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Path: senator-bedfellow.mit.edu!bloom-beacon.mit.edu!gatech!mailer.acns.fsu.edu!usenet.ufl.edu!travis.csd.harris.com!amber!brad From: brad@ssd.csd.harris.com (Brad Appleton) Newsgroups: rec.martial-arts,misc.fitness,rec.arts.dance,rec.sport.misc,rec.answers,misc.answers,news.answers Subject: Stretching and Flexibility FAQ (part 2 of 3) Followup-To: rec.martial-arts Date: 20 Dec 1993 15:18:05 GMT Organization: Harris CSD, Ft. Lauderdale, FL Lines: 1338 Approved: news-answers-request@MIT.Edu Distribution: world Expires: 19 Jan 94 10:17:50 EDT Message-ID: <stretching-2-756400670@ssd.csd.harris.com> References: <stretching-1-756400670@ssd.csd.harris.com> Reply-To: brad@ssd.csd.harris.com (Brad Appleton) NNTP-Posting-Host: amber.ssd.csd.harris.com Summary: Information about Stretching and Flexibility (Monthly Posting) Keywords: stretching, flexibility, PNF, warm-up, cool-down Originator: brad@amber Xref: senator-bedfellow.mit.edu rec.martial-arts:47185 misc.fitness:26443 rec.arts.dance:3899 rec.sport.misc:11427 rec.answers:3422 misc.answers:335 news.answers:16026 Archive-name: stretching/part2 Last-modified: 93/12/20 Version: 1.9 Ftp-site: cs.huji.ac.il:/pub/doc/faq/rec/martial.arts ********************************************* STRETCHING AND FLEXIBILITY: Everything you never wanted to know (Part 2 of 3) ********************************************* Brad Appleton Version: 1.9, Last Modified 93/12/20 Copyright (C) 1993 by Bradford D. Appleton Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this document provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. This document is available in ascii, texinfo, postscript, dvi, and html formats via anonymous ftp from the host `cs.huji.ac.il' located under the directory `/pub/doc/faq/rec/martial.arts'. The file name matches the wildcard pattern `stretching.*'. The file suffix indicates the format. For `WWW' and `Mosaic' users, the URL is in `http://archie.ac.il:8001/files/CS-HUJI.html'. ~Table of Contents for PART 2 ***************************** All section titles in this document begin with the prefix "~". If you wish, you may scan ahead to a particular section by searching for the regular expression /^~SECTION-NAME/. For example, to go to the unnumbered section named "Introduction", you could scan for /^~Intro/; to go to section 1.1, you could scan for /^~1\.1/; and to go to appendix A, you could scan for /^~Appendix A/. 3 Types of Stretching 3.1 Ballistic Stretching 3.2 Dynamic Stretching 3.3 Active Stretching 3.4 Passive Stretching 3.5 Static Stretching 3.6 Isometric Stretching 3.6.1 How Isometric Stretching Works 3.7 PNF Stretching 3.7.1 How PNF Stretching Works 4 How to Stretch 4.1 Warming Up 4.1.1 General Warm-Up 4.1.1.1 Joint Rotations 4.1.1.2 Aerobic Activity 4.1.2 Warm-Up Stretching 4.1.2.1 Static Warm-Up Stretching 4.1.2.2 Dynamic Warm-Up Stretching 4.1.3 Sport-Specific Activity 4.2 Cooling Down 4.3 Massage 4.4 Elements of a Good Stretch 4.4.1 Isolation 4.4.2 Leverage 4.4.3 Risk 4.5 Some Risky Stretches 4.6 Breathing During Stretching 4.7 Exercise Order 4.8 When to Stretch 4.8.1 Early-Morning Stretching 4.9 Stretching With a Partner 4.10 Stretching to Increase Flexibility 4.11 Pain and Discomfort 4.11.1 Common Causes of Muscular Soreness 4.11.2 Stretching with Pain 4.11.3 Overstretching 4.12 Performing Splits 4.12.1 Common Problems When Performing Splits 4.12.2 The Front Split 4.12.3 The Side Split 4.12.4 Split-Stretching Machines ~3 Types of Stretching *********************** Just as there are different types of flexibility, there are also different types of stretching. Stretches are either dynamic (meaning they involve motion) or static (meaning they involve no motion). Dynamic stretches affect dynamic flexibility and static stretches affect static flexibility (and dynamic flexibility to some degree). The different types of stretching are: * ballistic stretching * dynamic stretching * active stretching * passive (or relaxed) stretching * static stretching * isometric stretching * PNF stretching ~3.1 Ballistic Stretching ========================== Ballistic stretching uses the momentum of a moving body or a limb in an attempt to force it beyond its normal range of motion. This is stretching, or "warming up", by bouncing into (or out of) a stretched position, using the stretched muscles as a spring which pulls you out of the stretched position. (e.g. bouncing down repeatedly to touch your toes.) This type of stretching is not considered useful and can lead to injury. It does not allow your muscles to adjust to, and relax in, the stretched position. It may instead cause them to tighten up by repeatedly activating the stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex]). ~3.2 Dynamic Stretching ======================== "Dynamic stretching", according to Kurz, "involves moving parts of your body and gradually increasing reach, speed of movement, or both." Do not confuse dynamic stretching with ballistic stretching! Dynamic stretching consists of controlled leg and arm swings that take you (gently!) to the limits of your range of motion. Ballistic stretches involve trying to force a part of the body *beyond* its range of motion. In dynamic stretches, there are no bounces or "jerky" movements. An example of dynamic stretching would be slow, controlled leg swings, arm swings, or torso twists. Dynamic stretching improves dynamic flexibility and is quite useful as part of your warm-up for an active or aerobic workout (such as a martial-arts class). See Section 4.1 [Warming Up]. According to Kurz, dynamic stretching exercises should be performed in sets of 8-12 repetitions: Perform your exercises (leg raises, arm swings) in sets of eight to twelve repetitions. If after a few sets you feel tired - stop. Tired muscles are less elastic, which causes a decrease in the amplitude of your movements. Do only the number of repetitions that you can do without decreasing your range of motion. More repetitions will only set the nervous regulation of the muscles' length at the level of these less than best repetitions and may cause you to lose some of your flexibility. What you repeat more times or with a greater effort will leave a deeper trace in your [kinesthetic] memory! After reaching the maximal range of motion in a joint in any direction of movement, you should not do many more repetitions of this movement in a given workout. Even if you can maintain a maximal range of motion over many repetitions, you will set an unnecessarily solid memory of the range of these movements. You will then have to overcome these memories in order to make further progress. ~3.3 Active Stretching ======================= "Active stretching" is also referred to as "static-active stretching". An active stretch is one where you assume a position and then hold it there with no assistance other than using the strength of your agonist muscles (see Section 1.4 [Cooperating Muscle Groups]). For example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it there without anything (other than your leg muscles themselves) to keep the leg in that extended position. The tension of the agonists in an active stretch helps to relax the muscles being stretched (the antagonists) by reciprocal inhibition (see Section 1.6.4 [Reciprocal Inhibition]). Active stretching increases active flexibility and strengthens the antagonistic muscles. Active stretches are usually quite difficult to hold and maintain for more than 10 seconds and rarely need to be held any longer than 15 seconds. Many of the movements (or stretches) found in various forms of yoga are active stretches. ~3.4 Passive Stretching ======================== "Passive stretching" is also referred to as "relaxed stretching", and as "static-passive stretching". A passive stretch is one where you assume a position and hold it with of some other part of your body, or with the assistance of a partner or some other apparatus. For example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it there with your hand. The splits are an example of a passive stretch (in this case the floor is the "apparatus" that you use to maintain your extended position). One thing many people seem to disagree about is how long to hold a passive stretch in position. Various sources seem to suggest that they should be held for as little as 10 seconds to as long as a full minute (or even several minutes). The truth is that no one really seems to know for sure. According to `HFLTA': Some controversy surrounds how long a stretch should be held. Some researchers say 30-60 seconds; more recent research on the hamstrings indicates that 15 seconds may be sufficient. Whether the 15 seconds that may be sufficient for the hamstrings is also sufficient for other muscle groups is unclear. A good common ground seems to be about 20 seconds. Children, and people whose bones are still growing, do not need to hold a passive stretch this long (and, in fact, Kurz strongly discourages it). Holding the stretch for about 7-10 seconds should be sufficient for this younger group of people. Many sources also suggest that passive stretches should be performed in sets of 2-5 repetitions with a 15-30 second rest in between each stretch. Slow, relaxed stretching is useful in relieving spasms in muscles that are healing after an injury (obviously, you should check with your doctor first to see if it is okay to attempt to stretch the injured muscles - see Section 4.11 [Pain and Discomfort]). Relaxed stretching is also very good for "cooling down" after a workout and helps reduce post-workout muscle fatigue, and soreness. See Section 4.2 [Cooling Down]. ~3.5 Static Stretching ======================= Many people use the term "passive stretching" and "static stretching" interchangeably. However, there are a number of people who make a distinction between the two. According to M. Alter: "Static stretching" involves holding a position. That is, you stretch to the farthest point and hold the stretch ... "Passive stretching" is a technique in which you are relaxed and make no contribution to the range of motion. Instead, an external force is created by an outside agent, either manually or mechanically. Notice that the definition of passive stretching given in the previous section encompasses *both* of the above definitions. Throughout this document, when the term "static stretching" or "passive stretching" is used, its intended meaning is the definition of passive stretching as described in the previous section. You should be aware of these alternative meanings, however, when looking at other references on stretching. ~3.6 Isometric Stretching ========================== "Isometric stretching" is a static form of stretching (meaning it does not use motion) which involves the resistance of muscle groups through isometric contractions (tensing) of the stretched muscles (see Section 1.5 [Types of Muscle Contractions]). The use of isometric stretching is one of the fastest ways to develop increased static-passive flexibility and is much more effective than either passive stretching or active stretching alone. Isometric stretches also help to develop strength in the "tensed" muscles (which helps to develop static-active flexibility), and seems to decrease the amount of pain usually associated with stretching. The most common ways to provide the needed resistance for an isometric stretch are to apply resistance manually to one's own limbs, to have a partner apply the resistance, or to use an apparatus such as a wall (or the floor) to provide resistance. An example of manual resistance would be holding onto the ball of your foot to keep it from flexing while you are using the muscles of your calf to try and straighten your instep so that the toes are pointed. An example of using a partner to provide resistance would be having a partner hold your leg up high (and keep it there) while you attempt to force your leg back down to the ground. An example of using the wall to provide resistance would be the well known "push-the-wall" calf-stretch where you are actively attempting to move the wall (even though you know you can't). Isometric stretching is *not* recommended for children and adolescents whose bones are still growing. These people are usually already flexible enough that the strong stretches produced by the isometric contraction has a much higher risk of damaging tendons and connective tissue. Kurz strongly recommends preceding any isometric stretch of a muscle with dynamic strength training for the muscle to be stretched. A full session of isometric stretching puts a lot of demands on the muscles being stretched and should not be performed more than once per day for a given group of muscles (ideally, no more than once every 36 hours). The proper way to perform an isometric stretch is as follows: 1. Assume the position of a passive stretch for the desired muscle. 2. Next, tense the stretched muscle for 7-15 seconds (resisting against some force that will not move, like the floor or a partner). 3. Finally, relax the muscle for at least 20 seconds. Some people seem to recommend holding the isometric contraction for longer than 15 seconds, but according to `SynerStretch' (the videotape), research has shown that this is not necessary. So you might as well make your stretching routine less time consuming. ~3.6.1 How Isometric Stretching Works -------------------------------------- Recall from Section 1.2.1 [How Muscles Contract] that there is no such thing as a partially contracted muscle fiber: when a muscle is contracted, some of the fibers contract and some remain at rest (more fibers are recruited as the load on the muscle increases). Similarly, when a muscle is stretched, some of the fibers are elongated and some remain at rest (see Section 1.6 [What Happens When You Stretch]). During an isometric contraction, some of the resting fibers are being pulled upon from both ends by the muscles that are contracting. The result is that some of those resting fibers stretch! Normally, the handful of fibers that stretch during an isometric contraction are not very significant. The true effectiveness of the isometric contraction occurs when a muscle that is already in a stretched position is subjected to an isometric contraction. In this case, some of the muscle fibers are already stretched before the contraction, and, if held long enough, the initial passive stretch overcomes the stretch reflex and triggers the lengthening reaction, inhibiting the stretched fibers from contracting (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex], and see Section 1.6.3 [The Lengthening Reaction]). At this point, according to `SynerStretch': When you isometrically contracted, some of the resting fibers would contract, many of the resting fibers would stretch, and many of the already stretched fibers, which are being prevented from contracting by the inverse myotatic reflex [the lengthening reaction], would stretch even more. When the isometric contraction was relaxed and the contracting fibers returned to their resting length, the stretched fibers would retain their ability to stretch beyond their normal limit. ... the whole muscle would be able to stretch beyond its initial maximum, and you would have increased flexibility ... The reason that the stretched fibers develop and retain the ability to stretch beyond their normal limit during an isometric stretch has to do with the muscle spindles (see Section 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors]): The signal which tells the muscle to contract voluntarily, also tells the muscle spindle's (intrafusal) muscle fibers to shorten, increasing sensitivity of the stretch reflex. This mechanism normally maintains the sensitivity of the muscle spindle as the muscle shortens during contraction. This allows the muscle spindles to habituate (become accustomed) to an even further-lengthened position. ~3.7 PNF Stretching ==================== PNF stretching is currently the fastest and most effective way known to increase static-passive flexibility. PNF is an acronym for "proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation". It is not really a type of stretching but is a technique of combining passive stretching and isometric stretching in order to achieve maximum static flexibility (see Section 3.4 [Passive Stretching], and see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching]). Actually, the term PNF stretching is itself a misnomer. PNF was initially developed as a method of rehabilitating stroke victims. PNF refers to any of several "post-isometric relaxation" stretching techniques in which a muscle group is passively stretched, then contracts isometrically against resistance while in the stretched position, and then is passively stretched again through the resulting increased range of motion. PNF stretching usually employs the use of a partner to provide resistance against the isometric contraction and then later to passively take the joint through its increased range of motion. It may be performed, however, without a partner, although it is usually more effective with a partner's assistance. Most PNF stretching techniques employ "isometric agonist contraction/relaxation" where the stretched muscles are contracted isometrically and then relaxed. Some PNF techniques also employ "isometric antagonist contraction" where the antagonists of the stretched muscles are contracted. In all cases, it is important to note that the stretched muscle should be rested (and relaxed) for at least 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique. The most common PNF stretching techniques are: the "hold-relax" This technique is also called the "contract-relax". After assuming an initial passive stretch, the muscle being stretched is isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds, after which the muscle is briefly relaxed for 2-3 seconds, and then immediately subjected to a passive stretch which stretches the muscle even further than the initial passive stretch. This final passive stretch is held for 10-15 seconds. The muscle is then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique. the "hold-relax-contract" This technique is also called the "contract-relax-contract", and the "contract-relax-antagonist-contract" (or "CRAC"). It involves performing two isometric contractions: first of the agonists, then, of the antagonists. The first part is similar to the hold-relax where, after assuming an initial passive stretch, the stretched muscle is isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds. Then the muscle is relaxed while its antagonist immediately performs an isometric contraction that is held for 7-15 seconds. The muscles are then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique. Notice that in the hold-relax-contract, there is no final passive stretch. It is replaced by the antagonist-contraction which (via reciprocal inhibition - see Section 1.6.4 [Reciprocal Inhibition]) serves to relax and further stretch the muscle that was subjected to the initial passive stretch. Because there is no final passive stretch, this PNF technique is considered one of the safest PNF techniques to perform (it less likely to result in torn muscle tissue). Some people like to make the technique even more intense by adding the final passive stretch after the second isometric contraction. Although this can result in greater flexibility gains, it also increases the likelihood of injury. Like isometric stretching, PNF stretching is also not recommended for children and people whose bones are still growing (for the same reasons - see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching]). Also like isometric stretching, PNF stretching helps strengthen the muscles that are contracted and therefore is good for increasing active flexibility as well as passive flexibility. Furthermore, as with isometric stretching, PNF stretching is very strenuous and should be performed for a given muscle group no more than once per day (ideally, no more than once per 36 hour period). The initial recommended procedure for PNF stretching is to perform the desired PNF technique 3-5 times for a given muscle group (resting 20 seconds between each repetition). However, `HFLTA' cites 1987 study whose results suggest that performing 3-5 repetitions of a PNF technique for a given muscle group is not necessarily any more effective than performing the technique only once. As a result, in order to decrease the amount of time taken up by your stretching routine (without decreasing its effectiveness), `HFLTA' recommends performing only one PNF technique per muscle group stretched in a given stretching session. ~3.7.1 How PNF Stretching Works -------------------------------- Remember that during an isometric stretch, when the muscle performing the isometric contraction is relaxed, it retains its ability to stretch beyond its initial maximum length (see Section 3.6.1 [How Isometric Stretching Works]). Well, PNF tries to take immediate advantage of this increased range of motion by immediately subjecting the contracted muscle to a passive stretch. The isometric contraction of the stretched muscle accomplishes several things: 1. As explained in Section 3.6.1 [How Isometric Stretching Works], it helps to train the stretch receptors of the muscle spindle to immediately accommodate a greater muscle length. 2. The intense muscle contraction, and the fact that it is maintained for a period of time, serves to fatigue many of the fast-twitch fibers of the contracting muscles (see Section 1.2.2 [Fast and Slow Muscle Fibers]). This makes it harder for the fatigued muscle fibers to contract in resistance to a subsequent stretch (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex]). 3. The tension generated by the contraction activates the golgi tendon organ (see Section 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors]), which inhibits contraction of the muscle via the lengthening reaction (see Section 1.6.3 [The Lengthening Reaction]). Voluntary contraction during a stretch increases tension on the muscle, activating the golgi tendon organs more than the stretch alone. So, when the voluntary contraction is stopped, the muscle is even more inhibited from contracting against a subsequent stretch. PNF stretching techniques take advantage of the sudden "vulnerability" of the muscle and its increased range of motion by using the period of time immediately following the isometric contraction to train the stretch receptors to get used to this new, increased, range of muscle length. This is what the final passive stretch accomplishes. ~4 How to Stretch ****************** When done properly, stretching can do more than just increase flexibility. According to M. Alter, benefits of stretching include: * enhanced physical fitness * enhanced ability to learn and perform skilled movements * increased mental and physical relaxation * enhanced development of body awareness * reduced risk of injury to joints, muscles, and tendons * reduced muscular soreness * reduced muscular tension * increased suppleness due to stimulation of the production of chemicals which lubricate connective tissues (see Section 1.3 [Connective Tissue]) * reduced severity of painful menstruation ("dysmenorrhea") in females Unfortunately, even those who stretch do not always stretch properly and hence do not reap some or all of these benefits. Some of the most common mistakes made when stretching are: * improper warm-up * inadequate rest between workouts * overstretching * performing the wrong exercises * performing exercises in the wrong (or sub-optimal) sequence In this chapter, we will try to show you how to avoid these problems, and others, and present some of the most effective methods for realizing all the benefits of stretching. ~4.1 Warming Up ================ Stretching is *not* warming up! It is, however, a very important part of warming up. Warming up is quite literally the process of "warming up" (i.e. raising your core body temperature). A proper warm-up should raise your body temperature by one or two degrees Celcius (1.4 to 2.8 degrees Fahrenheit) and is divided into three phases: 1. general warm-up 2. stretching 3. sport-specific activity It is very important that you perform the general warm-up *before* you stretch. It is *not* a good idea to attempt to stretch before your muscles are warm (something which the general warm-up accomplishes). Warming up can do more than just loosen stiff muscles; when done properly, it can actually improve performance. On the other hand, an improper warm-up, or no warm-up at all, can greatly increase your risk of injury from engaging in athletic activities. It is important to note that active stretches and isometric stretches should *not* be part of your warm-up because they are often counterproductive. The goals of the warm-up are (according to Kurz): "an increased awareness, improved coordination, improved elasticity and contractibility of muscles, and a greater efficiency of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems." Active stretches and isometric stretches do not help achieve these goals because they are likely to cause the stretched muscles to be too tired to properly perform the athletic activity for which you are preparing your body. ~4.1.1 General Warm-Up ----------------------- The general warm-up is divided into two parts: 1. joint rotations 2. aerobic activity These two activities should be performed in the order specified above. ~4.1.1.1 Joint Rotations ......................... The general warm-up should begin with joint-rotations, starting either from your toes and working your way up, or from your fingers and working your way down. This facilitates joint motion by lubricating the entire joint with synovial fluid. Such lubrication permits your joints to function more easily when called upon to participate in your athletic activity. You should perform slow circular movements, both clockwise and counter-clockwise, until the joint seems to move smoothly. You should rotate the following (in the order given, or in the reverse order): 1. fingers and knuckles 2. wrists 3. elbows 4. shoulders 5. neck 6. trunk/waist 7. hips 8. legs 9. knees 10. ankles 11. toes ~4.1.1.2 Aerobic Activity .......................... After you have performed the joint rotations, you should engage in at least five minutes of aerobic activity such as jogging, jumping rope, or any other activity that will cause a similar increase in your cardiovascular output (i.e. get your blood pumping). The purpose of this is to raise your core body temperature and get your blood flowing. Increased blood flow in the muscles improves muscle performance and flexibility and reduces the likelihood of injury. ~4.1.2 Warm-Up Stretching -------------------------- The stretching phase of your warmup should consist of two parts: 1. static stretching 2. dynamic stretching It is important that static stretches be performed *before* any dynamic stretches in your warm-up. Dynamic stretching can often result in overstretching, which damages the muscles (see Section 4.11.3 [Overstretching]). Performing static stretches first will help reduce this risk of injury. ~4.1.2.1 Static Warm-Up Stretching ................................... Once the general warm-up has been completed, the muscles are warmer and more elastic. Immediately following your general warm-up, you should engage in some slow, relaxed, static stretching (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretching]). You should start with your back, followed by your upper body and lower body, stretching your muscles in the following order (see Section 4.7 [Exercise Order]): 1. back 2. sides (external obliques) 3. neck 4. forearms and wrists 5. triceps 6. chest 7. buttocks 8. groin (adductors) 9. thighs (quadriceps and abductors) 10. calves 11. shins 12. hamstrings 13. instep Some good static stretches for these various muscles may be found in most books about stretching. See Appendix A [References on Stretching]. Unfortunately, not everyone has the time to stretch all these muscles before a workout. If you are one such person, you should at least take the time to stretch all the muscles that will be heavily used during your workout. ~4.1.2.2 Dynamic Warm-Up Stretching .................................... Once you have performed your static stretches, you should engage in some light dynamic stretching: leg-raises, and arm-swings in all directions (see Section 3.2 [Dynamic Stretching]). According to Kurz, you should do "as many sets as it takes to reach your maximum range of motion in any given direction", but do not work your muscles to the point of fatigue. Remember - this is just a warm-up, the real workout comes later. Some people are surprised to find that dynamic stretching has a place in the warm-up. But think about it: you are "warming up" for a workout that is (usually) going to involve a lot of dynamic activity. It makes sense that you should perform some dynamic exercises to increase your dynamic flexibility. ~4.1.3 Sport-Specific Activity ------------------------------- The last part of your warm-up should be devoted to performing movements that are a "watered-down" version of the movements that you will be performing during your athletic activity. `HFLTA' says that: The final phase of the warm-up involves rehearsing specific movements that the athlete will be using during the practice or the event, but at a reduced intensity. Sport-specific activities improve coordination, balance, strength, and response time, and may reduce the risk of injury. ~4.2 Cooling Down ================== Stretching is *not* a legitimate means of cooling down. It is only part of the process. After you have completed your workout, the best way to reduce muscle fatigue and soreness (caused by the production of lactic acid from your maximal or near-maximal muscle exertion) is to perform a light "warm-down". This warm-down is similar to the second half of your warm-up (but in the reverse order). The warm-down consists of two phases: 1. sport-specific activity 2. static stretching Ideally, you should start your warm-down with about 10-20 minutes of sport-specific activity (perhaps only a little more intense than in your warm-up). In reality however, you may not always have 10-20 minutes to spare at the end of your workout. You should, however, attempt to perform at least 5 minutes of sport-specific activity in this case. The sport-specific activity should immediately be followed by some relaxed, static stretches. Sport-specific activity, followed by static stretching, can reduce cramping, tightening, and soreness in fatigued muscles and will make you feel better. According to `HFLTA', "light warm-down exercise immediately following maximal exertion is a better way of clearing lactic acid from the blood than complete rest." Furthermore, if you are still sore the next day, a light warm-down is a good way to reduce lingering muscle tightness and soreness even when not performed immediately after a workout. See Section 4.11 [Pain and Discomfort]. ~4.3 Massage ============= Many people are unaware of the beneficial role that massage can play in both strength training and flexibility training. Massaging a muscle, or group of muscles, immediately prior to performing stretching or strength exercises for those muscles, has some of the following benefits: increased blood flow The massaging of the muscles helps to warm-up those muscles, increasing their blood flow and improving their circulation. relaxation of the massaged muscles The massaged muscles are more relaxed. This is particularly helpful when you are about to stretch those muscles. It can also help relieve painful muscle cramps. removal of metabolic waste The massaging action, and the improved circulation and blood flow which results, helps to remove waste products, such as lactic acid, from the muscles. This is useful for relieving post-exercise soreness. Because of these benefits, you may wish to make massage a regular part of your stretching program: immediately before each stretch you perform, massage the muscles you are about to stretch. ~4.4 Elements of a Good Stretch ================================ According to `SynerStretch', there are three factors to consider when determining the effectiveness of a particular stretching exercise: 1. isolation 2. leverage 3. risk ~4.4.1 Isolation ----------------- Ideally, a particular stretch should work only the muscles you are trying to stretch. Isolating the muscles worked by a given stretch means that you do not have to worry about having to overcome the resistance offered by more than one group of muscles. In general, the fewer muscles you try to stretch at once, the better. For example, you are better off trying to stretch one hamstring at a time than both hamstrings at once. By isolating the muscle you are stretching, you experience resistance from fewer muscle groups, which gives you greater control over the stretch and allows you to more easily change its intensity. As it turns out, the splits is not one of the best stretching exercises. Not only does it stretch several different muscle groups all at once, it also stretches them in both legs at once. ~4.4.2 Leverage ---------------- Having leverage during a stretch means having sufficient control over how intense the stretch becomes, and how fast. If you have good leverage, not only are you better able to achieve the desired intensity of the stretch, but you do not need to apply as much force to your outstretched limb in order to effectively increase the intensity of the stretch. This gives you greater control. According to `SynerStretch': The most effective stretches provide the greatest mechanical advantage over the muscle to be stretched. Like isolation, good leverage makes it easier to overcome the substantial resistance offered by inflexible muscles. Many borderline stretching exercises can be made effective by adjusting them to provide improved leverage ... [which] provides for an easier, more effective stretch. ~4.4.3 Risk ------------ Although a stretch may be very effective in terms of providing the athlete with ample leverage and isolation, the potential risk of injury from performing the stretch must be taken into consideration. Once again, `SynerStretch' says it best: Even an exercise offering great leverage and isolation may be a candidate for the discard pile - because many otherwise good stretches subject joints to potentially injurious stresses. Some of these exercises may involve rotations that can strain ligaments or tendons. Others put pressure on vertebral disks and can lead to lower back problems (like the classic backbend exercise). Still others call for twists or turns that can cause problems in areas unrelated to the stretch. ~4.5 Some Risky Stretches ========================== The following stretches (many of which are commonly performed) are considered risky (M. Alter uses the term `X'-rated) due to the fact that they have a very high risk of injury for the athlete that performs them. This does not mean that these stretches should never be performed. However, great care should be used when attempting any of these stretches. Unless you are an advanced athlete, you can probably do without them (or find alternative stretching exercises to perform). Each of these stretches is illustrated in detail in the section `X-Rated Exercises' of M. Alter: "the yoga plough" In this exercise, you lie down on your back and then try to sweep your legs up and over, trying to touch your knees to your ears. This position places excessive stress on the lower back, and on the discs of the spine. Not to mention the fact that it compresses the lungs and heart, and makes it very difficult to breathe. This particular exercise also stretches a region that is frequently flexed as a result of improper posture. "the traditional backbend" In this exercise, your back is maximally arched with the soles of your feet and the palms of your hands both flat on the floor, and your neck tilted back. This position squeezes (compresses) the spinal discs and pinches nerve fibers in your back. "the traditional hurdler's stretch" This exercise has you sit on the ground with one leg straight in front of you, and with the other leg fully flexed (bent) behind you, as you lean back and stretch the quadricep of the flexed leg. The two legged version of this stretch is even worse for you, and involves fully bending both legs behind you on either side. The reason this stretch is harmful is that it stretches the medial ligaments of the knee (remember, stretching ligaments and tendons is *bad*) and crushes the meniscus. It can also result in slipping of the knee cap from being twisted and compressed. "straight-legged toe touches" In this stretch, your legs are straight (either together or spread apart) and your back is bent over while you attempt to touch your toes or the floor. If you do not have the ability to support much of your weight with your hands when performing this exercise, your knees are likely to hyperextend. This position can also place a great deal of pressure on the vertebrae of the lower lumbar. Furthermore, if you choose to have your legs spread apart, it places more stress on the knees, which can sometimes result in permanent deformity. "torso twists" Performing sudden, intense twists of the torso, especially with weights, while in an upright (erect) position can tear tissue (by exceeding the momentum absorbing capacity of the stretched tissues) and can strain the ligaments of the knee. "inverted stretches" This is any stretch where you "hang upside down". Staying inverted for too long increases your blood pressure and may even rupture blood vessels (particularly in the eyes). Inverted positions are especially discouraged for anyone with spinal problems. ~4.6 Breathing During Stretching ================================= Proper breathing control is important for a successful stretch. Proper breathing helps to relax the body, increases blood flow throughout the body, and helps to mechanically remove lactic acid and other by-products of exercise. You should be taking slow, relaxed breaths when you stretch, trying to exhale as the muscle is stretching. Some even recommend increasing the intensity of the stretch only while exhaling, holding the stretch in its current position at all other times (this doesn't apply to isometric stretching). The proper way to breathe is to inhale slowly through the nose, expanding the abdomen (not the chest); hold the breath a moment; then exhale slowly through the mouth. Inhaling through the nose has several purposes including cleaning the air and insuring proper temperature and humidity for oxygen transfer into the lungs. The rate of breathing should be controlled through the use of the glottis in the back of the throat. This produces a very soft "hm-m-m-mn" sound inside the throat as opposed to a sniffing sound in the nasal sinuses. The exhalation should be controlled in a similar manner but with more of an "ah-h-h-h-h" sound, like a sigh of relief. As you breathe in, the diaphragm presses downward on the internal organs and their associated blood vessels, squeezing the blood out of them. As you exhale, the abdomen, its organs and muscles, and their blood vessels flood with new blood. This rhythmic contraction and expansion of the abdominal blood vessels is partially responsible for the circulation of blood in the body. Also, the rhythmic pumping action helps to remove waste products from the muscles in the torso. This pumping action is referred to as the "respiratory pump". The respiratory pump is important during stretching because increased blood flow to the stretched muscles improves their elasticity, and increases the rate at which lactic acid is purged from them. ~4.7 Exercise Order ==================== Many people are unaware of the fact that the order in which you perform your stretching exercises is important. Quite often, when we perform a particular stretch, it actually stretches more than one group of muscles: the muscles that the stretch is primarily intended for, and other supporting muscles that are also stretched but which do not receive the "brunt" of the stretch. These supporting muscles usually function as synergists for the muscles being stretched (see Section 1.4 [Cooperating Muscle Groups]). This is the basis behind a principle that `SynerStretch' calls the "interdependency of muscle groups". Before performing a stretch intended for a particular muscle, but which actually stretches several muscles, you should first stretch each of that muscle's synergists. The benefit of this is that you are able to better stretch the primary muscles by not allowing the supporting muscles the opportunity to be a limiting factor in how "good" a stretch you can attain for a particular exercise. Ideally, it is best to perform a stretch that isolates a particular muscle group, but this is not always possible. According to `SynerStretch': "by organizing the exercises within a stretching routine according to the principle of interdependency of muscle groups, you minimize the effort required to perform the routine, and maximize the effectiveness of the individual exercises." This is what `Health For Life' (in all of their publications) calls "synergism": "combining elements to create a whole that is greater than the mere sum of its parts." For example, a stretch intended primarily for the hamstrings may also make some demands upon the calves and buttocks (and even the lower back) but mostly, it stretches the hamstrings. In this case, it would be beneficial to stretch the lower back, buttocks, and calves first (in that order, using stretches intended primarily for those muscles) before they need to be used in a stretch that is intended primarily for the hamstrings. As a general rule, you should usually do the following when putting together a stretching routine: * stretch your back (upper and lower) first * stretch your sides after stretching your back * stretch your buttocks before stretching your groin or your hamstrings * stretch your calves before stretching your hamstrings * stretch your shins before stretching your quadriceps (if you do shin stretches) * stretch your arms before stretching your chest ~4.8 When to Stretch ===================== The best time to stretch is when your muscles are warmed up. If they are not already warm before you wish to stretch, then you need to warm them up yourself, usually by performing some type of brief aerobic activity (see Section 4.1.1 [General Warm-Up]). Obviously, stretching is an important part of warming-up before, and cooling-down after a workout (see Section 4.1 [Warming Up], and see Section 4.2 [Cooling Down]). If the weather is very cold, or if you are feeling very stiff, then you need to take extra care to warm-up before you stretch in order to reduce the risk of injuring yourself. Many of us have our own internal body-clock, or "circadian rhythm" as, it is more formally called: Some of us are "early morning people" while others consider themselves to be "late-nighters". Being aware of your circadian rhythm should help you decide when it is best for you to stretch (or perform any other type of activity). Gummerson says that most people are more flexible in the afternoon than in the morning, peaking from about 2:30pm-4pm. Also, according to `HFLTA': There is some evidence to suggest that flexibility and strength are greatest in the late afternoon or early evening. If this is true, then, all else being equal, an athlete might get a better workout by hitting the gym right after work rather than before work. ~4.8.1 Early-Morning Stretching -------------------------------- On the other hand, according to Kurz, "if you need [or want] to perform movements requiring considerable flexibility with [little or] no warm-up, you ought to make early morning stretching a part of your routine." In order to do this properly, you need to first perform a general warm-up (see Section 4.1.1 [General Warm-Up]). You should then begin your early morning stretching by first performing some static stretches, followed by some light dynamic stretches. Basically, your early morning stretching regimen should be almost identical to a complete warm-up (see Section 4.1 [Warming Up]). The only difference is that you may wish to omit any sport-specific activity (see Section 4.1.3 [Sport-Specific Activity]), although it certainly won't hurt to perform it *if* you have time. ~4.9 Stretching With a Partner =============================== When done properly, stretches performed with the assistance of a partner can be more effective than stretches performed without a partner (particularly isometric stretches and PNF stretches - see Section 3.7 [PNF Stretching]). The problem with using a partner, however, is that the partner does not feel what you feel, and thus cannot respond as quickly to any discomfort that might prompt you to immediately reduce the intensity (or some other aspect) of the stretch. This can greatly increase your risk of injury while performing a particular exercise. If you do choose to stretch with a partner, make sure that it is someone you trust to pay close attention to you while you stretch, and to act appropriately when you signal that you are feeling pain or discomfort. ~4.10 Stretching to Increase Flexibility ========================================= When stretching for the purpose of increasing overall flexibility, a stretching routine should accomplish, at the very least, two goals: 1. To train your stretch receptors to become accustomed to greater muscle length (see Section 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors]). 2. To reduce the resistance of connective tissues to muscle elongation (see Section 2.2.1 [How Connective Tissue Affects Flexibility]). If you are attempting to increase active flexibility (see Section 2.1 [Types of Flexibility]), you will also want to strengthen the muscles responsible for holding the stretched limbs in their extended positions. Before composing a particular stretching routine, you must first decide which types of flexibility you wish to increase (see Section 2.1 [Types of Flexibility]), and which stretching methods are best for achieving them (see Section 3 [Types of Stretching]). The best way to increase dynamic flexibility is by performing dynamic stretches, supplemented with static stretches. The best way to increase active flexibility is by performing active stretches, supplemented with static stretches. The fastest and most effective way currently known to increase passive flexibility is by performing PNF stretches (see Section 3.7 [PNF Stretching]). If you are very serious about increasing overall flexibility, then I recommend religiously adhering to the following guidelines: * Perform early-morning stretching everyday (see Section 4.8.1 [Early-Morning Stretching]). * Warm-up properly before any and all athletic activities. Make sure to give yourself ample time to perform the complete warm-up. See Section 4.1 [Warming Up]. * Cool-down properly after any and all athletic activities. See Section 4.2 [Cooling Down]. * Always make sure your muscles are warmed-up before you stretch! * Perform PNF stretching every other day, and static stretching on the off days (if you are overzealous, you can try static stretching every day, in addition to PNF stretching every other day). Overall, you should expect to increase flexibility *gradually*. However, If you really commit to doing the above, you should (according to `SynerStretch') achieve maximal upper-body flexibility within one month and maximal lower-body flexibility within two months. If you are older or more inflexible than most people, it will take longer than this. Don't try to increase flexibility too quickly by forcing yourself. Stretch no further than the muscles will go *without pain*. See Section 4.11.3 [Overstretching]. ~4.11 Pain and Discomfort ========================== If you are experiencing pain or discomfort before, during, or after stretching or athletic activity, then you need to try to identify the cause. Severe pain (particularly in the joints, ligaments, or tendons) usually indicates a serious injury of some sort, and you may need to discontinue stretching and/or exercising until you have sufficiently recovered. ~4.11.1 Common Causes of Muscular Soreness ------------------------------------------- If you are experiencing soreness, stiffness, or some other form of muscular pain, then it may be due to one or more of the following: torn tissue Overstretching and engaging in athletic activities without a proper warm-up can cause microscopic tearing of muscle fibers or connective tissues. If the tear is not too severe, the pain will usually not appear until one or two days after the activity that caused the damage. If the pain occurs during or immediately after the activity, then it may indicate a more serious tear (which may require medical attention). If the pain is not too severe, then light, careful static stretching of the injured area is supposedly okay to perform (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretching]). It is hypothesized that torn fibers heal at a shortened length, thus decreasing flexibility in the injured muscles. Very light stretching of the injured muscles helps reduce loss of flexibility resulting from the injury. Intense stretching of any kind, however, may only make matters worse. metabolic accumulation Overexertion and/or intense muscular activity will fatigue the muscles and cause them to accumulate lactic acid and other waste products. If this is the cause of your pain, then static stretching, isometric stretching, or a good cool-down (see Section 4.2 [Cooling Down]) will help alleviate some of the soreness. See Section 2.3.1 [Why Bodybuilders Should Stretch]. Massaging the sore muscles may also help relieve the pain (see Section 4.3 [Massage]). It has also been claimed that supplements of vitamin C will help alleviate this type of pain, but controlled tests using placebos have been unable to lend credibility to this hypothesis. The ingestion of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) before athletic activity has been shown to help increase the body's buffering capacity and reduce the output of lactic acid. However, it can also cause urgent diarrhea. muscle spasms Exercising above a certain threshold can cause a decreased flow of blood to the active muscles. This can cause pain resulting in a protective reflex which contracts the muscle isotonically (see Section 1.5 [Types of Muscle Contractions]). The reflex contraction causes further decreases in blood flow, which causes more reflex contractions, and so on, causing the muscle to spasm by repeatedly contracting. One common example of this is a painful muscle cramp. Immediate static stretching of the cramped muscle can be helpful in relieving this type of pain. However, it can sometimes make things worse by activating the stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex]), which may cause further muscle contractions. Massaging the cramped muscle may prove more useful than stretching in relieving this type of pain (see Section 4.3 [Massage]). ~4.11.2 Stretching with Pain ----------------------------- If you are already experiencing some type of pain or discomfort before you begin stretching, then it is very important that you determine the cause of your pain (see Section 4.11.1 [Common Causes of Muscular Soreness]). Once you have determined the cause of the pain, you are in a better position to decide whether or not you should attempt to stretch the affected area. Also, according to M. Alter: An important thing to remember is that some degree of soreness is often experienced by those who have not previously exercised or stretched - this is the penalty for having been inactive. On the other hand, well-trained athletes who work out at higher-than-usual levels of difficulty can also become sore. (However, you should immediately stop exercising if you feel or hear something popping or tearing.) As a general rule, remember the acronym "RICE" when treating an injured body part: * Rest * Ice * Compression * Elevation This will help to minimize the pain and swelling. Then seek appropriate professional advice. ~4.11.3 Overstretching ----------------------- If you stretch properly, you should *not* be sore the day after you have stretched. If you are, then it may be an indication that you are overstretching and that you need to go easier on your muscles by reducing the intensity of some (or all) of the stretches you perform. Overstretching will simply increase the time it takes for you to gain greater flexibility. This is because it takes time for the damaged muscles to repair themselves, and to offer you the same flexibility as before they were injured. One of the easiest ways to "overstretch" is to stretch "cold" (without any warm-up). A "maximal cold stretch" is not necessarily a desirable thing. Just because a muscle can be moved to its limit without warming up doesn't mean it is ready for the strain that a workout will place on it. Obviously, during a stretch (even when you stretch properly) you are going to feel some amount of discomfort. The difficulty is being able to discern when it is too much. In her book, `Stretch and Strengthen', Judy Alter describes what she calls "ouch! pain": If you feel like saying "ouch!" (or perhaps something even more explicit) then you should ease up immediately and discontinue the stretch. You should definitely feel the tension in your muscle, and perhaps even light, gradual "pins and needles", but if it becomes sudden, sharp, or uncomfortable, then you are overdoing it and are probably tearing some muscle tissue (or worse). In some cases, you may follow all of these guidelines when you stretch, feeling that you are not in any "real" pain, but still be sore the next day. If this is the case, then you will need to become accustomed to stretching with less discomfort (you might be one of those "stretching masochists" that take great pleasure in the pain that comes from stretching). Quite frequently, the progression of sensations you feel as you reach the extreme ranges of a stretch are: localized warmth of the stretched muscles, followed by a burning (or spasm-like) sensation, followed by sharp pain (or "ouch!" pain). The localized warming will usually occur at the origin, or point of insertion, of the stretched muscles. When you begin to feel this, it is your first clue that you may need to "back off" and reduce the intensity of the stretch. If you ignore (or do not feel) the warming sensation, and you proceed to the point where you feel a definite burning sensation in the stretched muscles, then you should ease up immediately and discontinue the stretch! You may not be sore yet, but you probably will be the following day. If your stretch gets to the point where you feel sharp pain, it is quite likely that the stretch has already resulted in tissue damage which may cause immediate pain and soreness that persists for several days. ~4.12 Performing Splits ======================== A lot of people seem to desire the ability to perform splits. If you are one such person, you should first ask yourself why you want to be able to perform the splits. If the answer is "So I can kick high!" or something along those lines, then being able to "do" the splits may not be as much help as you think it might be in achieving your goal. Doing a full split looks impressive, and a lot of people seem to use it as a benchmark of flexibility, but it will not, in and of itself, enable you to kick high. Kicking high requires dynamic flexibility (and, to some extent, active flexibility) whereas the splits requires passive flexibility. You need to discern what type of flexibility will help to achieve your goal (see Section 2.1 [Types of Flexibility]), and then perform the types of stretching exercises that will help you achieve that specific type of flexibility. See Section 3 [Types of Stretching]. If your goal really is "to be able to perform splits" (or to achieve maximal lower-body static-passive flexibility), and assuming that you already have the required range of motion in the hip joints to even do the splits (most people in reasonably good health without any hip problems do), you will need to be patient. Everyone is built differently and so the amount of time it will take to achieve splits will be different for different people (although `SynerStretch' suggests that it should take about two months of regular PNF stretching for most people to achieve their maximum split potential). The amount of time it takes will depend on your previous flexibility and body makeup. Anyone will see improvements in flexibility within weeks with consistent, frequent, and proper stretching. Trust your own body, take it gently, and stretch often. Try not to dwell on the splits, concentrate more on the stretch. Also, physiological differences in body mechanics may not allow you to be very flexible. If so, take that into consideration when working out. A stretching routine tailored to the purpose of achieving the ability to perform splits may be found in Appendix B [Working Toward the Splits]. ~4.12.1 Common Problems When Performing Splits ----------------------------------------------- First of all, there are two kinds of splits: front and side (the side split is often called a "chinese split"). In a Front split, you have one leg stretched out to the front and the other leg stretched out to the back. In a side split, both legs are stretched out to your side. A common problem encountered during a side split is pain in the hip joints. Usually, the reason for this is that the split is being performed improperly (you may need to tilt your pelvis forward). Another common problem encountered during splits (both front and side) is pain in the knees. This pain can often (but not always) be alleviated by performing a slightly different variation of the split. See Section 4.12.2 [The Front Split], and see Section 4.12.3 [The Side Split]. ~4.12.2 The Front Split ------------------------ For front splits, the front leg should be straight and its kneecap should be facing the ceiling, or sky. The front foot can be pointed or flexed (there will be a greater stretch in the front hamstring if the front foot is flexed). The kneecap of the back leg should either be facing the floor (which puts more of a stretch on the quadriceps and psoas muscles), or out to the side (which puts more of a stretch on the inner-thigh (groin) muscles). If it is facing the floor, then it will probably be pretty hard to flex the back foot, since its instep should be on the floor. If the back kneecap is facing the side, then your back foot should be stretched out (not flexed) with its toes pointed to reduce undue stress upon the knee. Even with the toes of the back foot pointed, you may still feel that there is to much stress on your back knee (in which case you should make it face the floor). ~4.12.3 The Side Split ----------------------- For side splits, you can either have both kneecaps (and insteps) facing the ceiling, which puts more of a stretch on the hamstrings, or you can have both kneecaps (and insteps) face the front, which puts more of a stretch on the inner-thigh (groin) muscle. The latter position puts more stress on the knee joints and may cause pain in the knees for some people. If you perform side splits with both kneecaps (and insteps) facing the front then you *must* be sure to tilt your pelvis forward (push your buttocks to the rear) or you may experience pain in your hip joints. ~4.12.4 Split-Stretching Machines ---------------------------------- Many of you may have seen an advertisement for a "split-stretching" machine in your favorite exercise/athletic magazine. These machines look like "benches with wings". They have a padded section upon which to sit, and two padded sections in which to place your legs (the machine should ensure that no pressure is applied upon the knees). The machine functions by allowing you to gradually increase the "stretch" in your adductors (inner-thigh muscles) through manual adjustments which increase the degree of the angle between the legs. Such machines usually carry a hefty price tag, often in excess of $100 (American currency). A common question people ask about these machines is "are they worth the price?". The answer to that question is entirely subjective. Although the machine can certainly be of valuable assistance in helping you achieve the goal of performing a side-split, it is not necessarily any better (or safer) than using a partner while you stretch. The main advantage that these machines have over using a partner is that they give you (not your partner) control of the intensity of the stretch. The amount of control provided depends on the individual machine. One problem with these "split-stretchers" is that there is a common tendency to use them to "force" a split (which can often result in injury) and/or to hold the "split" position for far longer periods of time than is advisable. The most effective use of a split-stretching machine is to use it as your "partner" to provide resistance for PNF stretches for the groin and inner thigh areas (see Section 3.7 [PNF Stretching]). When used properly, "split-stretchers" can provide one of the best ways to stretch your groin and inner-thighs without the use of a partner. However, they do cost quite a bit of money and they don't necessarily give you a better stretch than a partner could. If you don't want to "cough-up" the money for one of these machines, I recommend that you either use a partner and/or perform the lying `V' stretch described later on in this document (see Appendix B [Working Toward the Splits]).