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INDEX 154 92 C Library Reference 10242 13 _EXIT 22985 74 _GETARGS 25 24 ACOS 728 20 ASCTIME 25 24 ASIN 1183 23 ASSERT 25 24 ATAN 25 24 ATAN2 2042 17 ATOF 2042 17 ATOI 2042 17 ATOL 2473 26 BDOS 3252 21 BIOS 3914 16 CALLOC 10922 13 CEIL 4319 19 CGETS 4797 21 CHDIR 5238 23 CHMOD 5975 16 CLOSE 6329 18 CLREOF 6329 18 CLRERR 6839 13 COS 7032 11 COSH 4319 19 CPUTS 7240 23 CREAT 8087 27 CTIME 8578 8 DI 8713 16 DUP 8578 8 EI 9104 20 EXECL 9104 20 EXECV 9727 15 EXIT 10515 15 EXP 10922 13 FABS 11242 15 FCLOSE 11566 18 FEOF 11566 18 FERROR 11991 16 FFLUSH 12365 21 FGETC 12902 15 FGETS 13445 14 FILENO 10922 13 FLOOR 13777 89 FOPEN 17284 19 FPRINTF 17852 17 FPUTC 18318 14 FPUTS 18597 23 FREAD 19219 14 FREE 19475 17 FREOPEN 19921 18 FREXP 20570 18 FSCANF 21104 28 FSEEK 22144 16 FTELL 22508 18 FWRITE 25853 12 GETC 26188 21 GETCH 26796 17 GETCHAR 26188 21 GETCHE 27239 18 GETCWD 27702 33 GETENV 29026 15 GETS 29344 16 GETUID 29698 20 GETW 30338 22 GMTIME 31120 11 INP 31443 30 INT86 31443 30 INT86X 31443 30 INTDOS 31443 30 INTDOSX 32740 41 ISALNUM 32740 41 ISALPHA 33817 13 ISATTY 32740 41 ISCNTRL 32740 41 ISDIGIT 32740 41 ISGRAPH 32740 41 ISLOWER 32740 41 ISPRINT 32740 41 ISPUNCT 32740 41 ISSPACE 34211 17 KBHIT 19921 18 LDEXP 30338 22 LOCALTIME 10515 15 LOG 10515 15 LOG10 34500 52 LONGJMP 36047 18 LSEEK 36552 19 MALLOC 37140 25 MEMCMP 37140 25 MEMCPY 37140 25 MEMSET 38093 18 MKDIR 38526 29 MSDOS 38526 29 MSDOSCX 39507 80 OPEN 31120 11 OUTP 41919 21 PERROR 10515 15 POW 42619 92 PRINTF 46150 14 PUTC 26188 21 PUTCH 46428 14 PUTCHAR 46642 15 PUTS 46934 16 PUTW 47282 38 QSORT 48432 15 RAND 48699 20 READ 49336 20 REALLOC 49993 15 REMOVE 50270 15 RENAME 50600 17 REWIND 38093 18 RMDIR 51049 16 SBRK 51527 79 SCANF 54685 13 SEGREAD 56887 21 SET_VECTOR 55390 36 SETBUF 54944 13 SETJMP 55172 14 SETUID 55390 36 SETVBUF 57601 26 SIGNAL 58689 13 SIN 7032 11 SINH 58898 21 SPAWNL 58898 21 SPAWNV 58898 21 SPAWNVE 59660 19 SPRINTF 60264 14 SQRT 60840 18 SRAND 60457 16 SSCANF 61320 41 STAT 63066 29 STRCAT 64450 18 STRCHR 63066 29 STRCMP 63066 29 STRCPY 63066 29 STRLEN 63066 29 STRNCAT 63066 29 STRNCMP 63066 29 STRNCPY 64450 18 STRRCHR 64992 24 SYSTEM 65672 13 TAN 7032 11 TANH 65835 19 TIME 66421 19 TOASCII 66421 19 TOLOWER 66421 19 TOUPPER 66935 18 UNGETC 26188 21 UNGETCH 67413 15 UNLINK 67822 47 VA_ARG 67822 47 VA_END 67822 47 VA_START 42619 92 VPRINTF 69847 71 WRITE %ACOS %ASIN %ATAN %ATAN2 SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double acos(double f) double asin(double f) double atan(double f) double atan2(double x, double y) DESCRIPTION These functions are the converse of the trignometric func- tions cos, sin and tan. Acos and asin are undefined for ar- guments whose absolute value is greater than 1.0. The re- turned value is in radians, and always in the range -pi/2 to +pi/2, except for ■#cos(), which returns a value in the range 0 to pi. ■%Atan2() returns the inverse tan of x/y but uses the signs of its arguments to return a value in the range -pi to +pi. SEE ALSO sin, cos, tan %ASCTIME SYNOPSIS #include <time.h> char * asctime(time_t t) DESCRIPTION ■'Asctime() takes the broken down time pointed to by its argu- ment, and returns a 26 character string describing the current date and time in the format Sun Sep 16 01:03:52 1973\n\0 Note the newline at the end of the string. The width of each field in the string is fixed. SEE ALSO ctime, time, gmtime, localtime %ASSERT SYNOPSIS #include <assert.h> void assert(int e) DESCRIPTION This macro is used for debugging purposes; the basic method of usage is to place assertions liberally throughout your code at points where correct operation of the code depends upon certain conditions being true initially. An ■&assert() may be used to ensure at run time that that assumption holds. For is non-null: assert(tp); If at run time the expression evaluates to false, the pro- gram will abort with a message identifying the source file and line number of the assertion, and the expression used as an argument to it. A fuller discussion of the uses of assert is impossible in limited space, but it is closely linked to methods of proving program correctness. %ATOF %ATOI %ATOL SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double atof(char * s) int atoi(char * s) #include <stdlib.h> long atol(char * s) DESCRIPTION These routines convert a decimal number in the argument string s into a double float, integer or long integer respectively. Leading blanks are skipped over. In the case of ■$atof(), the number may be in scientific notation. %BDOS SYNOPSIS #include <cpm.h> char bdos(int func, int arg) short bdoshl(int func, int arg)(CP/M-80 only) DESCRIPTION ■$Bdos() calls the CP/M BDOS with func in register C (CL for CP/M-86) and arg in register DE (DX). The return value is the byte returned by the BDOS in register A (AX). ■&Bdoshl() is the same, except that the return value is the value re- turned by the BDOS in HL. Constant values for the various BDOS function values are defined in cpm.h. These functions should be avoided except in programs which are not intended to be used on an operating system other than CP/M. The standard I/O routines are to be preferred, since they are portable. SEE ALSO bios, msdos %BIOS SYNOPSIS #includ <cpm.h> char bios(int n, int a1, int a2) DESCRIPTION This function will call the n'th bios entry point (cold boot = 0, warm boot = 1, etc.) with register BC (CX) set to the argument a1 and DE (DX) set to the argument a2. The return value is the contents of register A (AX) after the bios call. On CP/M-86, bdos function 50 is used to perform the bios call. This function should not be used unless unavoid- able, since it is highly non-portable. There is even no guarantee of portability of bios calls between differing CP/M systems. SEE ALSO bdos %CALLOC SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> char * calloc(size_t cnt, size_t size) DESCRIPTION ■&Calloc() attempts to obtain a contiguous block of dynamic memory which will hold cnt objects, each of length size. The block is filled with zeroes. A pointer to the block is re- turned, or 0 if the memory could not be allocated. SEE ALSO brk, sbrk, malloc, free %CGETS %CPUTS SYNOPSIS #include <conio.h> char * cgets(char * s) void cputs(char * s) DESCRIPTION ■%Cputs() will read one line of input from the console into the buffer passed as an argument. It does so by repeated calls to ■&getche(). ■%Cputs() writes its argument string to the console, outputting carriage returns before each newline in the string. It calls ■%putch() repeatedly. SEE ALSO getch, getche, putch %CHDIR SYNOPSIS #include <sys.h> int chdir(char * s) DESCRIPTION This function is availble only under MS-DOS. It changes the current working directory to the path name supplied as argu- ment. This path name be be absolute, as in A:\FRED, or rela- tive, as in ..\SOURCES. A return value of -1 indicates that the requested change could not be performed. SEE ALSO mkdir, rmdir, getcwd %CHMOD SYNOPSIS #include <stat.h> int chmod(char * name, int ) char * name; int mode; DESCRIPTION This function changes the file attributes (or modes) of the named file. The argument name may be any valid file name. The mode argument may include all bits defined in ■$stat.■!h ex- cept those relating to the type of the file, e.g. S_IFDIR. Note however that not all bits may be changed under all operating systems, e.g. neither DOS nor CP/M permit a file to be made unreadable, thus even if mode does not include S_IREAD the file will still be readable (and ■$stat() will still return S_IREAD in flags). SEE ALSO stat, creat %CLOSE SYNOPSIS #include <unixio.h> int close(int fd) DESCRIPTION This routine closes the file associated with the file descriptor fd, which will have been previously obtained from a call to ■$open(). ■%Close() returns 0 for a successful close, or -1 otherwise. SEE ALSO open, read, write, seek %CLRERR %CLREOF SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> void clrerr(FILE * stream) void clreof(FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION These are macros, defined in stdio.h, which reset the error and end of file flags respectively for the specified stream. They should be used with care; the major valid use is for clearing an EOF status on input from a terminal-like device, where it may be valid to continue to read after having seen an end-of-file indication. SEE ALSO fopen, fclose %COS SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double cos(double f) DESCRIPTION This function yields the cosine of its argument. SEE ALSO sin, tan, asin, acos, atan %COSH %SINH %TANH SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double cosh(double f) double sinh(double f) double tanh(double f) DESCRIPTION These functions implement the hyperbolic trig functions. %CREAT SYNOPSIS #include <stat.h> int creat(char * name, int mode) DESCRIPTION This routine attempts to create the file named by name. If the file exists and is writeable, it will be removed and re-created. The return value is -1 if the create failed, or a small non-negative number if it succeeded. This number is a valuable token which must be used to write to or close the file subsequently. Mode is used to initialize the attri- butes of the created file. The allowable bits are the same as for ■%chmod(), but for Unix compatibility it is recommended that a mode of 0666 or 0600 be used. Under CP/M the mode is ignored - the only way to set a files attributes is via the ■%chmod() function. SEE ALSO open, close, read, write, seek, stat, chmod %CTIME SYNOPSIS #include <time.h> char * ctime(time_t t) DESCRIPTION ■%Ctime() converts the time in seconds pointed to by its argu- ment to a string of the same form as described for asctime. Thus the following program prints the current time and date: #include <time.h> main() { time_t t; time(&t); printf("%s", ctime(&t)); } SEE ALSO gmtime, localtime, asctime, time %DI %EI SYNOPSIS void ei(void); void di(void); DESCRIPTION ■"Ei() and ■"di() enable and disable interrupts respectivly. %DUP SYNOPSIS #include <unixio.h> int dup(int fd) DESCRIPTION Given a file descriptor, such as returned by ■$open(), this routine will return another file descriptor which will refer to the same open file. -1 is returned if the fd argument is a bad descriptor or does not refer to an open file. SEE ALSO open, close, creat, read, write %EXECL %EXECV SYNOPSIS #include <sys.h> int execl(char * name, pname, ...) int execv(char * name, ppname) DESCRIPTION ■%Execl() and ■%execv() load and execute the program specified by the string name. ■%Execl() takes the arguments for the pro- gram from the zero-terminated list of string arguments. ■#Ex- ■#ecv() is passed a pointer to an array of strings. The array must be zero-terminated. If the named program is found and can be read, the call does not return. Thus any return from these routines may be treated as an error. SEE ALSO spawnl, spawnv, system %EXIT SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> void exit(int status) DESCRIPTION This call will close all open files and exit from the pro- gram. On CP/M, this means a return to CCP level. Status will be stored in a known place for examination by other pro- grams. This is only useful if the program executing was ac- tually invoked by another program which is trapping warm boots. The status value will be stored on CP/M at 80H. This call will never return. %_EXIT SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> void _exit(int status) DESCRIPTION This function will cause an immediate exit from the program, without the normal flushing of stdio buffers that is per- formed by ■$exit(). SEE ALSO %EXP %LOG %LOG10 %POW SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double exp(double f) double log(double f) double log10(double f) double pow(double x, y) DESCRIPTION ■#Exp() returns the exponential function of its argument, ■#log() the natural logarithm of f, and ■%log10() the logarithm to base 10. ■#Pow() returns the value of x raised to the y'th power. %FABS %CEIL %FLOOR SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double fabs(double f) double ceil(double f) double floor(double f) DESCRIPTION These routines return respectively the absolute value of f, the smallest integral value not less than f, and the largest integral value not greater than f. %FCLOSE SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int fclose(FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION This routine closes the specified i/o stream. Stream should be a token returned by a previous call to ■%fopen(). NULL is returned on a successful close, EOF otherwise. SEE ALSO fopen, fread, fwrite %FEOF %FERROR SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> feof(FILE * stream) ferror(FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION These macros test the status of the EOF and ERROR bits respectively for the specified stream. Each will be true if the corresponding flag is set. The macros are defined in stdio.h. Stream must be a token returned by a previous ■%fopen() call. SEE ALSO fopen, fclose %FFLUSH SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int fflush(FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION ■&Fflush() will output to the disk file or other device currently open on the specified stream the contents of the associated buffer. This is typically used for flushing buf- fered standard output in interactive applications. SEE ALSO fopen, fclose %FGETC SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int fgetc(FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION ■%Fgetc() returns the next character from the input stream. If end-of-file is encountered EOF will be returned instead. It is for this reason that the function is declared as int. The integer EOF is not a valid byte, thus end-of-file is distinguishable from reading a byte of all 1 bits from the file. ■%Fgetc() is the non-macro version of ■$getc(). SEE ALSO fopen, fclose, fputc, getc, putc %FGETS SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> char * fgets(char * s, size_t n, char * stream) DESCRIPTION ■%Fgets() places in the buffer s up to n-1 characters from the input stream. If a newline is seen in the input before the correct number of characters is read, then ■%fgets() will re- turn immediately. The newline will be left in the buffer. The buffer will be null terminated in any case. A success- ful ■%fgets() will return its first argument; NULL is returned on end-of-file or error. %FILENO SYNOPSIS fileno(FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION ■&Fileno() is a macro from stdio.h which yields the file descriptor associated with stream. It is mainly used when it is desired to perform some low-level operation on a file opened as a stdio stream. SEE ALSO fopen, fclose, open, close %FOPEN SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> FILE * fopen(char * name, char * mode); DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION ■%Fopen() attempts to open file for reading or writing (or both) according to the mode string supplied. The mode string is interpreted as follows: r The file is opend for reading if it exists. If the file does not exist the call fails. r+ If the file exists it is opened for reading and writing. If the file does not already exist the call fails. w The file is created if it does not exist, or truncated if it does. It is then opened for writing. w+ The file is created if it does not already exist, or trun- cated if it does. The file is opened for reading and writ- ing. a The file is created if it does not already exist, and opened for writing. All writes will be dynamically forced to the end of file, thus this mode is known as ■&append mode. a+ The file is created if it does not already exist, and opened for reading and writing. All writes to the file will be dynamically forced to the end of the file, i.e. while any portion of the file may be read, all writes will take place at the end of the file and will not overwrite any existing data. Calling ■%fseek() in an attempt to write at any other place in the file will not be effective. The "b" modifier may be appended to any of the above modes, e.g. "r+b" or "rb+" are equivalent. Adding the "b" modifier will cause the file to be opened in binary rather than ASCII mode. Opening in ASCII mode ensures that text files are read in a manner compatible with the Unix-derived conventions for C programs, i.e. that text files contain lines delimited by newline characters. The special treatment of read or written char- acters varies with the operating system, but includes some or all of the following: NEWLINE (LINE FEED) Converted to carriage return, line feed on output. RETURN Ignored on input, inserted before NEWLINE on output. CTRL-Z Signals EOF on input, appended on fclose on output if neces- sary on CP/M. Opening a file in binary mode will allow each character to be read just as written, but because the exact size of a file is not known to CP/M, the file may contain more bytes than were written to it. See ■$open() for a description of what constitutes a file name. When using one of the read/write modes (with a '+' character in the string), although they permits reading and writing on the same stream, it is not possible to arbitrarily mix input and output calls to the same stream. At any given time a stream opened with a "+" mode will be in either an input or output state. The state may only be changed when the associated buffer is empty, which is only guaranteed immediately after a call to ■&fflush() or one of the file positioning functions ■%fseek() or ■&rewind(). The buffer will also be empty after encountering EOF while reading a binary stream, but it is recommended that an explicit call to ■&fflush() be used to ensure this si- tuation. Thus after reading from a stream you should call ■&fflush() or ■%fseek() before attempting to write on that stream, and vice versa. SEE ALSO fclose, fgetc, fputc, freopen %FPRINTF SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> fprintf(FILE * stream, char * fmt, ...); vfprintf(FILE * stream, va_list va_arg); DESCRIPTION ■'Fprintf() performs formatted printing on the specified stream. Refer to ■&printf() for the details of the available formats. ■(Vfprintf() is similar to ■'fprintf() but takes a variable argument list pointer rather than a list of argu- ments. See the description of ■"va_■%start() for more informa- tion on variable argument lists. SEE ALSO printf, fscanf, sscanf %FPUTC SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int fputc(int c, FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION The character c is written to the supplied stream. This is the non-macro version of ■$putc(). The character is returned if it was successfully written, EOF is returned otherwise. Note that "written to the stream" may mean only placing the character in the buffer associated with the stream. SEE ALSO putc, fgetc, fopen, fflush %FPUTS SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int fputs(char * s, FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION The null-terminated string s is written to the stream. No newline is appended (cf. ■$puts() ). The error return is EOF. SEE ALSO puts, fgets, fopen, fclose %FREAD SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int fread(void * buf, size_t size, size_t cnt, FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION Up to cnt objects, each of length size, are read into memory at buf from the stream. The return value is the number of objects read. If none is read, 0 will be returned. Note that a return value less than cnt, but greater than 0, may not represent an error (cf. ■&fwrite() ). No word alignment in the stream is assumed or necessary. The read is done via successive ■$getc()'s. SEE ALSO fwrite, fopen, fclose, getc %FREE SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> void free(void * ptr) DESCRIPTION ■$Free() deallocates the block of memory at ptr, which must have been obtained from a call to ■&malloc() or ■&calloc(). SEE ALSO malloc, calloc %FREOPEN SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> FILE * freopen(char * name, char * mode, FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION ■'Freopen() closes the given stream (if open) then re-opens the stream attached to the file described by name. The mode of opening is given by mode. It either returns the stream argument, if successful, or NULL if not. See ■%fopen() for more information. SEE ALSO fopen, fclose %FREXP %LDEXP SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double frexp(double f, int * p) double ldexp(double f, int i) DESCRIPTION ■%Frexp() breaks a floating point number into a normalized fraction and an integral power of 2. The integer is stored into the int object pointed to by p. Its return value x is in the interval [0.5, 1.0) or zero, and f equals x times 2 raised to the power stored in *p. If f is zero, both parts of the result are zero. ■%Ldexp() performs the reverse opera- tion; the integer i is added to the exponent of the floating point f and the resultant value returned. %FSCANF SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int fscanf(FILE * stream, char * fmt, ...) DESCRIPTION This routine performs formatted input from the specified stream. See ■%scanf() for a full description of the behaviour of the routine. ■'Vfscanf() is similar to ■&fscanf() but takes a variable argument list pointer rather than a list of argu- ments. See the description of ■"va_■%start() for more informa- tion on variable argument lists. SEE ALSO scanf, sscanf, fopen, fclose %FSEEK SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int fseek(FILE * stream, long offs, int wh) DESCRIPTION ■%Fseek() positions the "file pointer" (i.e. a pointer to the next character to be read or written) of the specified stream as follows: center box; c|c n|l. wh resultant lo- cation _ 0 offs 1 offs+previous location 2 offs+length of file It should be noted that offs is a signed value. Thus the 3 al- lowed modes give postioning relative to the beginning of the file, the current file pointer and the end of the file respectively. EOF is returned if the positioning request could not be satisfied. Note however that positioning beyond the end of the file is legal, but will result in an EOF in- dication if an attempt is made to read data there. It is quite in order to write data beyond the previous end of file. ■%Fseek() correctly accounts for any buffered data. SEE ALSO lseek, fopen, fclose %FTELL SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> long ftell(FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION This function returns the current position of the conceptual read/write pointer associated with stream. This is the po- sition relative to the beginning of the file of the next byte to be read from or written to the file. SEE ALSO fseek %FWRITE SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int fwrite(void * buf, size_t size, size_t cnt, FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION Cnt objects of length size bytes will be written from memory at buf, to the specified stream. The number of whole objects written will be returned, or 0 if none could be written. Any return value not equal to cnt should be treated as an error (cf. ■%fread() ). SEE ALSO fread, fopen, fclose %_GETARGS SYNOPSIS #include <sys.h> char ** _getargs(char * buf, char * name) extern int _argc_; DESCRIPTION This routine performs I/O redirection (CP/M only) and wild card expansion. Under MS-DOS I/O redirection is performed by the operating system. It is called from startup code to operate on the command line if the -R option is used to the C command, but may also be called by user-written code. If the buf argument is null, it will read lines of text from standard input. If the standard input is a terminal (usually the console) the name argument will be written to the stan- dard error stream as a prompt. If the buf argument is not null, it will be used as the source of the string to be pro- cessed. The returned value is a pointer to an array of strings, exactly as would be pointed to by the argv argument to the main() function. The number of strings in the array may be obtained from the global _argc_. For example, a typi- cal use of this function would be: #include <sys.h> main(argc, argv) char ** argv; { extern char ** _getargs(); extern int _argc_; if(argc == 1) { /* no arguments */ argv = _getargs(0, "myname"); argc = _argc_; } . . . } There will be one string in the array for each word in the buffer processed. Quotes, either single (') or double (") may be used to include white space in "words". If any wild card characters (? or *) appear in a non-quoted word, it will be expanded into a string of words, one for each file matching the word. The usual CP/M conventions are followed for this expansion. On CP/M any occurence of the redirection characters > and < outside quotes will be handled in the following manner: > name will cause standard output to be redirected to the file name. < name will cause standard input to be redirected from the file name. >> name will cause standard output to append to file name. White space is optional between the > or < character and the file name, however it is an error for a redirection character not to be followed by a file name. It is also an error if a file cannot be opened for input or created for output. An append redirection (>>) will create the file if it does not exist. If the source of text to be processed is standard input, several lines may be supplied by ending each line (except the last) with a backslash (\). This serves as a continuation character. Note that the newline following the backslash is ignored, and not treated as white space. %GETC SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int getc(FILE * stream) FILE * stream; DESCRIPTION One character is read from the specified stream and re- turned. EOF will be returned on end-of-file or error. This is the macro version of ■%fgetc(), and is defined in stdio.h. %GETCH %GETCHE %UNGETCH %PUTCH SYNOPSIS #include <conio.h> char getch(void) char getche(void) void putch(int c) DESCRIPTION ■%Getch() reads a single character from the console keyboard and returns it without echoing. ■&Getche() is similar but does echo the character typed. ■'Ungetch() will push back one character such that the next call to ■%getch() or ■&getche() will return that character. ■%Putch() outputs the character c to the console screen, prepending a carriage return if the character is a newline. SEE ALSO cgets, cputs %GETCHAR SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int getchar(void) DESCRIPTION ■'Getchar() is a ■$getc(■%stdin) operation. It is a macro defined in stdio.h. Note that under normal circumstances getchar() will NOT return unless a carriage return has been typed on the console. To get a single character immediately from the console, use the routine ■%getch(). SEE ALSO getc, fgetc, freopen, fclose %GETCWD SYNOPSIS #include <sys.h> char * getcwd(int drive) DESCRIPTION ■&Getcwd() returns the path name of the current working direc- tory on the specified drive, where drive == 0 represents the current drive, drive == 1 represents A:, drive == 2 represents B: etc. The return value is a pointer to a stat- ic area of memory which will be overwritten on the next call to ■&getcwd(). SEE ALSO chdir %GETENV SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> char * getenv(char * s) extern char ** environ; DESCRIPTION ■&Getenv() will search the vector of environment strings for one matching the argument supplied, and return the value part of that environment string. For example, if the en- vironment contains the string COMSPEC=A:\COMMAND.COM then ■&getenv("■'COMSPEC") will return A:\COMMAND.COM. The glo- bal variable environ is a pointer to an array of pointers to environment strings, terminated by a null pointer. This ar- ray is initialized at startup time under MS-DOS from the en- vironment pointer supplied when the program was executed. Under CP/M no such environment is supplied, so the first call to ■&getenv() will attempt to open a file in the current user number on the current drive called ENVIRON. This file should contain definitions for any environment variables desired to be accessible to the program, e.g. HITECH=0:C: Each variable definition should be on a separate line, con- sisting of the variable name (conventionally all in upper case) followed without intervening white space by an equal sign ('=') then the value to be assigned to that variable. %GETS SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> char * gets(char * s) DESCRIPTION ■$Gets() reads a line from standard input into the buffer at s, deleting the newline (cf. ■%fgets() ). The buffer is null terminated. It returns its argument, or NULL on end-of-file. SEE ALSO fgets, freopen %GETUID SYNOPSIS #include <sys.h> int getuid(void) DESCRIPTION ■&Getuid() returns the current user number. On CP/M, the current user number determines the user number associated with an opened or created file, unless overridden by an ex- plicit user number prefix in the file name. SEE ALSO setuid, open %GETW SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int getw(FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION ■$Getw() returns one word (16 bits for the Z80 and 8086) from the nominated stream. EOF is returned on end-of-file, but since this is a perfectly good word, the ■$feof() macro should be used for testing for end-of-file. When reading the word, no special alignment in the file is necessary, as the read is done by two consecutive ■$getc()'s. The byte ordering is however undefined. The word read should in general have been written by ■$putw(). SEE ALSO putw, getc, fopen, fclose %GMTIME %LOCALTIME SYNOPSIS #include <time.h> struct tm * gmtime(time_t * t) struct tm * localtime(time_t * t) DESCRIPTION These functions convert the time pointed to by t which is in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan 1, 1970, into a broken down time stored in a structure as defined in ■$time.■!h. ■&Gmtime() performs a straight conversion, while ■)localtime() takes into account the contents of the global integer time_zone. This should contain the number of minutes that the local time zone is WESTWARD of Greenwich. Since there is no way under MS-DOS of actually pre-determining this value, by default ■)localtime() will return the same result as ■&gmtime(). SEE ALSO ctime, asctime, time %INP %OUTP SYNOPSIS char inp(unsigned port) void outp(unsigned, unsigned data) DESCRIPTION These routines read and write bytes to and from I/O ports. ■#Inp() returns the data byte read from the specified port, and ■$outp() outputs the data byte to the specified port. %INT86 %INT86X %INTDOS %INTDOSX SYNOPSIS #include <dos.h> int int86(int intno, union REGS * inregs, union REGS * outregs) int int86x(int intno, union REGS inregs, union REGS outregs, struct SREGS * segregs) int intdos(union REGS * inregs, union REGS * outregs) int intdosx(union REGS * inregs, union REGS * outregs, struct SREGS * segregs) DESCRIPTION These functions allow calling of software interrupts from C programs. ■%Int86() and ■&int86x() execute the software inter- rupt specified by ■%intno while ■&intdos() and ■'intdosx() execute interrupt 21(hex), which is the MS-DOS system call inter- rupt. The inregs pointer should point to a union containing values for each of the general purpose registers to be set when executing the interrupt, and the values of the regis- ters on return are copied into the union pointed to by outregs. The ■!x versions of the calls also take a pointer to a union defining the segment register values to be set on execution of the interrupt, though only ES and DS are actu- ally set from this structure. SEE ALSO segread %ISALNUM %ISALPHA %ISDIGIT %ISLOWER %ISCNTRL %ISPRINT %ISGRAPH %ISPUNCT %ISSPACE SYNOPSIS #include <ctype.h> isalnum(char c) isalpha(char c) isascii(char c) iscntrl(char c) isdigit(char c) islower(char c) isprint(char c) isgraph(char c) ispunct(char c) isspace(char c) isupper(char c) char c; DESCRIPTION These macros, defined in ctype.h, test the supplied charac- ter for membership in one of several overlapping groups of characters. Note that all except isascii are defined for ■!c iff ■'isascii(■!c) is true. isalnum(c) c is alphanumeric isalpha(c) c is in A-Z or a-z isascii(c) c is a 7 bit ascii character iscntrl(c) c is a control character isdigit(c) c is a decimal digit islower(c) c is in a-z isprint(c) c is a printing char isgraph(c) c is a non-space printable character ispunct(c) c is not alphanumeric isspace(c) c is a space, tab or newline isupper(c) c is in A-Z isxdigit(c) c is in 0-9 or a-f or A-F SEE ALSO toupper, tolower, toascii %ISATTY SYNOPSIS #include <unixio.h> int isatty(int fd) DESCRIPTION This tests the type of the file associated with fd. It re- turns true if the file is attached to a tty-like device. This would normally be used for testing if standard input is coming from a file or the console. For testing STDIO streams, use ■&isatty(■&fileno(■&stream)). %KBHIT SYNOPSIS #include <conio.h> int kbhit(void) DESCRIPTION This function returns 1 if a character has been pressed on the console keyboard, 0 otherwise. Normally the character would then be read via ■%getch(). SEE ALSO getch, getche %LONGJMP SYNOPSIS #include <setjmp.h> void longjmp(jmp_buf buf, int val) DESCRIPTION ■'Longjmp(), in conjunction with ■&setjmp(), provides a mechan- ism for non-local gotos. To use this facility, ■&setjmp() should be called with a jmp_buf argument in some outer level function. The call from ■&setjmp() will return 0. To return to this level of execution, ■&lonjmp() may be called with the same jmp_buf argument from an inner level of execution. Note however that the function which called ■&setjmp() must still be active when ■'longjmp() is called. Breach of this rule will cause disaster, due to the use of a stack containing invalid data. The val argument to ■'longjmp() will be the value ap- parently returned from the ■&setjmp(). This should normally be non-zero, to distinguish it from the genuine ■&setjmp() call. For example: #include <setjmp.h> static jmp_buf jb_err; main() { if(setjmp(jb_err)) { printf("An error occured\n"); exit(1); } a_func(); } a_func() { if(do_whatever() != 0) longjmp(jb_err, 1); if(do_something_else() != 0) longjmp(jb_err, 2); } The calls to ■'longjmp() above will never return; rather the call to ■&setjmp() will appear to return, but with a return value equal to the argument supplied to ■'longjmp(). SEE ALSO setjmp %LSEEK SYNOPSIS #include <unixio.h> long lseek(int fd, long offs, int wh) DESCRIPTION This function operates in an analogous manner to ■%fseek(), however it does so on unbuffered low-level i/o file descrip- tors, rather than on STDIO streams. It also returns the resulting pointer location. Thus ■%lseek(■"fd, ■"0L, ■!1) returns the current pointer location without moving it. -1 is re- turned on error. SEE ALSO open, close, read, write %MALLOC SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> void * malloc(size_t cnt) DESCRIPTION ■&Malloc() attempts to allocate cnt bytes of memory from the "heap", the dynamic memory allocation area. If successful, it returns a pointer to the block, otherwise 0 is returned. The memory so allocated may be freed with ■$free(), or changed in size via ■'realloc(). ■&Malloc() calls ■$sbrk() to obtain memory, and is in turn called by ■&calloc(). ■&Malloc() does not clear the memory it obtains. SEE ALSO calloc, free, realloc %MEMSET %MEMCPY %MEMCMP SYNOPSIS #include <string.h> void memset(void s, char c, int n) void memcpy(void * d, void * s, int n) int memcmp(void * s1, void * s2, int n) DESCRIPTION ■&Memset() initializes n bytes of memory starting at the loca- tion pointed to by s with the character c. ■&Memcpy() copies n bytes of memory starting from the location pointed to by s to the block of memory pointed to by d. The result of copy- ing overlapping blocks is undefined. ■&Memcmp() compares two blocks of memory, of length n, and returns a signed value similar to ■'strncmp(). Unlike ■'strncmp() the comparision does not stop on a null character. The ascii collating sequence is used for the comparision, but the effect of including non-ascii characters in the memory blocks on the sense of the return value is indeterminate. SEE ALSO strncpy, strncmp %MKDIR %RMDIR SYNOPSIS #include <sys.h> int mkdir(char * s) int rmdir(char * s) DESCRIPTION These functions allow the creation (■%mkdir()) and deletion (■%rmdir()) of sub-directories under the MS-DOS operating sys- tem. The argument s may be an arbitrary pathname, and the return value will be -1 if the creation or removal was un- successful. SEE ALSO chdir %MSDOS %MSDOSCX SYNOPSIS #include <dos.h> long msdos(int ax, int dx, int cx, int bx, int si, int di) long msdoscx(int ax, int dx, int cx, int bx, int si, int di) DESCRIPTION These functions allow direct access to MS-DOS system calls. The arguments will be placed in the registers implied by their names, while the return value will be the contents of AX and DX (for ■%msdos()) or the contents of DX and CX (for ■'msdoscx()). Only as many arguments as necessary need be supplied, e.g. if only AH and DX need have specified valued, then only 2 argument would be required. The following piece of code outputs a form-feed to the printer. msdos(0x500, '\f'); Note that the system call number (in this case 5) must be multiplied by 0x100 since MS-DOS expects the call number in AH, the high byte of AX. SEE ALSO intdos, intdosx, int86, int86x %OPEN SYNOPSIS #include <unixio.h> int open(char * name, int mode) DESCRIPTION ■$Open() is the fundamental means of opening files for reading and writing. The file specified by name is sought, and if found is opened for reading, writing or both. Mode is encod- ed as follows: Mode Meaning 0 Open for reading only 1 Open for writing only 2 Open for both reading and writing The file must already exist - if it does not, ■%creat() should be used to create it. On a successful open, a file descriptor is returned. This is a non-negative integer which may be used to refer to the open file subsequently. If the open fails, -1 is returned. The syntax of a CP/M filename is: [uid:][drive:]name.type where uid is a decimal number 0 to 15, drive is a letter A to P or a to p, name is 1 to 8 characters and type is 0 to 3 characters. Though there are few inherent restrictions on the characters in the name and type, it is recommended that they be restricted to the alphanumerics and standard print- ing characters. Use of strange characters may cause prob- lems in accessing and/or deleting the file. One or both of uid: and drive: may be omitted; if both are sup- plied, the uid: must come first. Note that the [ and ] are meta-symbols only. Some examples are: fred.dat file.c 0:xyz.com 0:a:file1.p a:file2. If the uid: is omitted, the file will be sought with uid equal to the current user number, as returned by getuid(). If drive: is omitted, the file will be sought on the currently select- ed drive. The following special file names are recognized: lst: Accesses the list device - write only pun: Accesses the punch device - write only rdr: Accesses the reader device - read only con: Accesses the system console - read/write File names may be in any case - they are converted to upper case during processing of the name. MS-DOS filenames may be any valid MS-DOS 2.xx filename, e.g. fred.nrk A:\\HITECH\\STDIO.H The special device names (e.g. CON, LST) are also recognized. These do not require (and should not have) a trailing colon. SEE ALSO close, fopen, fclose, read, write, creat %PERROR SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> void perror(char * s) DESCRIPTION This routine will print on the stderr stream the argument s, followed by a descriptive message detailing the last error returned from an open, close read or write call. Unfor- tunately CP/M does not provide definitive information relat- ing to the error, except in the case of a random read or write. Thus this routine is of limited usefulness under CP/M. MS-DOS provides much more information however, and use of ■&perror() after MS-DOS file handling calls will certainly give useful diagnostics. SEE ALSO open, close, read, write %PRINTF %VPRINTF SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int printf(char * fmt, ...) int vprintf(char * fmt, va_list va_arg) DESCRIPTION ■&Printf() is a formatted output routine, operating on stdout. There are corresponding routines operating on a given stream (■'fprintf()) or into a string buffer (■'sprintf()). ■&Printf() is passed a format string, followed by a list of zero or more arguments. In the format string are conversion specifica- tions, each of which is used to print out one of the argu- ment list values. Each conversion specification is of the form %m.nc where the percent symbol % introduces a conver- sion, followed by an optional width specification m. n is an optional precision specification (introduced by the dot) and c is a letter specifying the type of the conversion. A minus sign ('-') preceding m indicates left rather than right adjustment of the converted value in the field. Where the field width is larger than required for the conversion, blank padding is performed at the left or right as speci- fied. Where right adjustment of a numeric conversion is specified, and the first digit of m is 0, then padding will be performed with zeroes rather than blanks. If the character * is used in place of a decimal constant, e.g. in the format %*d, then one integer argument will be taken from the list to provide that value. The types of conver- sion are: f Floating point - m is the total width and n is the number of digits after the decimal point. If n is omitted it defaults to 6. e Print the corresponding argument in scientific notation. Otherwise similar to f. g Use e or f format, whichever gives maximum precision in minimum width. o x X u d Integer conversion - in radices 8, 16, 10 and 10 respective- ly. The conversion is signed in the case of d, unsigned oth- erwise. The precision value is the total number of digits to print, and may be used to force leading zeroes. E.g. %8.4x will print at least 4 hex digits in an 8 wide field. Preceding the key letter with an l indicates that the value argument is a long integer or unsigned value. The letter X prints out hexadecimal numbers using the upper case letters ■!A-■!F rather than ■!a-■!f as would be printed when using x. s Print a string - the value argument is assumed to be a char- acter pointer. At most n characters from the string will be printed, in a field m characters wide. c The argument is assumed to be a single character and is printed literally. Any other characters used as conversion specifications will be printed. Thus %% will produce a single percent sign. Some examples: printf("Total = %4d%%", 23) yields 'Total = 23%' printf("Size is %lx" , size) where size is a long, prints size as hexadecimal. printf("Name = %.8s", "a1234567890") yields 'Name = a1234567' printf("xx%*d", 3, 4) yields 'xx 4' Printf returns EOF on error, 0 otherwise. ■'Vprintf() is similar to ■&printf() but takes a variable argument list pointer rath- er than a list of arguments. See the description of ■"va_■%start() for more information on variable argument lists. SEE ALSO fprintf, sprintf %PUTC SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int putc(int c, FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION ■$Putc() is the macro version of ■%fputc() and is defined in stdio.h. See ■%fputc() for a description of its behaviour. SEE ALSO fputc, getc, fopen, fclose %PUTCHAR SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int putchar(int c) DESCRIPTION ■'Putchar() is a ■$putc() operation on stdout, defined in stdio.h. SEE ALSO putc, getc, freopen, fclose %PUTS SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int puts(char * s) DESCRIPTION ■$Puts() writes the string s to the stdout stream, appending a newline. The null terminating the string is not copied. EOF is returned on error. SEE ALSO fputs, gets, freopen, fclose %PUTW SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int putw(int w, FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION ■$Putw() copies the word w to the given stream. It returns w, except on error, in which case EOF is returned. Since this is a good integer, ■&ferror() should be used to check for er- rors. SEE ALSO getw, fopen, fclose %QSORT SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> void qsort(void * base, size_t nel, size_t width, int (*func)()) DESCRIPTION ■%Qsort() is an implementation of the quicksort algorithm. It sorts an array of nel items, each of length width bytes, lo- cated contiguously in memory at base. Func is a pointer to a function used by ■%qsort() to compare items. It calls func with pointers to two items to be compared. If the first item is considered to be greater than, equal to or less than the second then ■$func() should return a value greater than zero, equal to zero or less than zero respectively. static short array[100]; #define SIZE sizeof array/sizeof array[0] a_func(p1, p2) short * p1, * p2; { return *p1 - *p2; } sort_em() { qsort(array, SIZE, sizeof array[0], a_func); } This will sort the array into ascending values. Note the use of sizeof to make the code independent of the size of a short, or the number of elements in the array. %RAND SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> int rand(void) DESCRIPTION ■$Rand() is a pseudo-random number generator. It returns an integer in the range 0 to 32767, which changes in a pseudo- random fashion on each call. SEE ALSO srand %READ SYNOPSIS #include <unixio.h> int read(int fd, void * buf, size_t cnt) DESCRIPTION ■$Read() will read from the file associated with fd up to cnt bytes into a buffer located at buf. It returns the number of bytes actually read. A zero return indicates end-of-file. A negative return indicates error. Fd should have been ob- tained from a previous call to ■$open(). It is possible for ■$read() to return less bytes than requested, e.g. when read- ing from the console, in which case ■$read() will read one line of input. SEE ALSO open, close, write %REALLOC SYNOPSIS void * realloc(void * ptr, size_t cnt) DESCRIPTION ■'Realloc() frees the block of memory at ptr, which should have been obtained by a previous call to ■&malloc(), ■&calloc() or ■'realloc(), then attempts to allocate cnt bytes of dynamic memory, and if successful copies the contents of the block of memory located at ptr into the new block. At most, ■%real- ■#loc() will copy the number of bytes which were in the old block, but if the new block is smaller, will only copy cnt bytes. If the block could not be allocated, 0 is returned. SEE ALSO malloc, calloc, realloc %REMOVE SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int remove(char * s) DESCRIPTION ■&Remove() will attempt to remove the file named by the argu- ment s from the directory. A return value of -1 indicates that the attempt failed. SEE ALSO unlink %RENAME SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int rename(char * name1, char * name2) DESCRIPTION The file named by name1 will be renamed to name2. -1 will be returned if the rename was not successful. Note that renames across user numbers or drives are not permitted. SEE ALSO open, close, unlink %REWIND SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int rewind(FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION This function will attempt to re-position the read/write pointer of the nominated stream to the beginning of the file. A return value of -1 indicates that the attempt was not successful, perhaps because the stream is associated with a non-random access file such as a character device. SEE ALSO fseek, ftell %SBRK SYNOPSIS char * sbrk(int incr) DESCRIPTION ■$Sbrk() increments the current highest memory location allo- cated to the program by incr bytes. It returns a pointer to the previous highest location. Thus ■$sbrk(■!0) returns a pointer to the current highest location, without altering its value. If there is insufficient memory to satisfy the request, -1 is returned. SEE ALSO brk, malloc, calloc, realloc, free %SCANF SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int scanf(char * fmt, ...) int vscanf(char *, va_list ap); DESCRIPTION ■%Scanf() performs formatted input ("de-editing") from the stdin stream. Similar functions are available for streams in general, and for strings. The function ■&vscanf() is similar, but takes a pointer to an argument list rather than a series of additional arguments. This pointer should have been ini- tialized with ■"va_■%start(). The input conversions are per- formed according to the fmt string; in general a character in the format string must match a character in the input; however a space character in the format string will match zero or more "white space" characters in the input, i.e. spaces, tabs or newlines. A conversion specification takes the form of the character %, optionally followed by an as- signment suppression character ('*'), optionally followed by a numerical maximum field width, followed by a conversion specification character. Each conversion specification, un- less it incorporates the assignment suppression character, will assign a value to the variable pointed at by the next argument. Thus if there are two conversion specifications in the fmt string, there should be two additional pointer argu- ments. The conversion characters are as follows: o x d Skip white space, then convert a number in base 8, 16 or 10 radix respectively. If a field width was supplied, take at most that many characters from the input. A leading minus sign will be recognized. f Skip white space, then convert a floating number in either conventional or scientific notation. The field width ap- plies as above. s Skip white space, then copy a maximal length sequence of non-white-space characters. The pointer argument must be a pointer to char. The field width will limit the number of characters copied. The resultant string will be null- terminated. c Copy the next character from the input. The pointer argument is assumed to be a pointer to char. If a field width is specified, then copy that many characters. This differs from the s format in that white space does not terminate the character sequence. The conversion characters o, x, u, d and f may be preceded by an l to indicate that the corresponding pointer argument is a pointer to long or double as appropriate. A preceding h will indicate that the pointer argument is a pointer to short rather than int. ■%Scanf() returns the number of successful conversions; EOF is re- turned if end-of-file was seen before any conversions were performed. Some examples are: scanf("%d %s", &a, &s) with input " 12s" will assign 12 to a, and "s" to s. scanf("%4cd %lf", &c, &f) with input " abcd -3.5" will assign " abc" to c, and -3.5 to f. SEE ALSO fscanf, sscanf, printf, va_arg %SEGREAD SYNOPSIS #include <dos.h> int segread(struct SREGS * segregs) DESCRIPTION ■'Segread() copies the values of the segment registers into the structure pointed to by segregs. SEE ALSO int86, int86x, intdos, intdosx %SETJMP SYNOPSIS #include <setjmp.h> int setjmp(jmp_buf buf) DESCRIPTION ■&Setjmp() is used with ■'longjmp() for non-local gotos. See ■'longjmp() for further information. SEE ALSO longjmp %SETUID SYNOPSIS #include <sys.h> void setuid(int uid) DESCRIPTION ■&Setuid() will set the current user number to uid. Uid should be a number in the range 0-15. SEE ALSO getuid %SETVBUF %SETBUF SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int setvbuf(FILE * stream, char * buf, int mode, size_t size); void setbuf(FILE * stream, char * buf) DESCRIPTION The ■'setvbuf() function allows the buffering behaviour of a STDIO stream to be altered. It supersedes the function ■$set- ■#buf() which is retained for backwards compatibility. The arguments to ■'setvbuf() are as follows: stream designates the STDIO stream to be affected; buf is a pointer to a buffer which will be used for all subsequent I/O operations on this stream. If buf is null, then the routine will allocate a buffer from the heap if necessary, of size BUFSIZ as defined in <stdio.h>. mode may take the values _IONBF, to turn buffering off completely, _IOFBF, for full buffering, or _IOLBF for line buffering. Full buffering means that the as- sociated buffer will only be flushed when full, while line buffering means that the buffer will be flushed at the end of each line or when input is requested from another STDIO stream. size is the size of the buffer supplied. For exam- ple: setvbuf(stdout, my_buf, _IOLBF, sizeof my_buf); If a buffer is supplied by the caller, that buffer will remain associated with that stream even over■&fclose(), ■%fopen() calls until another ■'setvbuf() changes it. SEE ALSO fopen, freopen, fclose %SET_VECTOR SYNOPSIS #include <intrpt.h> typedef interrupt void (*isr)(); isr set_vector(isr * vector, isr func); DESCRIPTION This routine allows an interrupt vector to be initialized. The first argument should be the address of the interrupt vector (not the vector number but the actual address) cast to a pointer to ■#isr, which is a typedef'd pointer to an in- terrupt function. The second argument should be the function which you want the interrupt vector to point to. This must be declared using the ■)interrupt type qualifier. The return value of ■#set_■&vector() is the previous contents of the vec- tor. SEE ALSO di(), ei() %SIGNAL SYNOPSIS #include <signal.h> void (* signal)(int sig, void (*func)()); DESCRIPTION ■&Signal() provides a mechanism for catching control-C's (ctrl-BREAK for MS-DOS) typed on the console during I/O. Under CP/M the console is polled whenever an I/O call is performed, while for MS-DOS the polling depends on the set- ting of the BREAK command. If a control-C is detected cer- tain action will be performed. The default action is to exit summarily; this may be modified with ■&signal(). The sig argu- ment to signal may at the present time be only SIGINT, sig- nifying an interrupt condition. The func argument may be one of SIG_DFL, representing the default action, SIG_IGN, to ig- nore control-C's completely, or the address of a function which will be called with one argument, the number of the signal caught, when a control-C is seen. As the only signal supported is SIGINT, this will always be the value of the argument to the called function. SEE ALSO exit %SIN SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double sin(double f); DESCRIPTION This function returns the sine function of its argument. SEE ALSO cos, tan, asin, acos, atan %SPAWNL %SPAWNV %SPAWNVE SYNOPSIS int spawnl(char * n, char * argv0, ...); int spawnv(cahr * n, char ** v) int spawnve(char * n, char ** v, char ** e) DESCRIPTION These functions will load and execute a sub-program, named by the argument n. The calling conventions are similar to the functions ■%execl() and ■%execv(), the difference being that the spawn functions return to the calling program after ter- mination of the sub-program, while the exec functions return only if the program could not be executed. ■'Spawnve() takes an environment list in the same format as the argument list which will be supplied to the executed program as its en- vironment. SEE ALSO execl, execv %SPRINTF SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int sprintf(char * buf, char * fmt, ...); int vsprintf(char * buf, char * fmt, va_list ap); DESCRIPTION ■'Sprintf() operates in a similar fashion to ■&printf(), except that instead of placing the converted output on the stdout stream, the characters are placed in the buffer at buf. The resultant string will be null-terminated, and the number of characters in the buffer will be returned. ■(Vsprintf takes an argument pointer rather than a list of arguments. SEE ALSO printf, fprintf, sscanf %SQRT SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double sqrt(double f) DESCRIPTION ■$Sqrt() implements a square root function using Newton's ap- proximation. SEE ALSO exp %SSCANF SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int sscanf(char * buf, char * fmt, ...); int vsscanf(char * buf, char * fmt, va_list ap); DESCRIPTION ■&Sscanf() operates in a similar manner to ■%scanf(), except that instead of the conversions being taken from stdin, they are taken from the string at buf. SEE ALSO scanf, fscanf, sprintf %SRAND SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> void srand(int seed) DESCRIPTION ■%Srand() initializes the random number generator accessed by ■$rand() with the given seed. This provides a mechanism for varying the starting point of the pseudo-random sequence yielded by ■$rand(). On the z80, a good place to get a truly random seed is from the refresh register. Otherwise timing a response from the console will do. SEE ALSO rand %STAT SYNOPSIS #include <stat.h> int stat(char * name, struct stat * statbuf) DESCRIPTION This routine returns information about the file by name. The information returned is operating system dependent, but may include file attributes (e.g. read only), file size in bytes, and file modification and/or access times. The argu- ment name should be the name of the file, and may include path names under DOS, user numbers under CP/M, etc. The ar- gument statbuf should be the address of a structure as de- fined in ■$stat.■!h which will be filled in with the information about the file. The structure of ■&struct ■$stat is as follows: struct stat { short st_mode; /* flags */ long st_atime; /* access time */ long st_mtime; /* modification time */ long st_size; /* file size */ }; The access and modification times (under DOS these are both set to the modification time) are in seconds since 00:00:00 Jan 1 1970. The function ■%ctime() may be used to convert this to a readable value. The file size is self explanatory. The flag bits are as follows: center; cc ll. Flag Meaning _ S_IFMT mask for file type S_IFDIR file is a directory S_IFREG file is a regular file S_IREAD file is readable S_IWRITE file is writeable S_IEXEC file is executable S_HIDDEN file is hidden S_SYSTEM file is marked system S_ARCHIVE file has been written to ■$Stat returns 0 on suc- cess, -1 on failure, e.g. if the file could not be found. SEE ALSO ctime, creat, chmod %STRCAT %STRCMP %STRCPY %STRLEN %STRNCAT %STRNCMP %STRNCPY SYNOPSIS #include <string.h> char * strcat(char * s1, char * s2); int strcmp(char * s1, char * s2); char * strcpy(char * s1, char * s2); int strlen(char * s); char * strncat(char * s1, char * s2, size_t n); int strncmp(char * s1, char * s2, size_t n); char * strncpy(char * s1, char * s2, size_t n); DESCRIPTION These functions provide operations on null-terminated strings. ■&Strcat() appends the string s2 to the end of the string s1. The string at s1 will be null terminated. Need- less to say the buffer at s1 must be big enough. ■&Strcmp() compares the two strings and returns a number greater than 0, 0 or a number less than 0 according to whether s1 is greater than, equal to or less than s2. The comparision is via the ascii collating order, with the first character the most significant. ■&Strcpy() copies s2 into the buffer at s1, null terminating it. ■&Strlen() returns the length of s1, not including the terminating null. ■'Strncat(), ■'strncmp() and ■'strncpy() will catenate, compare and copy s2 and s1 in the same manner as their similarly named counterparts above, but involving at most n characters. For ■'strncpy(), the resulting string may not be null terminated. %STRCHR %STRRCHR SYNOPSIS #include <string.h> char * strchr(char * s, int c) char * strrchr(char * s, int c) DESCRIPTION These functions locate an instance of the character c in the string s. In the case of ■&strchr() a pointer will be returned to the first instance of the character found be searching from the beginning of the string, while ■'strrchr() searches backwards from the end of the string. A null pointer is re- turned if the character does not exist in the string. SEE ALSO %SYSTEM SYNOPSIS #include <sys.h> int system(char * s) DESCRIPTION When executed under MS-DOS ■&system() will pass the argument string to the command processor, located via the environment string COMSPEC, for execution. The exit status of the com- mand processor will be returned from the call to system(). For example, to set the baud rate on the serial port on an MS-DOS machine: system("MODE COM1:96,N,8,1,P"); This function will not work on CP/M-86 since it does not have an invokable command interpreter. Under Concurrent CP/M the CLI system call is used. SEE ALSO spawnl, spawnv %TAN SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double tan(double f); DESCRIPTION This is the tangent function. SEE ALSO sin, cos, asin, acos, atan %TIME SYNOPSIS #include <time.h> time_t time(time_t * t) DESCRIPTION This function returns the current time in seconds since 00:00:00 on Jan 1, 1970. If the argument t is non-null, the same value is stored into the object pointed to by t. The accuracy of this function is naturally dependent on the operating system having the correct time. This function does not work under CP/M-86 or CP/M 2.2 but does work under Concurrent-CP/M and CP/M+. SEE ALSO ctime, gmtime, localtime, asctime %TOUPPER %TOLOWER %TOASCII SYNOPSIS #include <ctype.h> char toupper(int c); char tolower(int c); char toascii(int c); char c; DESCRIPTION ■'Toupper() converts its lower case alphabetic argument to upper case, ■'tolower() performs the reverse conversion, and ■'toascii() returns a result that is guaranteed in the range 0-0177. ■'Toupper() and ■'tolower return their arguments if it is not an alphabetic character. SEE ALSO islower, isupper, isascii et. al. %UNGETC SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> int ungetc(int c, FILE * stream) DESCRIPTION ■&Ungetc() will attempt to push back the character c onto the named stream, such that a subsequent ■$getc() operation will return the character. At most one level of pushback will be allowed, and if the stream is not buffered, even this may not be possible. EOF is returned if the ■&ungetc() could not be performed. SEE ALSO getc %UNLINK SYNOPSIS int unlink(char * name) DESCRIPTION ■&Unlink() will remove (delete) the named file, that is erase the file from its directory. See ■$open() for a description of the file name construction. Zero will be returned if suc- cessful, -1 if the file did not exist or it could not be re- moved. SEE ALSO open, close, rename, remove %VA_START %VA_ARG %VA_END SYNOPSIS #include <stdarg.h> void va_start(va_list ap, ■%parmN); ■$type va_arg(ap, ■$type); void va_end(va_list ap); DESCRIPTION These macros are provided to give access in a portable way to parameters to a function represented in a prototype by the ellipsis symbol (...), where type and number of argu- ments supplied to the function are not known at compile time. The rightmost parameter to the function (shown as ■%parmN) plays an important role in these macros, as it is the starting point for access to further parameters. In a func- tion taking variable numbers of arguments, a variable of type va_list should be declared, then the macro va_start in- voked with that variable and the name of ■%parmN. This will initialize the variable to allow subsequent calls of the macro va_arg to access successive parameters. Each call to va_arg requires two arguments; the variable previously de- fined and a type name which is the type that the next param- eter is expected to be. Note that any arguments thus ac- cessed will have been widened by the default conventions to ■#int, ■(unsigned ■#int or ■&double. For example if a character ar- gument has been passed, it should be accessed by va_arg(ap, int) since the char will have been widened to ■#int. An exam- ple is given below of a function taking one integer parame- ter, followed by a number of other parameters. In this exam- ple the function expects the subsequent parameters to be pointers to char, but note that the compiler is not aware of this, and it is the programmers responsibility to ensure that correct arguments are supplied. #include <stdarg.h> prf(int n, ...) { va_list ap; va_start(ap, n); while(n--) puts(va_arg(ap, char *)); va_end(ap); } %WRITE SYNOPSIS #include <unixio.h> int write(int fd, void * buf, size_t cnt) DESCRIPTION ■%Write() will write from the buffer at buf up to cnt bytes to the file associated with the file descriptor fd. The number of bytes actually written will be returned. EOF or a value less than cnt will be returned on error. In any case, any return value not equal to cnt should be treated as an error (cf. ■$read() ). SEE ALSO open, close, read