9 15 ? ? 1 3 11 2 Hellenic Army, Hellenic Navy, Hellenic Air Force, National Guard, Police # 21 years of age # 2693116 2062117 78894 4040000000 ? complex maritime, air, and territorial disputes with Turkey in Aegean Sea; Cyprus question with Turkey; dispute with The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia over name; in September 1995, Skopje and Athens signed an interim accord resolving their dispute over symbols and certain constitutional provisions; Athens also lifted its economic embargo on the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia # a gateway to Europe for traffickers smuggling cannabis and heroin from the Middle East and Southwest Asia to the West and precursor chemicals to the East; some South American cocaine transits or is consumed in Greece # @Greenland Denmark ? # The largest island in the world, lying mostly in the Arctic Circle off the NE coast of North America. Integral part of Denmark from 1953 to 1979 when it was granted internal autonomy whilst remaining a part of the kingdom of Denmark with two representatives in the Danish parliament or "Folketing". # DK Northern North America, island between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada # 2175600 2175600 ? ? ? # 44087 ? ? # ? 200 3 arctic to subarctic; cool summers, cold winters # flat to gradually sloping icecap covers all but a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Gunnbjorn 3,700 m zinc, lead, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, gold, platinum, uranium, fish, seals, whales # 0 0 1 0 99 ? continuous permafrost over northern two-thirds of the island # protection of the arctic environment; preservation of their traditional way of life, including whaling; note - Greenland participates actively in Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) # Whaling (extended through Denmark) # NA # dominates North Atlantic Ocean between North America and Europe; sparse population confined to small settlements along coast # 59309 26 7814 7709 68 22099 18487 6 1476 1724 0.90 15.83 6.88 0 1.01 1.01 1.20 0.86 ? 21.33 69.46 65.29 73.65 2.17 Greenlander(s) Greenlandic Greenlander 87% (Eskimos and Greenland-born whites), Danish and others 13% # Evangelical Lutheran # Eskimo dialects, Danish, Greenlandic (an Inuit dialect) # ? # ? ? ? none Greenland none # Kalaallit Nunaat .gl NA Nuuk (Godthab) 3 districts (landsdele); Avannaa (Nordgronland), Tunu (Ostgronland), Kitaa (Vestgronland) # ? # Birthday of the Queen, 16 April (1940) 5 June 1953 (Danish constitution) # Danish # 18 years of age; universal # Queen MARGRETHE II of Denmark (since 14 January 1972), represented by High Commissioner Gunnar MARTENS (since NA 1995) # Prime Minister Jonathan MOTZFELDT (since NA September 1997); note - named to post to replace Gunnar MARTENS, who retired ahead of scheduled election # Landsstyre is formed from the Parliament on the basis of the strength of parties # the queen is a constitutional monarch; high commissioner appointed by the queen; prime minister is elected by the Parliament (usually the leader of the majority party); election last held NA September 1997 (next to be held NA 1999) # Jonathan MOTZFELDT replaced Gunnar MARTENS who retired; percent of parliamentary vote - NA # unicameral Parliament or Landsting (31 seats; members are elected on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms) # last held on 4 March 1995 (next to be held by 5 March 1999) # percent of vote by party - Siumut 38.4%, Inuit Ataqatigiit 20.3%, Atassut Party 30.1%; seats by party - Siumut 12, Atassut Party 10, Inuit Ataqatigiit 6, conservative splinter grouping 2, independent 1 note: 2 representatives were elected to the Danish Parliament or Folketing on 21 September 1994 (next to be held by NA September 1998); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Liberals 1, Social Democrats 1; Greenlandic representatives are affiliated with Danish political parties # High Court or Landsret # two-party ruling coalition; Siumut (Forward Party, a moderate socialist party that advocates more distinct Greenlandic identity and greater autonomy from Denmark) [Lars Emil JOHANSEN, chairman]; Inuit Ataqatigiit or IA (Eskimo Brotherhood, a Marxist-Leninist party that favors complete independence from Denmark rather than home rule) [Josef MOTZFELDT]; Atassut Party (Solidarity, a more conservative party that favors continuing close relations with Denmark) [Daniel SKIFTE]; Akulliit Party [Bjarne KREUTZMANN]; Issituup (Polar Party) [Nicolai HEINRICH] # ? # ? # two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk slightly to the hoist side of center - the top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white # Greenland suffered negative economic growth in the early 1990s, but since 1993 the economy has improved. The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a light fiscal policy since the late 1980s which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation. Since 1990, Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining lead and zinc mine in 1989. Greenland today is critically dependent on fishing and fish exports; the shrimp fishery is by far the largest income earner. Despite resumption of several interesting hydrocarbon and minerals exploration activities, it will take several years before production can materialize. Tourism is the only sector offering any near-term potential and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs. The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in Greenland's economy. About half the government revenues come from grants from the Danish Government, an important supplement of GDP. # 0.60 16150 958 ? ? ? 0.60 24500 ? # 10.50 706 697 fish processing (mainly shrimp), handicrafts, furs, small shipyards # ? 0.11 245 4253 forage crops, small garden vegetables; sheep, fish # 363.40 fish and fish products 95% # Denmark 89%, Japan 5%, UK 5% # 421 machinery and transport equipment 25%, manufactured goods 18%, food and live animals 11%, petroleum products 6% # Denmark 7.5%, Iceland 3.8%, Japan 3.3%, Norway 3.1%, US 2.4%, Germany 2.4%, Sweden 1.8% # 243 ? # ? # 1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 oere # 6.92 calendar year 19600 microwave radio relay # 2 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # ? ? ? 23000 0 12000 ? # # # # 150 60 km # 90 km # ? ? ? ? Kangerluarsoruseq, Kangerlussuaq, Nanortalik, Narsarsuaq, Nuuk (Godthab), Sisimiut # ? ? ? ? # 10 7 1 1 1 2 2 3 ? ? 1 2 ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Grenada 0 Hail! Grenada, land of ours, We pledge ourselves to thee, Heads, hearts and hands in unity To reach our destiny. Ever conscious of God, Being proud of our heritage, May we with faith and courage Aspire, build, advance As one people, one family. God bless our nation. # Before the arrival of Europeans, Grenada was inhabited by Carib Indians who had driven the more peaceful Arawaks from the island. Columbus landed on Grenada in 1498 during his third voyage to the new world. He named the island "Concepcion." The origin of the name "Grenada" is obscure but it is likely that Spanish sailors renamed the island for the city of Granada. By the beginning of the 18th century, the name "Grenada," or "la Grenade" in French, was in common use. <P> Partly because of the Caribs, Grenada remained uncolonized for more than 100 years after its discovery; early English efforts to settle the island were unsuccessful. In 1650, a French company founded by Cardinal Richelieu purchased Grenada from the English and established a small settlement. After several skirmishes with the Caribs, the French brought in reinforcements from Martinique and defeated the Caribs, the last of whom leaped into the sea rather than surrender. <P> The island remained under French control until its capture by the British in 1762, during the Seven Years' War. Grenada was formally ceded to Great Britain in 1763 by the Treaty of Paris. Although the French regained control in 1779, the island was restored to Britain in 1783 by the Treaty of Versailles. Although Britain was hard pressed to overcome a pro-French revolt in 1795, Grenada remained British for the remainder of the colonial period. <P> During the 18th century, Grenada's economy underwent an important transition. Like much of the rest of the West Indies, it was originally settled to cultivate sugar, which was grown on estates using slave labor. But natural disasters paved the way for the introduction of other crops. In 1782, Sir Joseph Banks, the botanical adviser to King George III, introduced nutmeg to Grenada. The island's soil was ideal for growing the spice, and, because Grenada was a closer source of spices for Europe than the Dutch East Indies, the island assumed a new importance to European traders. <P> The collapse of the sugar estates and the introduction of nutmeg and cocoa encouraged the development of smaller land holdings and the island developed a land-owning yeoman farmer class. Slavery was outlawed in 1834. In 1833, Grenada became part of the British Windward Islands Administration. The governor of the Windward Islands administered the island for the rest of the colonial period. In 1958, the Windward Islands Administration was dissolved, and Grenada joined the Federation of the West Indies. After that federation collapsed in 1962, the British Government tried to form a small federation out of its remaining dependencies in the Eastern Caribbean. <P> Following the failure of this second effort, the British and the islands developed the concept of associated statehood. Under the Associated Statehood Act of 1967, Grenada was granted full autonomy over its internal affairs in March 1967. Full independence was granted on February 7, 1974. <P> After obtaining independence, Grenada adopted a modified Westminster parliamentary system based on the British model, with a governor general appointed by and representing the British monarch (head of state) and a prime minister who is both leader of the majority party and the head of government. Sir Eric Gairy was Grenada's first prime minister. <P> On March 13, 1979, the new joint endeavor for welfare, education, and liberation (New Jewel) movement ousted Gairy in a nearly bloodless coup and established a people's revolutionary government (PRG), headed by Maurice Bishop, who became prime minister. His Marxist-Leninist Government established close ties with Cuba, the Soviet Union, and other communist-bloc countries. <P> In October 1983, a power struggle within the government resulted in the arrest and subsequent murder of Bishop and several members of his cabinet by elements of the people's revolutionary army. Following a breakdown in civil order, a U.S.-Caribbean force landed on Grenada on October 25 in response to an appeal from the governor general and to a request for assistance from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States. U.S. citizens were evacuated, and order was restored. <P> An advisory council, named by the governor general, administered the country until general elections were held in December 1984. The New National Party (NNP), led by Herbert Blaize, won 14 out of 15 seats in free and fair elections and formed a democratic government. Grenada's constitution had been suspended in 1979 by the PRG, but it was restored after the 1984 elections. <P> The NNP continued in power until 1989 but with a reduced majority. Five NNP parliamentary members-including two cabinet ministers-left the party in 1986-87 and formed the National Democratic Congress (NDC), which became the official opposition. <P> In August 1989, Prime Minister Blaize broke with the NNP to form another new party-The National Party (TNP)-from the ranks of the NNP. This split in the NNP resulted in the formation of a minority government until constitutionally scheduled elections in March 1990. Prime Minister Blaize died in December 1989 and was succeeded as prime minister by Ben Jones until after the elections. <P> The NDC emerged from the 1990 elections as the strongest party, winning seven of the 15 available seats. Nicholas Brathwaite added two TNP members and one member of the Grenada United Labor Party (GULP) to create a 10-seat majority coalition. The governor general appointed him to be prime minister. <P> In parliamentary elections on June 20, 1995, the NNP won eight seats and formed a government headed by Dr. Keith Mitchell. The leader of the opposition in parliament is NDC leader George Brizan. # WG Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, north of Trinidad and Tobago # 340 340 0 ? ? # 121 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; tempered by northeast trade winds # volcanic in origin with central mountains # Caribbean Sea 0 m Mount Saint Catherine 840 m timber, tropical fruit, deepwater harbors # 15 18 3 9 55 ? lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from June to November # NA # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # the administration of the islands of the Grenadines group is divided between Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada # 96217 43 21077 20378 52 26959 23403 5 2061 2339 0.77 28.10 5.33 -15.11 1.02 1.03 1.15 0.88 ? 11.37 71.36 68.77 74 3.64 Grenadian(s) Grenadian black # Roman Catholic 53%, Anglican 13.8%, other Protestant sects 33.2% # English (official), French patois # age 15 and over can read and write # 98 98 98 none Grenada ? # ? .gd parliamentary democracy Saint George's 6 parishes and 1 dependency*; Carriacou and Petit Martinique*, Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick # ? # Independence Day, 7 February (1974) 19 December 1973 # based on English common law # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Daniel WILLIAMS (since 9 August 1996) # Prime Minister Keith MITCHELL (since 22 June 1995) # Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; governor general appointed by the queen; prime minister appointed by the governor general from among the members of the House of Assembly # ? # bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (a 13-member body, 10 appointed by the government and three by the leader of the opposition) and the House of Representatives (15 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held on 20 June 1995 (next to be held by NA October 2000) # House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NNP 8, NDC 5, GULP 2 # West Indies Associate States Supreme Court, an associate judge resides in Grenada # National Democratic Congress or NDC [George BRIZAN]; Grenada United Labor Party or GULP [Jerry SEALES]; The National Party or TNP [Ben JONES]; New National Party or NNP [Keith MITCHELL]; Maurice Bishop Patriotic Movement or MBPM [Terrence MARRYSHOW]; The Democratic Labor Party or DLP [Francis ALEXIS] # ? # ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OECS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WToO, WTrO # a rectangle divided diagonally into yellow triangles (top and bottom) and green triangles (hoist side and outer side) with a red border around the flag; there are seven yellow five-pointed stars with three centered in the top red border, three centered in the bottom red border, and one on a red disk superimposed at the center of the flag; there is also a symbolic nutmeg pod on the hoist-side triangle (Grenada is the world's second-largest producer of nutmeg, after Indonesia); the seven stars represent the seven administrative divisions # The agriculturally based economy was hurt in 1996 by the emergence of the pink mealy bug, which destroyed much of the cocoa harvest. Bananas, a major foreign exchange earner, also suffered due to falling prices, low production, and poor quality. Tourism, the leading foreign exchange earner, continued to do well, as did manufacturing. Construction boomed in 1996 due to concessions for low and middle income mortgages. The government introduced a 5% tax on electricity and telephones and doubled the general consumption tax, which caused a small rise in the inflation rate. The tourist industry faces stiff competition over the next few years. # 3.10 3030 292 10.20 40.30 49.50 3.20 36000 services 31%, agriculture 24%, construction 8%, manufacturing 5%, other 32% (1985) # 20 75.70 126.70 food and beverages, textiles, light assembly operations, tourism, construction # 1.80 0.01 70 741 bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, citrus, avocados, root crops, sugarcane, corn, vegetables # 24 bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, fruit and vegetables, clothing, mace # Caricom 32.3%, UK 20%, US 13%, Netherlands 8.8% (1991) # 128 food 25%, manufactured goods 22%, machinery 20%, chemicals 10%, fuel 6% (1989) # US 31.2%, Caricom 23.6%, UK 13.8%, Japan 7.1% (1991) # 97 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents # 2.70 calendar year 5650 interisland VHF and UHF radiotelephone links # new SHF radiotelephone links to Trinidad and Tobago and Saint Vincent; VHF and UHF radio links to Trinidad # 1 0 0 80000 1 30000 ? # # # # 1040 638 km # 402 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Grenville, Saint George's # ? ? ? ? # 3 2 ? 1 ? 1 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? Royal Grenada Police Force, Coast Guard # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # small-scale cannabis cultivation; lesser transshipment point for marijuana and cocaine to US # @Guadeloupe France ? # In the East Caribbean, in the Leeward Islands, formed by the islands of Basse Terre and Grande Terre and their five dependencies. # F Caribbean, islands in the eastern Caribbean Sea, southeast of Puerto Rico # 1780 1706 74 10.20 Netherlands Antilles (Sint Maarten) 10.2 km # 306 ? ? # 200 ? 12 subtropical tempered by trade winds; moderately high humidity # Basse-Terre is volcanic in origin with interior mountains; Grande-Terre is low limestone formation; most of the seven other islands are volcanic in origin # Caribbean Sea 0 m Soufriere 1,467 m cultivable land, beaches and climate that foster tourism # 14 4 14 39 29 30 hurricanes (June to October); Soufriere is an active volcano # NA # NA # NA # ? # 416439 25 53239 51148 66 136439 139555 9 15243 20815 1.10 16.73 5.61 -0.16 1.05 1.04 0.98 0.73 ? 8.79 77.80 74.78 80.97 1.84 Guadeloupian(s) Guadeloupe black or mulatto 90%, white 5%, East Indian, Lebanese, Chinese less than 5% # Roman Catholic 95%, Hindu and pagan African 4%, Protestant sects 1% # French (official) 99%, Creole patois # age 15 and over can read and write # 90 90 90 Department of Guadeloupe Guadeloupe DΘpartement de la Guadeloupe # Guadeloupe .gp NA Basse-Terre none (overseas department of France) # ? # National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789) 28 September 1958 (French Constitution) # French legal system # 18 years of age; universal # President of France Jacques CHIRAC (since 17 May 1995), represented by Prefect Jean FEDINI (since NA) # President of the General Council Dominique LARIFLA (since NA); President of the Regional Council Lucette MICHAUX-CHEVRY (since 22 March 1992) # NA # prefect appointed by the president of France on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; the presidents of the General and Regional Councils are elected by the members of those councils # NA # unicameral General Council or Conseil General (42 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the unicameral Regional Council or Conseil Regional (41 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) # General Council - last held 22 March 1992 (next to be held by NA 1996); Regional Council - last held 16 March 1998 (next to be held NA 2004) # General Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FRUI.G 13, RPR/DUD 13, PPDG 8, FGPS 3, PCG 3, UPLG 1, PSG 1, independent 1; Regional Council - percent of vote by party - RPR 48.03%, PS/PPDG/DVG 24.49%, PCG 5.29%, DVD 5.73%; seats by party - RPR 25, PS/PPDG/DVG 12, PCG 2, DVD 2 note: Guadeloupe elects two representatives to the French Senate; elections last held in September 1995 (next to be held NA September 2004); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 1, FGPS 1; Guadeloupe elects four representatives to the French National Assembly; elections last held on 25 May - 1 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FGPS 2, RPR 1, PCG 1 # Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel with jurisdiction over Guadeloupe, French Guiana, and Martinique # Rally for the Republic or RPR [Lucette MICHAUX-CHEVRY]; Communist Party of Guadeloupe or PCG [Mona CADOCE]; Socialist Party or PS [Georges LOUISOR]; Popular Union for the Liberation of Guadeloupe or UPLG [Claude MAKOUKE]; FGPS Dissidents or FRUI.G [Dominique LARIFLA]; Union for French Democracy or UDF [Marcel ESDRAS]; Progressive Democratic Party or PPDG [Henri BANGOU]; Movement for an Independent Guadeloupe or MPGI [Luc REIETTE]; Christian Movement for the Liberation of Guadeloupe or KLPG; DVG [Jacques GILLOT]; DVD [Simon IBO] # ? # FZ, WCL, WFTU # three horizontal bands, a narrow green band (top), a wide red band, and a narrow green band; the green bands are separated from the red band by two narrow white stripes; a five-pointed gold star is centered in the red band toward the hoist side; the flag of France is used for official occasions # The economy depends on agriculture, tourism, light industry, and services. It is also dependent upon France for large subsidies and imports. Tourism is a key industry, with most tourists from the US; an increasingly large number of cruise ships visit the islands. The traditional sugarcane crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as bananas (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), eggplant, and flowers. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is still dependent on imported food, mainly from France. Light industry features sugar and rum production. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. Unemployment is especially high among the young. # ? 8950 3727 6 9 85 3.70 128000 agriculture 15%, industry 20%, services 65% (1993) # 31.30 300 460 construction, cement, rum, sugar, tourism # ? 0.39 1000 2483 bananas, sugarcane, tropical fruits and vegetables; cattle, pigs, goats # 145 bananas, sugar, rum # France 75%, Martinique 13% (1994) # 1600.00 foodstuffs, fuels, vehicles, clothing and other consumer goods, construction materials # France 64%, EU 13%, Martinique 4%, US, Japan (1994) # ? ODA, $NA # ? # 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes # 6.08 calendar year 64916 NA # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); microwave radio relay to Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, and Martinique # 2 8 0 100000 9 150000 ? # # # # 2082 1,742 km # 340 km (1985 est.) # ? ? ? ? Basse-Terre, Gustavia (on Saint Barthelemy), Marigot, Pointe-a-Pitre # ? ? ? ? # 9 8 1 ? ? 2 5 1 ? ? ? ? 1 ? French Forces, Gendarmerie # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Guam United States ? # Guam is the largest of the Mariana Islands. Originally named the Ladrones (thieves) in 1521 by Magellan, they were colonized in 1668 by Spanish missionaries. They renamed the the Mariana Islands in honour of Maria Anna, queen of Spain. Spain ceded Guam to the US, but sold the other islands to Germany. Guam is a self-governing organized unincorporated US territory. There is a governor and a 21-member legislature, elected every two years. The residents are American citizens, but do not vote in presidential elections. # USA Oceania, island in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines # 541.30 541.30 0 ? ? # 125.50 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical marine; generally warm and humid, moderated by northeast trade winds; dry season from January to June, rainy season from July to December; little seasonal temperature variation # volcanic origin, surrounded by coral reefs; relatively flat coralline limestone plateau (source of most fresh water) with steep coastal cliffs and narrow coastal plains in north, low-rising hills in center, mountains in south # Pacific Ocean 0 m Mount Lamlam 406 m fishing (largely undeveloped), tourism (especially from Japan) # 11 11 15 18 45 ? frequent squalls during rainy season; relatively rare, but potentially very destructive typhoons (especially in August) # NA # NA # NA # largest and southernmost island in the Mariana Islands archipelago; strategic location in western North Pacific Ocean # 148060 34 25972 24097 60 47357 42189 6 4244 4201 1.50 25.04 4.42 -5.59 1.06 1.07 1.12 1.01 ? 8.28 76.70 74.12 79.44 3.58 Guamanian(s) Guamanian Chamorro 47%, Filipino 25%, white 10%, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and other 18% # Roman Catholic 98%, other 2% # English, Chamorro, Japanese # age 15 and over can read and write # 99 99 99 Territory of Guam Guam ? # ? .gu NA Hagatna (Agana) none (territory of the US) # ? # Guam Discovery Day (first Monday in March) (1521); Liberation Day, 21 Organic Act of 1 August 1950 # modeled on US; US federal laws apply # 18 years of age; universal; US citizens, but do not vote in US presidential elections # President of the US William Jefferson CLINTON (since 20 January 1993); Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since 20 January 1993) # Governor Carl GUTIERREZ (since 8 November 1994) and Lieutenant Governor Madeleine BORDALLO (since 8 November 1994) # executive departments; heads appointed by the governor with the consent of the Guam legislature # governor and lieutenant governor elected on the same ticket by popular vote and serve four-year terms; election last held 8 November 1994 (next to be held NA November 1998) # Carl GUTIERREZ elected governor of Guam; percent of vote - Carl GUTIERREZ (Democrat) 54.6%, Tommy TANAKA (Republican) NA% # unicameral Legislature (21 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms) # last held 5 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 1998) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Republican 11, Democratic 10 note: Guam elects one delegate to the US House of Representatives; elections last held 5 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 1998); results - Robert UNDERWOOD was reelected as delegate; percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Democrat 1 # Federal District Court, judge is appointed by the president; Territorial Superior Court, judges appointed for eight-year terms by the governor # Republican Party (controls the legislature); Democratic Party (party of the Governor) # ? # ESCAP (associate), IOC, SPC # territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all four sides; centered is a red-bordered, pointed, vertical ellipse containing a beach scene, outrigger canoe with sail, and a palm tree with the word GUAM superimposed in bold red letters; US flag is the national flag # The economy depends mainly on US military spending and on revenue generated by the tourism industry. Over the past 20 years, the tourist industry has grown rapidly, creating a construction boom for new hotels and the expansion of older ones. More than one million tourists visit Guam each year. Most food and industrial goods are imported, with about 75% from the US. Guam faces the problem of building up the civilian economic sector to offset the impact of military downsizing. # ? 10060 1489 ? ? ? 4 65660 federal and territorial government 31%, private 69% (trade 21%, services 33%, construction 12%, other 3%) (1995) # 2 524.30 361.40 US military, tourism, construction, transshipment services, concrete products, printing and publishing, food processing, textiles # ? 0.30 755 4925 fruits, copra, vegetables; eggs, pork, poultry, beef # 86.10 mostly transshipments of refined petroleum products, construction materials, fish, food and beverage products # US 25%, former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 63%, other 12% # 202.40 petroleum and petroleum products, food, manufactured goods # US 23%, Japan 19%, other 58% # ? although Guam receives no foreign aid, it does receive large transfer payments from the general revenues of the US Federal Treasury into which Guamanians pay no income or excise taxes; under the provisions of a special law of Congress, the Guamanian Treasury, rather than the US Treasury, receives federal income taxes paid by military and civilian Federal employees stationed in Guam # ? # 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents # ? 1 October - 30 September 74317 NA # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); submarine cables to US and Japan # 3 3 0 206000 3 97000 ? # # # # 885 675 km # 210 km # ? ? ? ? Apra Harbor # ? ? ? ? # 5 4 2 1 ? 1 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Guatemala 0 íGuatemala feliz! que tus aras No profane jamßs el verdugo; Ni haya esclavos que laman el yugo Ni tiranos que escupan tu faz. Si ma±ana tu suelo sagrado Lo amenaza invasi≤n extranjera, Libre al viento tu hermosa bandera A vencer o a morir llamarß. Libre al viento tu hermosa bandera A vencer o a morir llamarß; Que tu pueblo con ßnima fiera Antes meurto q'esclavo serß. # The Mayan civilization flourished throughout much of Guatemala and the surrounding region long before the Spanish arrived, but it was already in decline when the Mayans were defeated by Pedro de Alvarado in 1523-24. During Spanish colonial rule, most of Central America came under the control of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. <P> The first colonial capital, Ciudad Vieja, was ruined by floods and an earthquake in 1542. Survivors founded Antigua, the second capital, in 1543. In the 17th century, Antigua became one of the richest capitals in the New World. Always vulnerable to volcanic eruptions, floods, and earthquakes, Antigua was destroyed by two earthquakes in 1773, but the remnants of its Spanish colonial architecture have been preserved as a national monument. The third capital, Guatemala City, was founded in 1776, after Antigua was abandoned. <P> Guatemala gained independence from Spain on September 15, 1821; it briefly became part of the Mexican Empire and then for a period belonged to a federation called the United Provinces of Central America. From the mid-19th century until the mid-1980s, the country passed through a series of dictatorships, insurgencies (particularly beginning in the 1960s), coups, and stretches of military rule with only occasional periods of representative government. <P> 1944 to 1986 <P> In 1944, Gen. Jorge Ubico's dictatorship was overthrown by the "October Revolutionaries"--a group of dissident military officers, students, and liberal professionals. A civilian president, Juan Jose Arevalo, was elected in 1945 and held the presidency until 1951. Social reforms initiated by Arevalo were continued by his successor, Col. Jacobo Arbenz. Arbenz permitted the communist Guatemalan Labor Party to gain legal status in 1952. By the mid-point of Arbenz's term, communists controlled key peasant organizations, labor unions, and the governing political party, holding some key government positions. Despite most Guatemalans' attachment to the original ideals of the 1944 uprising, some private sector leaders and the military viewed Arbenz's policies as a menace. The army refused to defend the Arbenz Government when a group led by Col. Carlos Castillo Armas invaded the country from Honduras in 1954 and eventually took over the government. <P> In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of General Ydigoras Fuentes, who took power in 1958 following the murder of Col. Castillo Armas, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with Cuba. This group became the nucleus of the forces that were in armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years. <P> Three principal left-wing guerrilla groups--the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), the Revolutionary Organization of Armed People (ORPA), and the Rebel Armed Forces (FAR)--conducted economic sabotage and targeted government installations and members of government security forces in armed attacks. These three organizations, plus a fourth--the outlawed communist party, known as the PGT--combined to form the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) in 1982. At the same time, extreme right-wing groups of self-appointed vigilantes, including the Secret Anti-Communist Army (ESA) and the White Hand, tortured and murdered students, professionals, and peasants suspected of involvement in leftist activities. <P> Shortly after President Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro took office in 1966, the army launched a major counterinsurgency campaign that largely broke up the guerrilla movement in the countryside. The guerrillas then concentrated their attacks in Guatemala City, where they assassinated many leading figures, including U.S. Ambassador John Gordon Mein in 1968. Between 1966 and 1982, there were a series of military or military-dominated governments. <P> In March 1982, army troops commanded by junior officers staged a coup to prevent the assumption of power by former Defense Minister Gen. Anibal Guevara, whose electoral victory was marred by fraud. The coup leaders asked Brig. Gen. Efrain Jose Rios Montt to negotiate the departure of presidential incumbent General Lucas Garcia. Rios Montt had been the candidate of the Christian Democratic Party in the 1974 presidential elections and was also widely believed to have lost by fraud. Rios Montt formed a three-member junta that annulled the 1965 constitution, dissolved the Congress, suspended political parties, and canceled the election law. Shortly thereafter, Rios Montt assumed the title of President of the Republic. Responding to a wave of violence, the government imposed a state of siege, while at the same time forming an advisory Council of State to guide a return to democracy. In 1983, electoral laws were promulgated, the state of siege was lifted, political activity was once again allowed, and constituent assembly elections scheduled. <P> Guerrilla forces and their leftist allies then denounced the new government and stepped up attacks. Rios Montt sought to combat the threat with military actions and economic reforms, in his words, "rifles and beans." The government formed civilian defense forces which, along with the army, successfully contained the insurgency. However, on August 8, 1983, Rios Montt was deposed by the Guatemalan army, and Minister of Defense, Gen. Oscar Humberto Mejia Victores, was proclaimed head of state. General Mejia claimed that certain "religious fanatics" were abusing their positions in the government and that corruption had to be weeded out. Constituent assembly elections were held on July 1, 1984. <P> On May 30, 1985, after nine months of debate, the constituent assembly finished drafting a new constitution, which took immediate effect. Mejia called general elections. The Christian Democratic Party (DCG) candidate, Vinicio Cerezo, won the presidency with almost 70% of the vote and took office in January 1986. <P> 1986 to 1996 <P> Upon its inauguration in January 1986, President Cerezo's civilian government announced that its top priorities would be to end the political violence and establish the rule of law. Reforms included new laws of habeas corpus and amparo (court-ordered protection), the creation of a legislative human rights committee, and the establishment in 1987 of the office of Human Rights Ombudsman. The Supreme Court also embarked on a series of reforms to fight corruption and improve legal system efficiency. <P> With Cerezo's election, the military returned to its more traditional role of fighting against the insurgents. The first two years of Cerezo's Administration were characterized by a stable economy and a marked decrease in political violence. Two coup attempts were made in May 1988 and May 1989 by dissatisfied military personnel, but military leadership supported the constitutional order. The government was heavily criticized for its unwillingness to investigate or prosecute cases of human rights violations. The final two years of Cerezo's Government also were marked by a failing economy, strikes, protest marches, and allegations of widespread corruption. The government's inability to deal with many of the nation's problems--such as infant mortality, illiteracy, deficient health and social services, and rising levels of violence--contributed to popular discontent. <P> Presidential and congressional elections were held on November 11, 1990. After a runoff ballot, Jorge Serrano was inaugurated on January 14, 1991, thus completing the first transition from one democratically elected civilian government to another. Because his Movement of Solidarity Action (MAS) party gained only 18 of 116 seats in Congress, Serrano entered into a tenuous alliance with the Christian Democrats and the National Union of the Center (UCN). <P> The Serrano Administration's record was mixed. It had some success in consolidating civilian control over the army, replacing a number of senior officers and persuading the military to participate in peace talks with the URNG. He took the politically unpopular step of recognizing the sovereignty of Belize. The Serrano Government reversed the economic slide it inherited, reducing inflation and boosting real growth from 3% in 1990 to almost 5% in 1992. On May 25, 1993, Serrano illegally dissolved Congress and the Supreme Court and tried to restrict civil freedoms, allegedly to fight corruption. The "autogolpe" (or autocoup) failed due to unified, strong protests by most elements of Guatemalan society, international pressure, and the army's enforcement of the decisions of the Court of Constitutionality, which ruled against the attempted takeover. <P> In the face of this pressure, Serrano fled the country. On June 5, 1993, the Congress, pursuant to the 1985 constitution, elected the Human Rights Ombudsman, Ramiro De Leon Carpio, to complete Serrano's presidential term. De Leon, not a member of any political party and lacking a political base, but with strong popular support, launched an ambitious anti-corruption campaign to "purify" Congress and the Supreme Court, demanding the resignations of all members of the two bodies. Despite considerable congressional resistance, presidential and popular pressure led to a November 1993 agreement brokered by the Catholic Church between the government and Congress. This package of constitutional reforms was approved by popular referendum on January 30, 1994. In August 1994, a new Congress was elected to complete the unexpired term. Controlled by the anti-corruption parties--the Populist Republican Front (FRG) headed by ex-General Efrain Rios Montt, and the center-right National Advancement Party (PAN)--the new Congress began to move away from the corruption that characterized its predecessors. <P> Under De Leon, the peace process, now brokered by the United Nations, took on new life. The government and the URNG signed agreements on Human Rights (March 1994), Resettlement of Displaced Persons (June 1994), Historical Clarification (June 1994), and Indigenous Rights (March 1995). They also made significant progress on a Socio-economic and Agrarian Agreement. <P> National elections for President, the Congress, and municipal offices were held in November 1995. With almost 20 parties competing in the first round, the presidential election came down to a January 7, 1996 runoff in which PAN candidate Alvaro Arzu defeated Alfonso Portillo of the FRG by just over 2% of the vote. Arzu won because of his strength in Guatemala City, where he had previously served as mayor, and in the surrounding urban area. Portillo won all of the rural departments. The biggest surprise of the election was the strong showing of the newly formed New Guatemala Democratic Front (FDNG), the first legitimate party of the left to compete in 40 years. The FDNG presidential candidate won almost 8% of the vote, and six FDNG deputies, including several internationally known human rights advocates, were elected to Congress. In the other November races, the PAN won 43 of the 80 seats in Congress and leadership of one-third of the municipal governments. The FRG won 21 seats to become the principal opposition party. The formerly powerful but discredited DCG and UCN elected only seven deputies between them. # GCA Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Honduras and Belize and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between El Salvador and Mexico # 108890 108430 460 1687 Belize 266 km, El Salvador 203 km, Honduras 256 km, Mexico 962 km # 400 ? 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation # 200 ? 12 tropical; hot, humid in lowlands; cooler in highlands # mostly mountains with narrow coastal plains and rolling limestone plateau (Peten) # Pacific Ocean 0 m Volcan Tajumulco 4,211 m petroleum, nickel, rare woods, fish, chicle # 12 5 24 54 5 1250 numerous volcanoes in mountains, with occasional violent earthquakes; Caribbean coast subject to hurricanes and other tropical storms # deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution # Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands # Antarctic-Environmental Protocol # no natural harbors on west coast # 12007580 43 2629861 2522112 54 3213744 3216415 3 199738 225710 2.71 36.02 6.96 -1.99 1.05 1.04 1 0.88 ? 47.68 66.04 63.40 68.81 4.81 Guatemalan(s) Guatemalan Mestizo (mixed Amerindian-Spanish - in local Spanish called Ladino) 56%, Amerindian or predominantly Amerindian 44% # Roman Catholic, Protestant, traditional Mayan # Spanish 60%, Amerindian languages 40% (23 Amerindian languages, including Quiche, Cakchiquel, Kekchi) # age 15 and over can read and write # 55.60 62.50 48.60 Republic of Guatemala Guatemala Republica de Guatemala # Guatemala .gt republic Guatemala 22 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Alta Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, Chimaltenango, Chiquimula, El Progreso, Escuintla, Guatemala, Huehuetenango, Izabal, Jalapa, Jutiapa, Peten, Quetzaltenango, Quiche, Retalhuleu, Sacatepequez, San Marcos, Santa Rosa, Solola, Suchitepequez, Totonicapan, Zacapa # ? # Independence Day, 15 September (1821) 31 May 1985, effective 14 January 1986 # civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Alvaro Enrique ARZU Irigoyen (since 14 January 1996); Vice President Luis Alberto FLORES Asturias (since 14 January 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Alvaro Enrique ARZU Irigoyen (since 14 January 1996); Vice President Luis Alberto FLORES Asturias (since 14 January 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Council of Ministers named by the president # president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 12 November 1995; runoff held 7 January 1996 (next to be held NA November 1999) # Alvaro Enrique ARZU Irigoyen elected president; percent of vote - Alvaro Enrique ARZU Irigoyen (PAN) 51.2%, Jorge PORTILLO Cabrera (FRG) 48.8% # unicameral Congress of the Republic or Congreso de la Republica (80 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # last held on 12 November 1995 to select 80 new congressmen (next to be held in November 1999) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PAN 43, FRG 21, FDNG 6, DCG 4, UCN 3, UD 2, MLN 1 note: on 11 November 1993 the congress approved a procedure that reduced its number from 116 seats to 80; the procedure provided for a special election in mid-1994 to elect an interim congress of 80 members to serve until replaced in the November 1995 general election; the plan was approved in a general referendum in January 1994 and the special election was held on 14 August 1994 # Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justicia); additionally the Court of Constitutionality is presided over by the President of the Supreme Court, judges are elected for a five-year term by Congress # National Centrist Union or UCN [Juan AYERDI Aguilar]; Christian Democratic Party or DCG [Alfonso CABRERA Hidalgo]; National Advancement Party or PAN [Raphael BARRIOS Flores]; National Liberation Movement or MLN [Mario SANDOVAL Alarcon]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Sergio FLORES Cruz]; Revolutionary Party or PR [Carlos CHAVARRIA Perez]; Guatemalan Republican Front or FRG [Efrain RIOS Montt]; Democratic Union or UD [Jose CHEA Urruela]; New Guatemalan Democratic Front or FDNG [Rafael ARRIAGA Martinez] # ? # BCIE, CACM, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM, OAS, OPANAL, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal vertical bands of light blue (hoist side), white, and light blue with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms includes a green and red quetzal (the national bird) and a scroll bearing the inscription LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 (the original date of independence from Spain) all superimposed on a pair of crossed rifles and a pair of crossed swords and framed by a wreath # The agricultural sector accounts for one-fourth of GDP and two-thirds of exports and employs more than half of the labor force. Coffee, sugar, and bananas are the main products. Manufacturing and construction account for one-fifth of GDP. Since assuming office in January 1996, President ARZU has worked to implement a program of economic liberalization and political modernization. The signing of the Peace Accords in December 1996, which ended 36 years of civil war, removed a major obstacle to foreign investment. In 1997, Guatemala met its economic targets when GDP growth accelerated to 4.1% and inflation fell to 9%. The government also increased tax revenues - historically the lowest in Latin America - to 9% of GDP and created a new tax administration. It also successfully placed $150 million in dollar-denominated notes in the international markets. Debt service costs should decline in 1998. Remaining challenges for the administration in 1998 include completing a deal with the IMF and stabilizing monetary policy. Throughout 1997, the Central Bank maintained a tight money supply, helping to control inflation, but it also caused high interest rates and led to operating losses for the bank. Early in 1998, it relaxed its monetary policy in an effort to correct these problems, but increased pressure on the quetzal has prompted the bank to intervene to prop up its value. # 4.10 1500 18011 24 21 55 9 3320000 agriculture 58%, services 14%, manufacturing 14%, commerce 7%, construction 4%, transport 2.6%, utilities 0.3%, mining 0.1% (1995) # 5.20 ? ? sugar, textiles and clothing, furniture, chemicals, petroleum, metals, rubber, tourism # 1.90 0.77 3100 282 sugarcane, corn, bananas, coffee, beans, cardamom; cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens # 2900.00 coffee, sugar, bananas, cardamom, petroleum # US 37%, El Salvador 13%, Honduras 7%, Costa Rica 5%, Germany 5% # 3300.00 fuel and petroleum products, machinery, grain, fertilizers, motor vehicles # US 44%, Mexico 10%, Venezuela 4.6%, Japan, Germany # 3380 ODA, $274 million (1994) # ? # 1 quetzal (Q) = 100 centavos # 6.26 calendar year 210000 NA # connected to Central American Microwave System; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 91 0 15 400000 25 475000 884 # # 884 km 0.914-m gauge (single track) # # 13100 3,616 km (including 140 km of expressways) # 9,484 km (1996 est.) # 260 275 ? ? Champerico, Puerto Barrios, Puerto Quetzal, San Jose, Santo Tomas de Castilla # ? ? ? ? # 479 12 1 1 2 6 2 467 ? 1 9 124 333 ? Army, Navy, Air Force # 18 years of age # 2827992 1846963 132208 132900000 0.66 border with Belize in dispute; talks to resolve the dispute are ongoing # transit country for cocaine shipments; illicit producer of opium poppy and cannabis for the international drug trade; active eradication program of cannabis and opium poppy # @Guernsey United Kingdom ? # # Western Europe, islands in the English Channel, northwest of France # 194 194 0 ? ? # 50 ? ? # ? 12 3 temperate with mild winters and cool summers; about 50% of days are overcast # mostly level with low hills in southwest # Atlantic Ocean 0 m unnamed location on Sark 114 m cropland # ? ? ? ? ? ? NA # NA # NA # NA # large, deepwater harbor at Saint Peter Port # 64555 18 5856 5721 67 21094 21939 15 4001 5944 1.28 13.91 9.53 8.46 1.04 1.02 0.96 0.67 ? 8.67 78.55 75.61 81.60 1.68 Channel Islander(s) Channel Islander UK and Norman-French descent # Anglican, Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, Baptist, Congregational, Methodist # English, French, Norman-French dialect spoken in country districts # ? # ? ? ? Bailiwick of Guernsey Guernsey ? # ? .? NA Saint Peter Port none (British crown dependency) # ? # Liberation Day, 9 May (1945) unwritten; partly statutes, partly common law and practice # English law and local statute; justice is administered by the Royal Court # 18 years of age; universal # Queen ELIZABETH II of the UK (since 6 February 1952) # Lieutenant Governor and Commander in Chief Vice-Admiral Sir John COWARD (since NA 1994) and Bailiff Mr. Graham Martyn DOREY (since February 1992) # Advisory and Finance Committee (other committees) appointed by the Assembly of the States # none; the queen is a hereditary monarch; lieutenant governor appointed by the queen; bailiff appointed by the queen # ? # unicameral Assembly of the States (60 seats, 33 popularly elected; members serve six-year terms) # last held 20 April 1994 (next to be held NA 2000) # percent of vote - NA; seats - all independents # Royal Court # none; all independents # ? # none # white with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) extending to the edges of the flag # Financial services account for about 55% of total income. Tourism, manufacturing, and horticulture, mainly tomatoes and cut flowers, have been declining. Bank profits (1992) registered a record 26% growth. Fund management and insurance are the two other major income generators. Light tax and death duties make the island a popular tax-haven. # ? 15180 980 ? ? ? 7 ? ? # 3 277.90 248.80 tourism, banking # ? ? ? ? tomatoes, greenhouse flowers, sweet peppers, eggplant, other vegetables, fruit; Guernsey cattle # ? tomatoes, flowers and ferns, sweet peppers, eggplant, other vegetables # UK (regarded as internal trade) # ? coal, gasoline, oil, machinery and equipment # UK (regarded as internal trade) # ? ? # ? # 1 Guernsey (£G) pound = 100 pence # 0.61 calendar year 41850 NA # 1 submarine cable # 1 1 0 ? 1 ? ? # # # # ? NA km # NA km # ? ? ? ? Saint Peter Port, Saint Sampson # ? ? ? ? # 2 2 ? ? ? 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Guinea 0 ? # Formerly part of the ancient West African empires Ghana, Mali, and Songhay, Guinea was visited by the Portuguese in 1446, but escaped the slave-trade because it was considered too unhealthy a region. Following the annexation of part of its north coast by France, in 1849, Fouta Djallon (part of Guinea) became a French protectorate in 1881. In 1885, French Guinea became part of French West Africa. Guinea became a fully independent republic on 2 October 1958. The military took control of the government in a bloodless coup in March 1984. The constitution of 1958 was suspended by the ComitΘ Militaire de Redressement National (CMRN). Guinea is divided into 33 districts. # RG Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone # 245860 245860 0 3399 Guinea-Bissau 386 km, Cote d'Ivoire 610 km, Liberia 563 km, Mali 858 km, Senegal 330 km, Sierra Leone 652 km # 320 ? ? # 200 ? 12 generally hot and humid; monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds # generally flat coastal plain, hilly to mountainous interior # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mont Nimba 1,752 m bauxite, iron ore, diamonds, gold, uranium, hydropower, fish # 2 0 22 59 17 930 hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season # deforestation; inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification; soil contamination and erosion; overfishing, overpopulation in forest region # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # ? # 7477110 44 1634344 1644863 53 1952442 2044363 3 83616 117482 0.83 41.28 17.76 -15.25 1.03 0.99 0.95 0.71 ? 128.92 46.01 43.58 48.52 5.59 Guinean(s) Guinean Peuhl 40%, Malinke 30%, Soussou 20%, smaller tribes 10% # Muslim 85%, Christian 8%, indigenous beliefs 7% # French (official), each tribe has its own language # age 15 and over can read and write # 35.90 49.90 21.90 Republic of Guinea Guinea Republique de Guinee # Guinee .gn republic Conakry 33 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture) and 1 national capital* (capitale d'etat); Beyla, Boffa, Boke, Conakry*, Coyah, Dabola, Dalaba, Dinguiraye, Dubreka, Faranah, Forecariah, Fria, Gaoual, Gueckedou, Kankan, Kerouane, Kindia, Kissidougou, Koubia, Koundara, Kouroussa, Labe, Lelouma, Lola, Macenta, Mali, Mamou, Mandiana, Nzerekore, Pita, Siguiri, Telimele, Tougue, Yomou note: the 33 prefectures may have been reorganized into four new first-order administrative divisions called administrative regions (regions administrative, singular - region administrative) named Guinee-Forestiere, Guinee-Maritime, Haute-Guinee, and Moyenne-Guinee # ? # Anniversary of the Second Republic, 3 April (1984) 23 December 1990 (Loi Fundamentale) # based on French civil law system, customary law, and decree; legal codes currently being revised; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Lansana CONTE (head of military government since 5 April 1984, elected president 19 December 1993) # Prime Minister Lamine SIDIME # Council of Ministers appointed by the president # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; candidate must receive a majority of the votes cast to be elected president; election last held 19 December 1993 (next to be held NA December 1998); the prime minister was appointed by President CONTE # Lansana CONTE elected president; percent of vote - Lansana CONTE (PUP) 51.7%, Alpha CONDE (RPG) 19.55%, Mamadou Boye BA (UNR) 13.37%, Siradiou DIALLO (PRP) 11.86%; note - the country's first-ever multi-party elections for president # unicameral People's National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale Populaire (114 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) # last held 11 June 1995 (next to be held NA 2000) # percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 71, RPG 19, PRP 9, UNR 9, UPG 2, PDG 1, UNP 1, PDG-RDA 1, other 1 # Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel # political parties were legalized on 1 April 1992; of the more than 40 with legal status, the following won seats in the legislature in the 11 June 1995 elections # ? # ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, MINURSO, NAM, OAU, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # three equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), yellow, and green; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Rwanda, which has a large black letter R centered in the yellow band # Although possessing major mineral, hydropower, and agricultural resources, Guinea remains one of the poorest countries in the world. The agricultural sector employs 80% of the work force. Guinea possesses over 25% of the world's bauxite reserves and is the second largest bauxite producer. The mining sector accounted for about 75% of exports in 1995. Long-run improvements in government fiscal arrangements, literacy, and the legal framework are needed if the country is to move out of poverty. The government made encouraging progress in budget management in 1997. Except in the mining industry, foreign investment remains minimal. # 4.80 570 4262 24 31 45 3.50 2400000 agriculture 80.0%, industry and commerce 11.0%, services 5.4%, civil service 3.6% # ? 553 652 bauxite, gold, diamonds; alumina refining; light manufacturing and agricultural processing industries # 3.20 0.18 500 76 rice, coffee, pineapples, palm kernels, cassava (tapioca), bananas, sweet potatoes; cattle, sheep, goats; timber # 748 bauxite, alumina, diamonds, gold, coffee, fish, agricultural products # US 21%, Belgium-Luxembourg 21%, Ireland 15%, Spain 15% (1995) # 809 petroleum products, metals, machinery, transport equipment, textiles, grain and other foodstuffs # France 35%, Cote d'Ivoire 31%, US 14%, Belgium-Luxembourg 10%, Hong Kong 10% (1995) # 3000 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Guinean franc (FG) = 100 centimes # 1004 calendar year 18000 microwave radio relay and radiotelephone communication # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 3 1 0 257000 1 65000 1086 # 279 km 1.435-m gauge # 807 km 1.000-m gauge (includes 662 km in common carrier service from Kankan to Conakry) # Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally or PDG-RDA [El Hadj Ismael Mohamed Gassim GUSHEIN]; Democratic Party of Guinea or PDG-AST [Marcel CROS]; National Union for the Prosperity of Guinea or UNPG [Lt. Col. Facine TOURE]; Party for Renewal and Progress or PRP [Siradiou DIALLO] # 30500 5,033 km # 25,467 km (1996 est.) # 1295 ? ? ? Boke, Conakry, Kamsar # 1 4722 6226 ? # 15 5 1 1 3 4 1 10 ? ? 5 ? ? ? Army, Navy (acts primarily as a coast guard), Air Force, Republican Guard, Presidential Guard, paramilitary National Gendarmerie, National Police Force (Surete National) # ? # 1706395 861036 ? 50000000 1.60 none # ? # @Guinea-Bissau 0 ╔ Patria Amada (This is Our Beloved Country) Sol, suor e o verde e mar, SΘculos de dor e esperanτa! Esta Θ a terra dos nossos av≤s! Fruto das nossas mπos, Da fl⌠r do nosso sangue: Esta Θ a nossa pßtria amada CHORUS Viva a pßtria gloriosa! Floriu nos cΘus a bandeira de luta. Avante, contra o jugo estrangeiro! N≤s vamos construir Na pßtria imortal A paz e o progresso! (repeat previous three lines) Paz e o progresso! Ramos do mesmo tronco, Olhos na mesma luz: Esta Θ a forτa da nossa uniπo! Cantem o mar e a terra A madrugada e o sol Que a nossa luta fecundou, CHORUS # The Portuguese Nu±o Tristπo was the first European to site the coast of Guinea-Bissau in 1446. Guinea-Bissau and the Cape Verde islands became a single administrative area under Portuguese control in 1834. They were separated in 1879 and the area now called Guinea-Bissau became Portuguese Guinea. The struggle for independence started in the early 1960's and in 1973 an own government and parliament were elected. Full independence was gained on 10 September 1974, following the overthrow of the government in Portugal. In November 1980, a military coup brought Joao Bernardo Vieira to power. The office of prime-minister was abolished in 1984 and Vieira was given absolute power. Guinea-Bissau, one of the poorest countries in the world, is divided into 8 regions and 1 autonomous sector. # ? Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea and Senegal # 36120 28000 8120 724 Guinea 386 km, Senegal 338 km # 350 ? ? # 200 ? 12 tropical; generally hot and humid; monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds # mostly low coastal plain rising to savanna in east # Atlantic Ocean 0 m unnamed location in the northeast corner of the country 300 m fish, timber, phosphates, bauxite, unexploited deposits of petroleum # 11 1 38 38 12 17 hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season; brush fires # deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; overfishing # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # ? # 1206311 42 256315 255208 55 313270 347431 3 15986 18101 2.32 38.67 15.48 0 1.03 1 0.90 0.88 ? 111.61 49.14 47.47 50.85 5.17 Guinean (s) Guinean African 99% (Balanta 30%, Fula 20%, Manjaca 14%, Mandinga 13%, Papel 7%), European and mulatto less than 1% # indigenous beliefs 50%, Muslim 45%, Christian 5% # Portuguese (official), Crioulo, African languages # age 15 and over can read and write # 53.90 67.10 40.70 Republic of Guinea-Bissau Guinea-Bissau Republica da Guine-Bissau # Guine-Bissau .gw republic, multiparty since mid-1991 Bissau 9 regions (regioes, singular - regiao); Bafata, Biombo, Bissau, Bolama, Cacheu, Gabu, Oio, Quinara, Tombali note: Bolama is reported to be renamed Bolama/Bijagos # ? # Independence Day, 24 September (1973) 16 May 1984, amended 4 May 1991, 4 December 1991, 26 February 1993, 9 June 1993 and 1996 # NA # 18 years of age; universal # President Joao Bernardo VIEIRA (initially assumed power 14 November 1980 in a coup d'etat) # Prime Minister Francisco FADUL # Council of Ministers appointed by the president on advice of the prime minister # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 3 July and 7 August 1994 (next to be held July 1999); prime minister appointed by the president after consultation with party leaders in the legislature # Joao Bernardo VIEIRA elected president; percent of vote - Joao Bernardo VIEIRA 52%, Koumba YALLA 48% # unicameral National People's Assembly or Assembleia Nacional Popular (100 seats; members are popularly elected to serve a maximum of four years) # last held 3 July and 7 August 1994 (next to be held by NA 1998; the president determines the date for each legislature election, which must be held within four years of the last election) # percent of vote by party - PAIGC 46.0%, RGB-MB 19.2%, PRS 10.3%, UM 12.8%, FLING 2.5%, PCD 5.3%, PUSD 2.9%, FCG 0.2%, others 0.8%; seats by party - PAIGC 62, RGB 19, PRS 12, UM 6, FLING 1 # Supreme Court or Supremo Tribunal da Justica, consists of 9 justices who are appointed by the president and serve at his pleasure, final court of appeals in criminal and civil cases; Regional Courts, supposed to be one in each of nine regions, first court of appeals for sectoral court decisions, hear all felony cases and civil cases valued at over $1,000; Sectoral Courts, supposed to be 24 of them, judges are not necessarily trained lawyers, hear civil cases under $1,000 and misdemeanor criminal cases # African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde or PAIGC [Manuel Saturnino da COSTA, secretary general]; Front for the Liberation and Independence of Guinea or FLING [Jose Katengul M. ENDES]; Guinea-Bissau Resistance-Ba Fata Movement or RGB-MB [Domingos FERNANDES Gomes]; Guinean Civic Forum or FCG [Antonieta Rosa GOMES]; International League for Ecological Protection or LIPE [Alhaje Bubacar DJALO, president]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Abubacer BALDE, secretary general]; Party for Democratic Convergence or PCD [Victor MANDINGA]; Social Renovation Party or PRS [Koumba YALLA, leader]; Union for Change or UM [Jorge MANDINGA, president and Dr. Anne SAAD secretary general]; United Social Democratic Party or PUSD [Victor Sau'de MARIA] # ? # ACCT (associate), ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, MONUA, NAM, OAU, OIC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia # One of the 20 poorest countries in the world, Guinea-Bissau depends mainly on farming and fishing. Cashew crops have increased remarkably in recent years, and the country now ranks sixth in cashew production. Guinea-Bissau exports fish and seafood along with small amounts of peanuts, palm kernels, and timber. Rice is the major crop and staple food. Trade reform and price liberalization are the most successful part of the country's structural adjustment program under IMF sponsorship. The tightening of monetary policy and the development of the private sector have begun to reinvigorate the economy. Inflation dropped sharply in the first quarter of 1997. Membership in the WAMU (West African Monetary Union), begun in May 1997, should help support 5% annual growth and contribute to fiscal discipline. Because of high costs, the development of petroleum, phosphate, and other mineral resources is not a near-term prospect. # 5 240 290 45 18 37 65 480000 ? # ? ? ? agricultural products processing, beer, soft drinks # 2.60 0.01 45 40 rice, corn, beans, cassava (tapioca), cashew nuts, peanuts, palm kernels, cotton; fishing and forest potential not fully exploited # 25.80 cashews 95%, fish, peanuts, palm kernels, sawn lumber (1994) # Spain 35%, India 30%, Thailand 10%, Italy 10% (1995) # 63 foodstuffs, transport equipment, petroleum products, machinery and equipment (1994) # Thailand 27%, Portugal 23%, Japan 6%, Cote d'Ivoire 7% (1995) # 953 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes; note - on 1 May 1997, Guinea-Bissau adopted as its currency the CFA franc following its membership into the BCEAO # 608.36 calendar year 13120 combination of microwave radio relay, open-wire lines, radiotelephone, and cellular communications # NA # 2 3 0 40000 2 ? ? # # # # 4400 453 km # 3,947 km (1996 est.) # ? ? ? ? Bissau, Buba, Cacheu, and Farim # ? ? ? ? # 30 3 1 ? 1 1 22 27 ? ? 1 4 ? ? People's Revolutionary Armed Force (FARP; includes Army, Navy, and Air Force), paramilitary force # ? # 276417 157674 ? 9000000 4.50 none # ? # @Guyana 0 Lyrics by L.A. Luker Music by R.C.G. Potter Dear land of Guyana, of rivers and plains, Made rich by the sunshine, and lush by the rains. Set gem-like and fair, between mountains and sea, Your children salute you, dear land of the free. Green land of Guyana, our heroes of yore, Both bondsmen and free, laid their bones on your shore. This soil so they hallowed, and from them are we, All sons of one mother, Guyana the free. Great land of Guyana, diverse though our strains, We are born of their sacrifice, heirs of their pains. And ours is the glory their eyes did not see, One land of six peoples, united and free. Dear land of Guyana, to you will we give, Our homage, our service, each day that we live. God guard you, Great Mother, and make us to be More worthy our heritage, land of the free. # Before the arrival of Europeans, the region was inhabited by both Carib and Arawak tribes, who named it Guiana, which means land of waters. The Dutch settled in Guyana in the late 16th century, but their control ended when the British became the de facto rulers in 1796. In 1815, the colonies of Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice were officially ceded to Great Britain at the Congress of Vienna and, in 1831, were consolidated as British Guiana. <P> Following the abolition of slavery in 1834, thousands of indentured laborers were brought to Guyana to replace the slaves on the sugar cane plantations, primarily from India but also from Portugal and China. The British stopped the practice in 1917. Many of the Afro-Guyanese former slaves moved to the towns and became the majority urban population, whereas the Indo-Guyanese remained predominantly rural. A scheme in 1862 to bring black workers from the United States was unsuccessful. The small Amerindian population lives in the country's interior. <P> The people drawn from these diverse origins have coexisted peacefully for the most part. Slave revolts, such as the one in 1763 led by Guyana's national hero, Cuffy, demonstrated the desire for basic rights but also a willingness to compromise. Politically inspired racial disturbances between East Indians and blacks erupted in 1962-64. However, the basically conservative and cooperative nature of Guyanese society contributed to a cooling of racial tensions. <P> Guyanese politics, nevertheless, occasionally has been turbulent. The first modern political party in Guyana was the People's Progressive Party (PPP), established on January 1, 1950, with Forbes Burnham, a British-educated Afro-Guyanese, as chairman; Cheddi Jagan, a U.S.-educated Indo-Guyanese, as second vice-chairman; and his American-born wife, Mrs. Janet Jagan, as secretary general. The PPP won 18 out of 24 seats in the first popular elections permitted by the colonial government in 1953, and Dr. Jagan became leader of the house and minister of agriculture in the colonial government. <P> Five months later, on October 9, 1953, the British suspended the constitution and landed troops because, they said, the Jagans and the PPP were planning to make Guyana a communist state. These events led to a split in the PPP, in which Burnham broke away and founded what eventually became the People's National Congress (PNC). Elections were permitted again in 1957 and 1961, and Cheddi Jagan's PPP ticket won on both occasions, with 48% of the vote in 1957 and 43% in 1961. Cheddi Jagan became the first Premier of British Guiana, a position he held for seven years. At a constitutional conference in London in 1963, the U.K. Government agreed to grant independence to the colony, but only after another election in which proportional representation would be introduced for the first time. It was widely believed that this system would reduce the number of seats won by the PPP and prevent it from obtaining a clear majority in parliament. The December 1964 elections gave the PPP 46%, the PNC 41%, and the United Force (TUF), a conservative party, 12%. TUF threw its votes in the legislature to Forbes Burnham, who became prime minister. <P> Guyana achieved independence in May 1966, and became a republic on February 23, 1970--the anniversary of the Cuffy slave rebellion. <P> From December 1964 until his death in August 1985, Forbes Burnham ruled Guyana in an increasingly autocratic manner, first as prime minister and later, after the adoption of a new constitution in 1980, as executive president. Elections were viewed in Guyana and abroad as fraudulent. Human rights and civil liberties were suppressed, and two major political assassinations occurred: The Jesuit priest and journalist Bernard Darke in July 1979, and the distinguished historian and Working People's Alliance (WPA) party leader Walter Rodney in June 1980. Agents of President Burnham are widely believed to have been responsible for both deaths. <P> Following Burnham's death, Prime Minister Hugh Desmond Hoyte acceded to the presidency and was formally elected in the December 1985 national elections. Hoyte gradually reversed Burnham's policies, moving from state socialism and one-party control to a market economy and unrestricted freedom of the press and assembly. <P> On October 5, 1992, a new National Assembly and Regional Councils were elected in the first Guyanese elections since 1964 to be internationally recognized as free and fair. Cheddi Jagan was elected and sworn in as President on October 9, 1992. <P> When President Jagan died in March 1997, Prime Minister Samuel Hinds replaced him in accordance with constitutional provisions. # GUY Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Suriname and Venezuela # 214970 196850 18120 2462 Brazil 1,119 km, Suriname 600 km, Venezuela 743 km # 459 ? 200 nm or to the outer edge of the continental margin # ? 200 12 tropical; hot, humid, moderated by northeast trade winds; two rainy seasons (May to mid-August, mid-November to mid-January) # mostly rolling highlands; low coastal plain; savanna in south # Atlantic Ocean 0 m Mount Roraima 2,835 m bauxite, gold, diamonds, hardwood timber, shrimp, fish # 2 0 6 84 8 1300 flash floods are a constant threat during rainy seasons # water pollution from sewage and agricultural and industrial chemicals; deforestation # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Whaling # none of the selected agreements # ? # 707954 31 112339 108095 64 228719 226309 5 14652 17840 -0.47 18.49 8.72 -14.45 1.05 1.04 1.01 0.82 ? 48.67 62.34 59.50 65.32 2.12 Guyanese (singular and plural) Guyanese East Indian 49%, black 32%, mixed 12%, Amerindian 6%, white and Chinese 1% # Christian 57%, Hindu 33%, Muslim 9%, other 1% # English, Amerindian dialects # age 15 and over has ever attended school # 98.10 98.60 97.50 Co-operative Republic of Guyana Guyana ? # ? .gy republic Georgetown 10 regions; Barima-Waini, Cuyuni-Mazaruni, Demerara-Mahaica, East Berbice-Corentyne, Essequibo Islands-West Demerara, Mahaica-Berbice, Pomeroon-Supenaam, Potaro-Siparuni, Upper Demerara-Berbice, Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo # ? # Republic Day, 23 February (1970) 6 October 1980 # based on English common law with certain admixtures of Roman-Dutch law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # Executive President Janet JAGAN (since December 1997); replaced Samuel HINDS # Prime Minister Samuel HINDS (since December 1997) # Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the president, responsible to the legislature # president elected by the majority party in the National Assembly after legislative elections which must be held within five years; legislative elections last held 15 December 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); prime minister appointed by the president # ? # unicameral National Assembly (65 seats, 53 popularly elected; members serve five-year terms) # last held on 15 December 1997 (next to be held by March 2003) # percent of vote by party - PPP 54%, PNC 41%, AFG 1%, TUF 1%; seats by party - PPP 36, PNC 25, AFG 2, TUF 2 # Supreme Court of Judicature # People's Progressive Party (PPP), People's National Congress (PNC), Hugh Desmond HOYTE; For a Good and Green Guyana (GGG), Hamilton GREEN; Alliance for Guyana (AFG), Rupert ROOPNARINE; Democratic Labor Movement (DLM), Paul TENNASSEE; People's Democratic Movement (PDM), Llewellyn JOHN; National Democratic Front (NDF), Joseph BACCHUS; The United Force (TUF), Manzoor NADIR; National Republican Party (NRP), Robert GANGADEEN; Guyana Labor Party (GLP); Guyana Democratic Party (GDP), Asgar ALLY; Guyanese Organization for Liberty and Democracy Party (GOLD), Anthony MEKDECI # ? # ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OIC (observer), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO # green with a red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a long yellow arrowhead; there is a narrow black border between the red and yellow, and a narrow white border between the yellow and the green # In 1997, Guyana, one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere, posted its sixth straight year of economic growth of 5% or better, with the advance led by gold and bauxite mining and by sugar growing. Favorable growth factors have included expansion in the key agricultural and mining sectors, a more favorable atmosphere for business initiative, a more realistic exchange rate, a moderate inflation rate, and the continued support of international organizations. Serious underlying economic problems will continue. Electric power has been in short supply and constitutes a major barrier to future gains in national output. The government must persist in efforts to manage its sizable external debt and extend its privatization program. # 5 800 566 39 28 33 4.50 ? ? # 12 278 299 bauxite, sugar, rice milling, timber, fishing (shrimp), textiles, gold mining # 5.60 0.11 230 339 sugar, rice, wheat, vegetable oils; beef, pork, poultry, dairy products; development potential exists for fishing and forestry # 546 sugar, gold, bauxite/alumina, rice, shrimp, molasses # Canada 33%, US 24%, UK 22% (1994 est.) # 589 manufactures, machinery, petroleum, food # US 29%, Trinidad and Tobago 17%, Netherlands Antilles 17%, UK 11%, (1994 est.) # 1500 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 Guyanese dollar (G$) = 100 cents # 144.20 calendar year 33000 microwave radio relay network for trunk lines # tropospheric scatter to Trinidad; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 4 3 1 398000 11 32000 88 # 40 km 1.435-m gauge (dedicated to ore transport) # 48 km 0.914-m gauge (dedicated to ore transport) # # 7970 590 km # 7,380 km (1996 est.) # 6000 ? ? ? Bartica, Georgetown, Linden, New Amsterdam, Parika # 2 2340 4530 ? # 50 5 ? ? 3 1 1 45 ? ? 1 10 34 ? Guyana Defense Force (GDF; includes Ground Forces, Coast Guard, and Air Corps), Guyana People's Militia (GPM), Guyana National Service (GNS) # ? # 201126 151963 ? 7000000 1.70 all of the area west of the Essequibo River claimed by Venezuela; Suriname claims area between New (Upper Courantyne) and Courantyne/Kutari [Koetari] Rivers (all headwaters of the Courantyne) # transshipment point for narcotics from South America - primarily Venezuela - to Europe and the US; producer of cannabis # @Haiti 0 Pour le pays, pour les ancΩtres Marchons unis, marchons unis Dans nos rangs point de traitres Du sol soyons seuls maεtres Marchons unis, marchons unis Pour le pays, pour les ancΩtres Marchons, marchons, marchons unis Pour le pays, pour les ancΩtres Pour le drapeau, pour la patrie Mourir est beau, mourir est beau Notre passΘ nous crie Ayez l'Γme aguΘrrie Mourir est beau, mourir est beau Pour le drapeau, pour la patrie Mourir, mourir, mourir est beau Pour le drapeau, pour la patrie # The Spaniards used Hispaniola (of which Haiti is the western part and the Dominican Republic is the eastern) as a launching point to explore the rest of the Western Hemisphere. French buccaneers later used the western third of the island as a point from which to harass English and Spanish ships. In 1697, Spain ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France. As piracy was gradually suppressed, some French adventurers became planters, making Saint-Domingue--as the French portion of the island was then called--one of the richest colonies of the 18th century French empire. <P> During this period, African slaves were brought to work the sugarcane and coffee plantations. In 1791, the slave population--led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, Jean Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe--revolted and gained control of the northern part of Saint-Domingue. <P> In 1804, local forces defeated an army deployed by Napoleon Bonaparte, established independence from France, and renamed the area Haiti. The defeat of the French in Haiti is widely credited with contributing to Napoleon's decision to sell the Louisiana territory to the United States in 1804. Haiti is the world's oldest black republic and the second-oldest republic after the United States in the Western Hemisphere. Haitians actively assisted the American Revolution and independence movements of Latin American countries. <P> Two separate regimes (north and south) emerged after independence but were unified in 1820. Two years later, Haiti conquered Santo Domingo, the eastern, Spanish-speaking portion of Hispaniola. In 1844, however, Santo Domingo broke away from Haiti and became the Dominican Republic. With 22 changes of government from 1843 until 1915, Haiti experienced numerous periods of intense political and economic disorder, prompting United States military intervention in 1915. U.S. military forces were withdrawn in 1934 at the request of the elected Government of Haiti. <P> From 1986--when the 30-year dictatorship of the Duvalier family ended--until 1991, Haiti was ruled by a series of provisional governments. In 1987, a constitution was adopted that provides for an elected bicameral parliament, an elected president who serves as head of state, and a prime minister, cabinet of ministers, and supreme court appointed by the president with Parliament's consent. The Haitian Constitution also provides for the election of mayors and administrative bodies responsible for local government. <P> Aristide and the 1991 Coup d'Etat <P> In December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a charismatic Roman Catholic priest, won 67% of the vote in a presidential election that international observers deemed largely free and fair. Aristide took office in February 1991, but was overthrown by dissatisfied elements of the army and forced to leave the country in September of the same year. It is estimated that between 300 and 500 Haitians were killed in the days following the September coup, and 3,000 in the following three years. The coup created a large-scale exodus from the country; in fact, the U.S. Coast Guard rescued a total of 41,342 Haitians from 1991 to 1992, more than the number of rescued refugees from the previous 10 years combined. <P> From October 1991 to June 1992, Joseph Nerette, as president, led an unconstitutional de facto regime and governed with a parliamentary majority and the armed forces. In June 1992, he resigned and Parliament approved Marc Bazin as prime minister of a de facto government with no replacement named for president. Bazin sought to negotiate a solution with exiled President Aristide and to end the economic embargo and diplomatic isolation of Haiti imposed after Aristide's ouster. In June 1993, Bazin resigned and the UN imposed an oil and arms embargo, bringing the Haitian military to the negotiating table. <P> Transition to Democracy <P> President Aristide and Gen. Raoul Cedras, head of the Haitian armed forces, signed the UN-brokered Governors Island Agreement on July 3, 1993, establishing a 10-step process for the restoration of constitutional government and the return of President Aristide by October 30, 1993. As part of this process, Robert Malval was sworn in as Prime Minister on August 30, 1993. The military derailed the process and the UN reimposed economic sanctions. Malval resigned on December 15, 1993, but remained as acting Prime Minister for 11 more months. The political and human rights climate continued to deteriorate as the military and the de facto government sanctioned repression, assassination, torture, and rape in open defiance of the international community's condemnation. <P> In May 1994, the military selected Supreme Court Justice Emile Jonassaint to be provisional president of its third de facto regime. The UN and the U.S. reacted to this extraconstitutional move by tightening economic sanctions (UN Resolution 917). On July 31, 1994, the UN adopted Resolution 940 authorizing member states to use all necessary means to facilitate the departure of Haiti's military leadership and restore constitutional rule and Aristide's presidency. <P> In August 1994, Haiti had parallel governments, the illegitimate military-backed Jonassaint regime that controlled the government apparatus in Haiti, and the constitutional government, whose members, like President Aristide, were in exile or who, like acting Prime Minister Malval, were blocked from carrying out their duties. <P> In the weeks that followed, the United States took the lead in forming a multinational force (MNF) to carry out the UN's mandate by means of a military intervention. In September, with U.S. troops prepared to enter Haiti in a matter of hours, President Clinton dispatched a negotiating team led by former President Jimmy Carter to discuss with the de facto Haitian leadership the terms of their departure. As a result, the MNF deployed peacefully, Cedras and other top military leaders left Haiti, and restoration of the legitimate government began, leading to Aristide's return on October 15. <P> Current Conditions <P> Elections for parliament and local government offices were held successfully between June and October 1995, although they were delayed by seven months and marred by serious administrative problems and some violence. President Aristide's Lavalas party and its affiliates swept into power at all levels. In the December 1995 presidential election, with Aristide barred by the Haitian Constitution from succeeding himself, prominent Lavalas figure Rene Preval (who was Aristide's first prime minister in 1991) overwhelmed his 13 opponents by garnering 88% of the vote and took office the following February. Territorial elections designed to decentralize political power were held in early April 1997. The government of Prime Minister Rosny Smarth resigned on June 9, 1997. He continued in caretaker status until November 1997. <P> With the situation in Haiti gradually stabilizing, the international security presence has been reduced. The MNF, which at one time had more than 20,000 troops in Haiti, gave way in March 1995 to a UN peacekeeping mission (UN Mission in Haiti) under U.S. leadership, including about 6,000 troops. By mid-1996, the UN forces no longer included any U.S. military personnel, and the UN Special Mission in Haiti (UNSMIH) had been scaled back to about 600 troops under Canadian leadership, as well as 300 international police monitors from six different countries. The UNSMIH mission, originally set to expire at the end of November 1996, was extended through July 31, 1997. The United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti (UNTMIH) replaced UNSMIH to November 30, 1997. The 12-month UN Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH) was established by the Security Council and began operations on December 1, 1997, after the conclusion of UNSMIH. Its 300 authorized civilian police (CIVPOL) are divided into two groups. Up to 160 CIVPOL mentors, including 30 U.S. police officers, are tasked with bringing the Haitian National Police (HNP) to levels of operational competence required before UN specialized agencies, including the UN Development Program (UNDP), can assume responsibility for further long-term institutional development. The remaining 140 CIVPOL are Argentine gendarmes who, as part of a special police unit (SPU), are on call to ensure the safety of CIVPOL from situations where HNP may not be able to do so. MIPONUH does not have a military element. <P> The judicial system in Haiti is still weak and remains a high priority for international donors. USAID programs focus on improving administration in prosecutors' offices and the courts, establishing a case-tracking system, legal aid, and training for judges, court, and prosecutorial staff. International and Haitian officials are cooperating to investigate several high-profile murders that may have been politically motivated, including the murders of opposition politicians Antoine Leroy and Mireille Durocher Bertin. The U.S. Government helped the Government of Haiti set up a Special Investigative Unit within the Haitian National Police, and the investigation of several of these crimes is in progress. Steps have been taken to end the culture of impunity that has dominated Haiti for decades. The Office of Inspector General of the Haitian National Police investigates complaints against police officers, and around 200 have been dismissed. Training continues in an effort to build the fledgling National Police into a non-political, fully professional force committed to the rule of law. # RH Caribbean, western one-third of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, west of the Dominican Republic # 27750 27560 190 275 Dominican Republic 275 km # 1771 24 to depth of exploitation # 200 ? 12 tropical; semiarid where mountains in east cut off trade winds # mostly rough and mountainous # Caribbean Sea 0 m Chaine de la Selle 2,680 m none # 20 13 18 5 44 750 lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding and earthquakes; periodic droughts # extensive deforestation (much of the remaining forested land is being cleared for agriculture and used as fuel); soil erosion; inadequate supplies of potable water # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation # Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban # shares island of Hispaniola with Dominican Republic (western one-third is Haiti, eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic) # 6780501 43 1465735 1422260 53 1733636 1881367 4 138678 138825 1.51 32.84 14.17 -3.61 1.05 1.03 0.92 1 ? 98.98 51.40 49.33 53.58 4.67 Haitian(s) Haitian black 95%, mulatto plus white 5% # Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 16% (Baptist 10%, Pentecostal 4%, Adventist 1%, other 1%), none 1%, other 3% (1982) # French (official) 20%, Creole # age 15 and over can read and write # 45 48 42.20 Republic of Haiti Haiti Republique d'Haiti # Haiti .ht republic Port-au-Prince 9 departments, (DΘpartements, singular - DΘpartement); Artibonite, Centre, Grand'Anse, Nord, Nord-Est, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Est # ? # Independence Day, 1 January (1804) approved March 1987, suspended June 1988, most articles reinstated March 1989; in October 1991, government claimed to be observing the constitution; return to constitutional rule, October 1994 # based on Roman civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction # 18 years of age; universal # President Rene Garcia PREVAL (since 7 February 1996) # Prime Minister Jacques-Edouard ALEXIS # Cabinet; chosen by the prime minister in consultation with the president # president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 17 December 1995 (next to be held by December 2000); prime minister appointed by the president, ratified by the Congress # Rene Garcia PREVAL elected president; percent of vote - Rene Garcia PREVAL 88%, Leon JEUNE 2.5%, Victor BENOIT 2.3% # bicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale consists of the Senate (27 seats; members serve six-year terms; one-third elected every two years) and the Chamber of Deputies (83 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # Senate - last held 25 June 1995 with reruns on 13 August and runoffs on 17 September (election held for nine seats 6 April 1997; results disputed and runoffs postponed indefinitely); Chamber of Deputies - last held 25 June 1995 with reruns on 13 August and runoffs on 17 September (next Senate and Chamber elections to be held November 1998) # Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Lavalas Political Organization 7, Lavalas family-leaning 7, independent 2, non-active members 2, vacant 9; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Lavalas Political Organization (OPL) 32, antineoliberal bloc 24, minor parties and independents 22, vacant 5 # Supreme Court (Cour de Cassation) # Lavalas Family (FL), Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE; National Lavalas Political Organization (OPL), Gerard PIERRE-CHARLES; National Front for Change and Democracy (FNCD), Evans PAUL and Turneb DELPE; National Congress of Democratic Movements (KONACOM), Victor BENOIT; Movement for the Installation of Democracy in Haiti (MIDH), Marc BAZIN; National Progressive Revolutionary Party (PANPRA), Serge GILLES; Movement for National Reconstruction (MRN), Rene THEODORE; Haitian Christian Democratic Party (PDCH), Fritz PIERRE; Assembly of Progressive National Democrats (RDNP), Leslie MANIGAT; Mobilization for National Development (MDN), Hubert DE RONCERAY; Movement for the Organization of the Country (MOP), Gesner COMEAU and Jean MOLIERE; Open the Gate Party (PLB), Renaud BERNARDIN; Union of Patriotic Democrats (UPD), Rockefeller GUERRE; Generation 2004, Claude ROUMAIN; Alliance for the Liberation and Advancement of Haiti (ALAH), Reynold GEORGES; Haitian Democratic Party (PADEMH), Clark PARENT; National Alliance for Democracy and Progress; Haiti Can (Ayiti Kapab), Ernst VERDIEU # ? # ACCT, ACP, Caricom (observer), CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, OAS, OPANAL, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO # two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a centered white rectangle bearing the coat of arms, which contains a palm tree flanked by flags and two cannons above a scroll bearing the motto L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE (Union Makes Strength) # About 75% of the population lives in abject poverty. Nearly 70% of all Haitians depend on the agriculture sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming and employs about two-thirds of the economically active work force. The country has experienced little or no job creation since President PREVAL took office in February 1996, although the informal economy is growing. Failure to reach agreements with international sponsors have denied Haiti badly needed budget and development assistance. Meeting aid conditions in 1998 will be especially challenging in the face of mounting popular criticism of reforms. # 1.10 330 2238 44 13 43 17 3600000 agriculture 66%, services 25%, industry 9% # 60 284 308 sugar refining, flour milling, textiles, cement, tourism, light assembly industries based on imported parts # 2.50 0.15 315 48 coffee, mangoes, sugarcane, rice, corn, sorghum; wood # 90 light manufactures 53%, coffee 17%, other agriculture 17% # US 76.3%, EU 19.8% (1996) # 665 machines and manufactures 34%, food and beverages 22%, petroleum products 14%, chemicals 10%, fats and oils 9% # US 65.0%, EU 13.9% (1995) # 781 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 gourde (G) = 100 centimes # 1 1 October - 30 September 50000 NA # satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) # 33 0 2 320000 4 32000 40 # # 40 km 0.760-m gauge # # 4160 1,011 km # 3,149 km (1996 est.) # 0 ? ? ? Cap-Haitien, Gonaives, Jacmel, Jeremie, Les Cayes, Miragoane, Port-au-Prince, Port-de-Paix, Saint-Marc # ? ? ? ? # 14 3 ? 1 1 1 6 11 ? ? ? 5 ? ? Haitian National Police (HNP) # 18 years of age # 1490464 807330 75448 ? ? claims US-administered Navassa Island # transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana en route to the US and Europe # @Heard Island and McDonald Islands Australia ? # # Southern Africa, islands in the Indian Ocean, about two-thirds of the way from Madagascar to Antarctica # 412 412 0 ? ? # 101.90 ? ? # ? 200 3 antarctic # Heard Island - bleak and mountainous, with a quiescent volcano; McDonald Islands - small and rocky # Indian Ocean 0 m Big Ben 2,745 m none # 0 0 0 0 100 0 Heard Island is dominated by a dormant volcano called Big Ben # NA # NA # NA # primarily used for research stations # 0 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands Heard Island and McDonald Islands ? # ? .hm ? ? ? # ? # ? ? # NA # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # ? # the flag of Australia is used # no economic activity # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? # ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # # # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none; offshore anchorage only # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Holy See (Vatican City) 0 ? # # Southern Europe, an enclave of Rome (Italy) # 0.44 0.44 0 3.20 Italy 3.2 km # 0 ? ? # ? ? ? temperate; mild, rainy winters (September to mid-May) with hot, dry summers (May to September) # low hill # unnamed location 19 m unnamed location 75 m none # 0 0 0 0 100 0 NA # NA # none of the selected agreements # Air Pollution, Environmental Modification # urban; landlocked; enclave of Rome, Italy; world's smallest state; outside the Vatican City, 13 buildings in Rome and Castel Gandolfo (the pope's summer residence) enjoy extraterritorial rights # 860 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 1.15 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? none none Italians, Swiss, other # Roman Catholic # Italian, Latin, various other languages # ? # ? ? ? The Holy See (State of the Vatican City) Holy See (Vatican City) Santa Sede (Stato della Citta del Vaticano) # Santa Sede (Citta del Vaticano) ? monarchical-sacerdotal state Vatican City ? # ? # Installation Day of the Pope, 22 October (1978) (John Paul II) Apostolic Constitution of 1967 (effective 1 March 1968) # NA # limited to cardinals less than 80 years old # Pope JOHN PAUL II (Karol WOJTYLA; since 16 October 1978) # Secretary of State Archbishop Angelo Cardinal SODANO (since 2 December 1990) # Pontifical Commission appointed by Pope # pope elected for life by the College of Cardinals; election last held 16 October 1978 (next to be held after the death of the current pope); secretary of state appointed by the pope # Karol WOJTYLA elected pope # unicameral Pontifical Commission # ? # ? # none; normally handled by Italy # none # ? # IAEA, ICFTU, Intelsat, IOM (observer), ITU, OAS (observer), OSCE, UN (observer), UNCTAD, UNHCR, UPU, WIPO, WToO (observer) # two vertical bands of yellow (hoist side) and white with the crossed keys of Saint Peter and the papal miter centered in the white band # This unique, noncommercial economy is supported financially by contributions (known as Peter's Pence) from Roman Catholics throughout the world, the sale of postage stamps and tourist mementos, fees for admission to museums, and the sale of publications. The incomes and living standards of lay workers are comparable to, or somewhat better than, those of counterparts who work in the city of Rome. # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? dignitaries, priests, nuns, guards, and 3,000 lay workers who live outside the Vatican # ? 175.50 175 printing and production of a small amount of mosaics and staff uniforms; worldwide banking and financial activities # ? 0.01 ? ? ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # ? ? # ? # 1 Vatican lira (VLit) = 100 centesimi # 1787.70 calendar year 2000 tied into Italian system # uses Italian system # 3 4 0 ? 1 ? 862 # # 862 meters 1.435-m gauge # # ? ? # ? # ? ? ? ? none # ? ? ? ? # ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 1 ? # ? # ? ? ? ? ? none # ? # @Honduras 0 CHORUS Tu bandera, tu bandera es un lampo de cielo Por un bloque de nieve cruzado; (repeat) Y se ven en su fondo sagrado Cinco estrellas de pßlido azul; En tu emblema, que un mar rumoroso Con sus ondas bravφas escuda, De un volcßn, tras la cima desnuda, (repeat) Hay un astro de nitida luz. (repeat) India virgen y hermosa dormφas De tus mares al canto sonoro, Cuando hechada en tus cuencas de oro El audaz navegante te hall≤; Y al mirar tu belleza extasiado, Al influjo ideal de tu encanto, La orla azul de tu esplendido manto Con su beso de amor consagr≤. CHORUS Por guardar ese emblema divino Marcharemos, íoh patria!, a la muerte; Generosa serß nuestra suerte Si morimos pensando en tu amor. Defendiendo tu santa bandera, Y en sus pliegues gloriosos cubiertos, Serßn muchos, Honduras, tus muertos, ípero todos caerßn con honor! CHORUS # The restored Mayan ruins near the Guatemalan border in Copan reflect the great Mayan culture that flourished there for hundreds of years until the early 9th century. Mayan artifacts also can be found at the National Museum in Tegucigalpa. Columbus landed at mainland Honduras (Trujillo) in 1502. He named it "Honduras" (meaning "depths") for the deep water off the coast. Spaniard Hernan Cortes arrived in 1524. The Spanish began founding settlements along the coast, and Honduras came under the control of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The cities of Comayagua and Tegucigalpa developed as early mining centers. <P> Independence <P> Honduras, along with the other Central American provinces, gained independence from Spain in 1821; it then briefly was annexed to the Mexican Empire. In 1823, Honduras joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America. Before long, social and economic differences between Honduras and its regional neighbors exacerbated harsh partisan strife among Central American leaders and brought on the federation's collapse in 1838. Gen. Francisco Morazan--a Honduran national hero--led unsuccessful efforts to maintain the federation, and restoring Central American unity remained the chief aim of Honduran foreign policy until after World War I. <P> Since independence, Honduras has been plagued with nearly 300 internal rebellions, civil wars, and changes of government, more than half occurring during this century. The country traditionally lacked both an economic infrastructure and social and political integration. Its agriculturally based economy came to be dominated in this century by U.S. companies that established vast banana plantations along the north coast. Foreign capital, plantation life, and conservative politics held sway in Honduras from the late 19th until the mid-20th century. <P> During the relatively stable years of the Great Depression, Honduras was controlled by authoritarian Gen. Tiburcio Carias Andino. His ties to dictators in neighboring countries and to U.S. banana companies helped him maintain power until 1948. By then, provincial military leaders had begun to gain control of the two major parties, the Nationalists and the Liberals. <P> From Military to Civilian Rule <P> In October 1955--after two authoritarian administrations and a general strike by banana workers on the north coast in 1954--young military reformists staged a palace coup that installed a provisional junta and paved the way for constituent assembly elections in 1957. This assembly appointed Dr. Ramon Villeda Morales as president and transformed itself into a national legislature with a six-year term. The Liberal Party ruled during 1957-63. At the same time, the military took its first steps to become a professional institution independent of leadership from any one political party, and the newly created military academy graduated its first class in 1960. <P> In October 1963, conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed Villeda in a bloody coup. These officers exiled Liberal Party members and took control of the national police. The armed forces, led by Gen. Lopez Arellano, governed until 1970. <P> A civilian president--Ramon Cruz of the National Party--took power briefly in 1970, but proved unable to manage the government. Popular discontent had continued to rise after a 1969 border war with El Salvador; in December 1972, General Lopez staged another coup. Lopez adopted more progressive policies, including land reform, but his regime was brought down in the mid-1970s by scandals. <P> General Lopez' successors continued armed forces modernization programs, building army and security forces, and concentrating on Honduran air force superiority over its neighbors. The regimes of General Melgar Castro (1975-78) and General Paz Garcia (1978-83) largely built the current physical infrastructure and telecommunications system of Honduras. The country also enjoyed its most rapid economic growth during this period, due to greater international demand for its products and the availability of foreign commercial lending. <P> Following the overthrow of Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua in 1979 and general instability in El Salvador at the time, the Honduran military accelerated plans to return the country to civilian rule. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980, and general elections were held in November 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982, and the Liberal Party government of President Roberto Suazo Cordoba assumed power. <P> Suazo relied on U.S. support to help with a severe economic recession and with the threat posed by the revolutionary Sandinista Government in Nicaragua and a brutal civil war in El Salvador. Close cooperation on political and military issues with the United States was complemented by ambitious social and economic development projects sponsored by USAID. Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world, and non-governmental and international voluntary agencies proliferated. <P> As the November 1985 election approached, the Liberal Party had difficulty settling on a candidate and interpreted election law as permitting multiple presidential candidates from one party. The Liberal Party claimed victory when its presidential candidates collectively outpolled the National Party candidate, Rafael Leonardo Callejas, who received 42% of the vote. Jose Azcona Hoyo, the candidate receiving the most votes (27%) among the Liberals, assumed the presidency in January 1986. With strong endorsement and support from the Honduran military, the Suazo Administration had ushered in the first peaceful transfer of power between civilian presidents in more than 30 years. <P> Four years later, Rafael Callejas won the presidential election, taking office in January 1990. Callejas concentrated on economic reform, reducing the deficit, and taking steps to deal with an overvalued exchange rate and major structural barriers to investment. He began the movement to place the military under civilian control and laid the groundwork for the creation of the public ministry (Attorney General's office). <P> Despite the Callejas Administration's economic reforms, growing public dissatisfaction with the rising cost of living and with seemingly widespread government corruption led voters in 1993 to elect Liberal Party candidate Carlos Roberto Reina over National Party contender Oswaldo Ramos Soto, with Reina winning 56% of the vote. <P> President Reina, elected on a platform calling for a "Moral Revolution," actively prosecuted corruption and pursued those responsible for human rights abuses in the 1980s. He created a modern attorney general's office and an investigative police force, and reduced Honduras' historic and endemic corruption and elite impunity. As a result, a notable start has been made in institutionalizing the rule of law in Honduras. <P> A hallmark of the Reina Administration was his successful efforts to increase civilian control over the armed forces, making his time in office a period of fundamental change in civil-military relations in Honduras. Important achievements--including the abolition of the military draft and passage of legislation transferring the national police from military to civilian authority--have brought civil-military relations closer to the kind of balance normal in a constitutional democracy. Additionally, President Reina in 1996 named his own defense minister, breaking the precedent of accepting the nominee of the armed forces leadership. <P> Reina restored national fiscal health. After a rough start in 1994-95, the Reina Administration substantially increased Central Bank net international reserves, reduced inflation to 12.8% a year, restored a healthy pace of economic growth (about 5% in 1997), and, perhaps most important, held down spending to achieve a 1.1% non-financial public sector deficit in 1997. <P> Carlos Roberto Flores Facusse took office on January 27, 1998, as Honduras' fifth democratically elected President since free elections were restored in 1981. Like three of his four predecessors, including his immediate predecessor, Flores is a member of the Liberal Party. He was elected with a 10% margin over his main opponent, National Party nominee, Nora de Melgar, in free, fair, and peaceful elections on November 30, 1997. These elections, probably the cleanest in Honduran history, reflected the maturing of Honduras' democratic institutions. On the eve of his electoral victory, Flores presented a platform that is a blueprint for reform and modernization of the Honduran Government and economy, with emphasis on helping Honduras' poorest citizens while maintaining the country's fiscal health and improving international competitiveness. # HCA Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Nicaragua and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between El Salvador and Nicaragua # 112090 111890 200 1520 Guatemala 256 km, El Salvador 342 km, Nicaragua 922 km # 820 24 natural extension of territory or to 200 nm # 200 ? 12 subtropical in lowlands, temperate in mountains # mostly mountains in interior, narrow coastal plains # Caribbean Sea 0 m Cerro Las Minas 2,870 m timber, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron ore, antimony, coal, fish # 15 3 14 54 14 740 frequent, but generally mild, earthquakes; damaging hurricanes and floods along Caribbean coast # urban population expanding; deforestation results from logging and the clearing of land for agricultural purposes; further land degradation and soil erosion hastened by uncontrolled development and improper land use practices such as farming of marginal lands; mining activities polluting Lago de Yojoa (the country's largest source of fresh water) as well as several rivers and streams with heavy metals # Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands # none of the selected agreements # ? # 5861955 42 1248291 1204574 55 1591995 1615449 3 96017 105629 2.33 31.79 7.02 -1.48 1.05 1.04 0.99 0.91 ? 41.88 65.01 63.31 66.80 4.12 Honduran(s) Honduran mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European) 90%, Amerindian 7%, black 2%, white 1% # Roman Catholic 97%, Protestant minority # Spanish, Amerindian dialects # age 15 and over can read and write # 72.70 72.60 72.70 Republic of Honduras Honduras Republica de Honduras # Honduras .hn republic Tegucigalpa 18 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento) plus probable Central District (Tegucigalpa); Atlantida, Choluteca, Colon, Comayagua, Copan, Cortes, El Paraiso, Francisco Morazan, Gracias a Dios, Intibuca, Islas de la Bahia, La Paz, Lempira, Ocotepeque, Olancho, Santa Barbara, Valle, Yoro # ? # Independence Day, 15 September (1821) 11 January 1982, effective 20 January 1982 # rooted in Roman and Spanish civil law; some influence of English common law; accepts ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations # 18 years of age; universal and compulsory # President Carlos Roberto FLORES Facusse (since 27 January 1998); First Vice President William HANDAL; Second Vice President Gladys CABALLERO de Arevalo; Third Vice President Hector Vidal CERRATO Hernandez; note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # President Carlos Roberto FLORES Facusse (since 27 January 1998); First Vice President William HANDAL; Second Vice President Gladys CABALLERO de Arevalo; Third Vice President Hector Vidal CERRATO Hernandez; note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government # Cabinet # president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 30 November 1997 (next to be held NA November 2001) # Carlos FLORES Facusse elected president; percent of vote - Carlos FLORES Facusse (PLH) 53%, Nora de MELGAR (PNH) 42%, other 5% # unicameral National Assembly or Asamblea Nacional (128 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) # last held on 30 November 1997 (next to be held November 2001) # percent of vote by party - PLH 50%, PNH 42%, PINU-SD 4%, PDCH 2%, other 2%; seats by party - PLH 70, PNH 55, PINU-SD 3 # Supreme Court of Justice (Corte Suprema de Justica), judges are elected for four-year terms by the National Assembly # Liberal Party (PLH), Raphael PINEDA Ponce, president; National Party of Honduras (PNH), Nora MELGAR, president; National Innovation and Unity Party-Social Democratic Party (PINU-SD), Olban VALLADARES, president; Christian Democratic Party (PDCH) # ? # BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIH, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO # three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with five blue five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band; the stars represent the members of the former Federal Republic of Central America - Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua; similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which features a triangle encircled by the word REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom, centered in the white band # In 1994 the REINA administration inherited an economy in the grips of stagflation due to an unprecedented energy crisis, declining agricultural output, and extravagant public expenditures. In response the REINA administration cut the fiscal deficit and enacted a number of structural reforms including passage of a modern financial sector reform law in 1995 and a central bank reform law in 1996. As a result, Honduras finished 1997 with improved GDP growth and a decreasing rate of inflation. The newly elected FLORES administration faces pressure from the international financial community and the IMF to further decrease the fiscal deficit and implement key reforms, including the privatization of state enterprises such as Hondutel. Tegucigalpa will probably implement tighter fiscal and monetary policies to keep inflation low and meet commitments to the IMF. This may slow GDP growth to 3.5% in 1998. Moreover, wage increases for public-sector employees, agreed to in 1997, will make it difficult for FLORES to make headway on the fiscal deficit and inflation. # 4.50 700 4103 20 19 61 15 1300000 agriculture 62%, services 20%, manufacturing 9%, construction 3%, other 6% (1985) # 6.30 655 850 sugar, coffee, textiles, clothing, wood products # 10 0.30 2800 516 bananas, coffee, citrus; beef; timber; shrimp; # 1300 bananas, coffee, shrimp, lobster, minerals, meat, lumber # US 54%, Germany 7%, Belgium 5%, Japan 4%, Spain 3% (1995) # 1800.00 machinery and transport equipment, industrial raw materials, chemical products, manufactured goods, fuel and oil, foodstuffs # US 43%, Guatemala 5%, Japan 5%, Germany 4%, Mexico 3%, El Salvador 3% (1995) # 4100 ODA, $NA # ? # 1 lempira (L) = 100 centavos # 1 calendar year 105000 NA # satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); connected to Central American Microwave System # 176 0 7 2115000 28 400000 595 # # 190 km 1.067-m gauge; 128 km 1.057-m gauge; 277 km 0.914-m gauge # # 15400 3,126 km # 12,274 km (1996 est.) # 465 ? ? ? La Ceiba, Puerto Castilla, Puerto Cortes, San Lorenzo, Tela, Puerto Lempira # 219 545829 801456 bulk 25, cargo 131, chemical tanker 3, container 7, liquefied gas tanker 1, livestock carrier 2, oil tanker 19, passenger 1, passenger-cargo 3, refrigerated cargo 18, roll-on/roll-off cargo 5, short-sea passenger 3, vehicle carrier 1 # 122 12 ? 3 2 5 2 110 ? 1 2 20 87 ? Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force, Public Security Forces (FUSEP, now being converted to a civilian police force) # 18 years of age # 1409012 839283 68076 42500000 1.50 land boundary dispute with El Salvador mostly resolved by 11 September 1992 International Court of Justice (ICJ) decision; the presidents of El Salvador and Honduras signed in January 1998 an agreement allowing citizens in the 1992 demarcated areas to choose Salvadoran or Honduran citizenship; the two countries also agreed to a final demarcation of the border within one year; the agreement awaits ratification by the legislative assemblies of both countries; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, ICJ referred to an earlier agreement in this century and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua likely would be required; maritime boundary dispute with Nicaragua # transshipment point for drugs and narcotics, mostly along the Caribbean coastline; illicit producer of cannabis, cultivated on small plots and used principally for local consumption # @Hong Kong China ? # On the coast of south China, consisting of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon Peninsula, Stonecutters Island, the New Territories (mainland), and over 230 islets. From the Chinese Xianggang, "Pleasantly Smelling Straits". A British Crown Colony; Hong Kong Island leased by China to Britain in 1842; the New Territories in 1898 for 99 years. According to archaeological studies initiated in the 1920s, human activity on Hong Kong dates back over five millennia. Excavated Neolithic artifacts suggest an influence from northern Chinese Stone Age cultures, including the Longshan. The territory was settled by Han Chinese during the seventh century, A.D., evidenced by the discovery of an ancient tomb at Lei Cheung Uk in Kowloon. The first major migration from northern China to Hong Kong occurred during the Song Dynasty (960-1279). <P> The British East India Company made the first successful sea venture to China in 1699, and Hong Kong's trade with British merchants developed rapidly soon after. Despite Chinese laws prohibiting opium since 1799, the British pursued and monopolized its trade until 1834. Concerned about the rapid increase of opium in China, the Qing Government sought to eradicate the drug trade. When Chinese officials seized and destroyed large quantities of opium, the British sent forces in 1840 to support demands for a commercial treaty or cession of an island for the safety of British nationals; this sparked the First Opium War. China lost the war; subsequently, Britain and other Western powers, including the United States, forcibly occupied "concessions" and gained special commercial privileges. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain in 1842 under the Treaty of Nanking. <P> Disputes over former treaties and the Chinese boarding of the British ship Arrow started the Second Opium War (also known as the Lorcha Arrow War), which lasted from 1856 to 1858. The Convention of Beijing, signed in 1860, formally ended the hostilities and granted the British a perpetual lease on the Kowloon Peninsula. The United Kingdom was concerned that Hong Kong could not be defended unless surrounding areas were also under British control; in 1898, it executed a 99-year lease of the New Territories, significantly expanding the size of the Hong Kong colony. <P> In the late 19th century and early 20th centuries, Hong Kong developed as a warehousing and distribution center for U.K. trade with southern China. After the end of World War II and the communist takeover in mainland China in 1949, hundreds of thousands of people emigrated from China to Hong Kong. This helped Hong Kong become an economic success and a manufacturing, commercial, and tourism center. High life expectancy, literacy, per capita income, and other socioeconomic measures attest to Hong Kong's achievements over the last four decades. # GB Eastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and China # 1092 1042 50 30 China 30 km # 733 ? ? # ? ? 3 tropical monsoon; cool and humid in winter, hot and rainy from spring through summer, warm and sunny in fall # hilly to mountainous with steep slopes; lowlands in north # South China Sea 0 m Tai Mo Shan 958 m outstanding deepwater harbor, feldspar # 6 1 1 22 70 20 occasional typhoons # air and water pollution from rapid urbanization # NA # NA # more than 200 islands # 6706965 18 637808 591900 71 2360878 2425291 11 312033 379055 2.24 12.85 5.87 15.41 1.07 1.08 0.97 0.82 ? 5.24 78.81 76.07 81.74 1.36 Chinese Chinese Chinese 95%, other 5% # eclectic mixture of local religions 90%, Christian 10% # Chinese (Cantonese), English # age 15 and over has ever attended school # 92.20 96 88.20 Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Hong Kong Xianggang Tebie Xingzhengqu # Xianggang .hk NA Victoria none (special administrative region of China) # ? # National Day, 1-2 October Basic Law approved in March 1990 by China's National People's Congress is Hong Kong's "mini-constitution" # based on English common law # direct election 18 years of age; universal for permanent residents living in the territory of Hong Kong for the past seven years; indirect election limited to about 100,000 members of functional constituencies and an 800-member Election Commission drawn from broad regional groupings and other central government bodies # President of China JIANG Zemin (since 27 March 1993) # Chief Executive TUNG Chee-hwa (since 1 July 1997) # Executive Council consists of three ex-officio members and 10 appointed members; ex-officio members are: Chief Secretary Anson CHAN (since 29 November 1993), Financial Secretary Donald TSANG (since NA 1995), and Secretary of Justice Elsie LEUNG (since NA 1997) # NA # ? # a provisional legislature replaced the unicameral Legislative Council or LEGCO (60 seats; 30 indirectly elected by functional constituencies, 20 elected by popular vote, and 10 elected by election committee; members served four-year terms) on 1 July 1997 # indirect and direct elections for the Legislative Council were last held on 17 September 1995; elections for the first Special Administrative Region Legislative Council are scheduled to be held in May 1998 # the following are results of the 1995 election of the Legislative Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Democratic Party 21, Liberal Party 10, Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong 6, other parties and independents 23 # Supreme Court # Democratic Party, Martin LEE, chairman; Liberal Party, Allen LEE, chairman; Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong, TSANG Yuk-shing, chairman; Hong Kong Democratic Foundation, Dr. Patrick SHIU Kin-ying, chairman; The Frontier, Emily LAN Wai-hang, chairwoman # ? # APEC, AsDB, BIS (pending member), CCC, ESCAP (associate), ICFTU, IMO (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, ISO (correspondent), WCL, WMO, WTrO # red with a stylized, white, five-petal bauhinia flower in the center # Hong Kong has a bustling free market economy highly dependent on international trade. Natural resources are limited, and food and raw materials must be imported. Indeed, imports and exports, including reexports, each exceed GDP in dollar value. Real GDP growth averaged a remarkable 8% in 1987-88, slowed to 3.0% in 1989-90, and picked up to 4.2% in 1991, 5.0% in 1992, 5.2% in 1993, 5.5% in 1994, 4.8% in 1995, 4.7% in 1996, and an estimated 5.5% in 1997. A shortage of labor continues to put upward pressure on prices and the cost of living. Even before Hong Kong reverted to Chinese administration on 1 July 1997 it had extensive trade and investment ties with China. # 5.50 23290 156205 0.10 16.10 83.80 5.10 3183000 wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels 32.4%, social services 9.9%, manufacturing 9.9%, financing, insurance, and real estate 13.0%, transport and communications 5.7%, construction 2.6%, other 26.5% (June 1997) # 3.10 19000 14100.00 textiles, clothing, tourism, electronics, plastics, toys, watches, clocks # -3.20 11.30 28000 3968 fresh vegetables; poultry # 180700 clothing, textiles, yarn and fabric, footwear, electrical appliances, watches and clo 
