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Info file libg++.info, produced by Makeinfo, -*- Text -*- from input file libg++.texinfo. START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * Libg++: (libg++). The g++ library. END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY This file documents the features and implementation of The GNU C++ library Copyright (C) 1988, 1991, 1992 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the section entitled "GNU Library General Public License" is included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the section entitled "GNU Library General Public License" and this permission notice may be included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the original English. File: libg++.info, Node: Random, Next: Data, Prev: Bit, Up: Top Random Number Generators and related classes ******************************************** The two classes `RNG' and `Random' are used together to generate a variety of random number distributions. A distinction must be made between *random number generators*, implemented by class `RNG', and *random number distributions*. A random number generator produces a series of randomly ordered bits. These bits can be used directly, or cast to other representations, such as a floating point value. A random number generator should produce a *uniform* distribution. A random number distribution, on the other hand, uses the randomly generated bits of a generator to produce numbers from a distribution with specific properties. Each instance of `Random' uses an instance of class `RNG' to provide the raw, uniform distribution used to produce the specific distribution. Several instances of `Random' classes can share the same instance of `RNG', or each instance can use its own copy. RNG === Random distributions are constructed from members of class `RNG', the actual random number generators. The `RNG' class contains no data; it only serves to define the interface to random number generators. The `RNG::asLong' member returns an unsigned long (typically 32 bits) of random bits. Applications that require a number of random bits can use this directly. More often, these random bits are transformed to a uniform random number: // // Return random bits converted to either a float or a double // float asFloat(); double asDouble(); }; using either `asFloat' or `asDouble'. It is intended that `asFloat' and `asDouble' return differing precisions; typically, `asDouble' will draw two random longwords and transform them into a legal `double', while `asFloat' will draw a single longword and transform it into a legal `float'. These members are used by subclasses of the `Random' class to implement a variety of random number distributions. ACG === Class `ACG' is a variant of a Linear Congruential Generator (Algorithm M) described in Knuth, *Art of Computer Programming, Vol III*. This result is permuted with a Fibonacci Additive Congruential Generator to get good independence between samples. This is a very high quality random number generator, although it requires a fair amount of memory for each instance of the generator. The `ACG::ACG' constructor takes two parameters: the seed and the size. The seed is any number to be used as an initial seed. The performance of the generator depends on having a distribution of bits through the seed. If you choose a number in the range of 0 to 31, a seed with more bits is chosen. Other values are deterministically modified to give a better distribution of bits. This provides a good random number generator while still allowing a sequence to be repeated given the same initial seed. The `size' parameter determines the size of two tables used in the generator. The first table is used in the Additive Generator; see the algorithm in Knuth for more information. In general, this table is `size' longwords long. The default value, used in the algorithm in Knuth, gives a table of 220 bytes. The table size affects the period of the generators; smaller values give shorter periods and larger tables give longer periods. The smallest table size is 7 longwords, and the longest is 98 longwords. The `size' parameter also determines the size of the table used for the Linear Congruential Generator. This value is chosen implicitly based on the size of the Additive Congruential Generator table. It is two powers of two larger than the power of two that is larger than `size'. For example, if `size' is 7, the ACG table is 7 longwords and the LCG table is 128 longwords. Thus, the default size (55) requires 55 + 256 longwords, or 1244 bytes. The largest table requires 2440 bytes and the smallest table requires 100 bytes. Applications that require a large number of generators or applications that aren't so fussy about the quality of the generator may elect to use the `MLCG' generator. MLCG ==== The `MLCG' class implements a *Multiplicative Linear Congruential Generator*. In particular, it is an implementation of the double MLCG described in *"Efficient and Portable Combined Random Number Generators"* by Pierre L'Ecuyer, appearing in *Communications of the ACM, Vol. 31. No. 6*. This generator has a fairly long period, and has been statistically analyzed to show that it gives good inter-sample independence. The `MLCG::MLCG' constructor has two parameters, both of which are seeds for the generator. As in the `MLCG' generator, both seeds are modified to give a "better" distribution of seed digits. Thus, you can safely use values such as `0' or `1' for the seeds. The `MLCG' generator used much less state than the `ACG' generator; only two longwords (8 bytes) are needed for each generator. Random ====== A random number generator may be declared by first declaring a `RNG' and then a `Random'. For example, `ACG gen(10, 20); NegativeExpntl rnd (1.0, &gen);' declares an additive congruential generator with seed 10 and table size 20, that is used to generate exponentially distributed values with mean of 1.0. The virtual member `Random::operator()' is the common way of extracting a random number from a particular distribution. The base class, `Random' does not implement `operator()'. This is performed by each of the subclasses. Thus, given the above declaration of `rnd', new random values may be obtained via, for example, `double next_exp_rand = rnd();' Currently, the following subclasses are provided. Binomial ======== The binomial distribution models successfully drawing items from a pool. The first parameter to the constructor, `n', is the number of items in the pool, and the second parameter, `u', is the probability of each item being successfully drawn. The member `asDouble' returns the number of samples drawn from the pool. Although it is not checked, it is assumed that `n>0' and `0 <= u <= 1'. The remaining members allow you to read and set the parameters. Erlang ====== The `Erlang' class implements an Erlang distribution with mean `mean' and variance `variance'. Geometric ========= The `Geometric' class implements a discrete geometric distribution. The first parameter to the constructor, `mean', is the mean of the distribution. Although it is not checked, it is assumed that `0 <= mean <= 1'. `Geometric()' returns the number of uniform random samples that were drawn before the sample was larger than `mean'. This quantity is always greater than zero. HyperGeometric ============== The `HyperGeometric' class implements the hypergeometric distribution. The first parameter to the constructor, `mean', is the mean and the second, `variance', is the variance. The remaining members allow you to inspect and change the mean and variance. NegativeExpntl ============== The `NegativeExpntl' class implements the negative exponential distribution. The first parameter to the constructor is the mean. The remaining members allow you to inspect and change the mean. Normal ====== The `Normal'class implements the normal distribution. The first parameter to the constructor, `mean', is the mean and the second, `variance', is the variance. The remaining members allow you to inspect and change the mean and variance. The `LogNormal' class is a subclass of `Normal'. LogNormal ========= The `LogNormal'class implements the logarithmic normal distribution. The first parameter to the constructor, `mean', is the mean and the second, `variance', is the variance. The remaining members allow you to inspect and change the mean and variance. The `LogNormal' class is a subclass of `Normal'. Poisson ======= The `Poisson' class implements the poisson distribution. The first parameter to the constructor is the mean. The remaining members allow you to inspect and change the mean. DiscreteUniform =============== The `DiscreteUniform' class implements a uniform random variable over the closed interval ranging from `[low..high]'. The first parameter to the constructor is `low', and the second is `high', although the order of these may be reversed. The remaining members allow you to inspect and change `low' and `high'. Uniform ======= The `Uniform' class implements a uniform random variable over the open interval ranging from `[low..high)'. The first parameter to the constructor is `low', and the second is `high', although the order of these may be reversed. The remaining members allow you to inspect and change `low' and `high'. Weibull ======= The `Weibull' class implements a weibull distribution with parameters `alpha' and `beta'. The first parameter to the class constructor is `alpha', and the second parameter is `beta'. The remaining members allow you to inspect and change `alpha' and `beta'. RandomInteger ============= The `RandomInteger' class is *not* a subclass of Random, but a stand-alone integer-oriented class that is dependent on the RNG classes. RandomInteger returns random integers uniformly from the closed interval `[low..high]'. The first parameter to the constructor is `low', and the second is `high', although both are optional. The last argument is always a generator. Additional members allow you to inspect and change `low' and `high'. Random integers are generated using `asInt()' or `asLong()'. Operator syntax (`()') is also available as a shorthand for `asLong()'. Because `RandomInteger' is often used in simulations for which uniform random integers are desired over a variety of ranges, `asLong()' and `asInt' have `high' as an optional argument. Using this optional argument produces a single value from the new range, but does not change the default range. File: libg++.info, Node: Data, Next: Curses, Prev: Random, Up: Top Data Collection *************** Libg++ currently provides two classes for *data collection* and analysis of the collected data. SampleStatistic =============== Class `SampleStatistic' provides a means of accumulating samples of `double' values and providing common sample statistics. Assume declaration of `double x'. `SampleStatistic a;' declares and initializes a. `a.reset();' re-initializes a. `a += x;' adds sample x. `int n = a.samples();' returns the number of samples. `x = a.mean;' returns the means of the samples. `x = a.var()' returns the sample variance of the samples. `x = a.stdDev()' returns the sample standard deviation of the samples. `x = a.min()' returns the minimum encountered sample. `x = a.max()' returns the maximum encountered sample. `x = a.confidence(int p)' returns the p-percent (0 <= p < 100) confidence interval. `x = a.confidence(double p)' returns the p-probability (0 <= p < 1) confidence interval. SampleHistogram =============== Class `SampleHistogram' is a derived class of `SampleStatistic' that supports collection and display of samples in bucketed intervals. It supports the following in addition to `SampleStatisic' operations. `SampleHistogram h(double lo, double hi, double width);' declares and initializes h to have buckets of size width from lo to hi. If the optional argument width is not specified, 10 buckets are created. The first bucket and also holds samples less than lo, and the last one holds samples greater than hi. `int n = h.similarSamples(x)' returns the number of samples in the same bucket as x. `int n = h.inBucket(int i)' returns the number of samples in bucket i. `int b = h.buckets()' returns the number of buckets. `h.printBuckets(ostream s)' prints bucket counts on ostream s. `double bound = h.bucketThreshold(int i)' returns the upper bound of bucket i. File: libg++.info, Node: Curses, Next: List, Prev: Data, Up: Top Curses-based classes ******************** The `CursesWindow' class is a repackaging of standard curses library features into a class. It relies on `curses.h'. The supplied `curses.h' is a fairly conservative declaration of curses library features, and does not include features like "screen" or X-window support. It is, for the most part, an adaptation, rather than an improvement of C-based `curses.h' files. The only substantive changes are the declarations of many functions as inline functions rather than macros, which was done solely to allow overloading. The `CursesWindow' class encapsulates curses window functions within a class. Only those functions that control windows are included: Terminal control functions and macros like `cbreak' are not part of the class. All `CursesWindows' member functions have names identical to the corresponding curses library functions, except that the "w" prefix is generally dropped. Descriptions of these functions may be found in your local curses library documentation. A `CursesWindow' may be declared via `CursesWindow w(WINDOW* win)' attaches w to the existing WINDOW* win. This is constructor is normally used only in the following special case. `CursesWindow w(stdscr)' attaches w to the default curses library standard screen window. `CursesWindow w(int lines, int cols, int begin_y, int begin_x)' attaches to an allocated curses window with the indicated size and screen position. `CursesWindow sub(CursesWindow& w,int l,int c,int by,int bx,char ar='a')' attaches to a subwindow of w created via the curses `subwin' command. If ar is sent as `r', the origin (by, bx) is relative to the parent window, else it is absolute. The class maintains a static counter that is used in order to automatically call the curses library `initscr' and `endscr' functions at the proper times. These need not, and should not be called "manually". `CursesWindow's maintain a tree of their subwindows. Upon destruction of a `CursesWindow', all of their subwindows are also invalidated if they had not previously been destroyed. It is possible to traverse trees of subwindows via the following member functions `CursesWindow* w.parent()' returns a pointer to the parent of the subwindow, or 0 if there is none. `CursesWindow* w.child()' returns the first child subwindow of the window, or 0 if there is none. `CursesWindow* w.sibling()' returns the next sibling of the subwindow, or 0 if there is none. For example, to call some function `visit' for all subwindows of a window, you could write void traverse(CursesWindow& w) { visit(w); if (w.child() != 0) traverse(*w.child); if (w.sibling() != 0) traverse(*w.sibling); } File: libg++.info, Node: List, Next: LinkList, Prev: Curses, Up: Top List classes ************ The files `g++-include/List.hP' and `g++-include/List.ccP' provide pseudo-generic Lisp-type List classes. These lists are homogeneous lists, more similar to lists in statically typed functional languages like ML than Lisp, but support operations very similar to those found in Lisp. Any particular kind of list class may be generated via the `genclass' shell command. However, the implementation assumes that the base class supports an equality operator `=='. All equality tests use the `==' operator, and are thus equivalent to the use of `equal', not `eq' in Lisp. All list nodes are created dynamically, and managed via reference counts. `List' variables are actually pointers to these list nodes. Lists may also be traversed via Pixes, as described in the section describing Pixes. *Note Pix:: Supported operations are mirrored closely after those in Lisp. Generally, operations with functional forms are constructive, functional operations, while member forms (often with the same name) are sometimes procedural, possibly destructive operations. As with Lisp, destructive operations are supported. Programmers are allowed to change head and tail fields in any fashion, creating circular structures and the like. However, again as with Lisp, some operations implicitly assume that they are operating on pure lists, and may enter infinite loops when presented with improper lists. Also, the reference-counting storage management facility may fail to reclaim unused circularly-linked nodes. Several Lisp-like higher order functions are supported (e.g., `map'). Typedef declarations for the required functional forms are provided int the `.h' file. For purposes of illustration, assume the specification of class `intList'. Common Lisp versions of supported operations are shown in brackets for comparison purposes. Constructors and assignment =========================== `intList a; [ (setq a nil) ]' Declares a to be a nil intList. `intList b(2); [ (setq b (cons 2 nil)) ]' Declares b to be an intList with a head value of 2, and a nil tail. `intList c(3, b); [ (setq c (cons 3 b)) ]' Declares c to be an intList with a head value of 3, and b as its tail. `b = a; [ (setq b a) ]' Sets b to be the same list as a. Assume the declarations of intLists a, b, and c in the following. *Note Pix::. List status =========== `a.null(); OR !a; [ (null a) ]' returns true if a is null. `a.valid(); [ (listp a) ]' returns true if a is non-null. Inside a conditional test, the `void*' coercion may also be used as in `if (a) ...'. `intList(); [ nil ]' intList() may be used to null terminate a list, as in `intList f(int x) {if (x == 0) return intList(); ... } '. `a.length(); [ (length a) ]' returns the length of a. `a.list_length(); [ (list-length a) ]' returns the length of a, or -1 if a is circular. heads and tails =============== `a.get(); OR a.head() [ (car a) ]' returns a reference to the head field. `a[2]; [ (elt a 2) ]' returns a reference to the second (counting from zero) head field. `a.tail(); [ (cdr a) ]' returns the intList that is the tail of a. `a.last(); [ (last a) ]' returns the intList that is the last node of a. `a.nth(2); [ (nth a 2) ]' returns the intList that is the nth node of a. `a.set_tail(b); [ (rplacd a b) ]' sets a's tail to b. `a.push(2); [ (push 2 a) ]' equivalent to a = intList(2, a); `int x = a.pop() [ (setq x (car a)) (pop a) ]' returns the head of a, also setting a to its tail. Constructive operations ======================= `b = copy(a); [ (setq b (copy-seq a)) ]' sets b to a copy of a. `b = reverse(a); [ (setq b (reverse a)) ]' Sets b to a reversed copy of a. `c = concat(a, b); [ (setq c (concat a b)) ]' Sets c to a concatenated copy of a and b. `c = append(a, b); [ (setq c (append a b)) ]' Sets c to a concatenated copy of a and b. All nodes of a are copied, with the last node pointing to b. `b = map(f, a); [ (setq b (mapcar f a)) ]' Sets b to a new list created by applying function f to each node of a. `c = combine(f, a, b);' Sets c to a new list created by applying function f to successive pairs of a and b. The resulting list has length the shorter of a and b. `b = remove(x, a); [ (setq b (remove x a)) ]' Sets b to a copy of a, omitting all occurrences of x. `b = remove(f, a); [ (setq b (remove-if f a)) ]' Sets b to a copy of a, omitting values causing function f to return true. `b = select(f, a); [ (setq b (remove-if-not f a)) ]' Sets b to a copy of a, omitting values causing function f to return false. `c = merge(a, b, f); [ (setq c (merge a b f)) ]' Sets c to a list containing the ordered elements (using the comparison function f) of the sorted lists a and b. Destructive operations ====================== `a.append(b); [ (rplacd (last a) b) ]' appends b to the end of a. No new nodes are constructed. `a.prepend(b); [ (setq a (append b a)) ]' prepends b to the beginning of a. `a.del(x); [ (delete x a) ]' deletes all nodes with value x from a. `a.del(f); [ (delete-if f a) ]' deletes all nodes causing function f to return true. `a.select(f); [ (delete-if-not f a) ]' deletes all nodes causing function f to return false. `a.reverse(); [ (nreverse a) ]' reverses a in-place. `a.sort(f); [ (sort a f) ]' sorts a in-place using ordering (comparison) function f. `a.apply(f); [ (mapc f a) ]' Applies void function f (int x) to each element of a. `a.subst(int old, int repl); [ (nsubst repl old a) ]' substitutes repl for each occurrence of old in a. Note the different argument order than the Lisp version. Other operations ================ `a.find(int x); [ (find x a) ]' returns the intList at the first occurrence of x. `a.find(b); [ (find b a) ]' returns the intList at the first occurrence of sublist b. `a.contains(int x); [ (member x a) ]' returns true if a contains x. `a.contains(b); [ (member b a) ]' returns true if a contains sublist b. `a.position(int x); [ (position x a) ]' returns the zero-based index of x in a, or -1 if x does not occur. `int x = a.reduce(f, int base); [ (reduce f a :initial-value base) ]' Accumulates the result of applying int function f(int, int) to successive elements of a, starting with base. File: libg++.info, Node: LinkList, Next: Vector, Prev: List, Up: Top Linked Lists ************ SLLists provide pseudo-generic singly linked lists. DLLists provide doubly linked lists. The lists are designed for the simple maintenance of elements in a linked structure, and do not provide the more extensive operations (or node-sharing) of class `List'. They behave similarly to the `slist' and similar classes described by Stroustrup. All list nodes are created dynamically. Assignment is performed via copying. Class `DLList' supports all `SLList' operations, plus additional operations described below. For purposes of illustration, assume the specification of class `intSLList'. In addition to the operations listed here, SLLists support traversal via Pixes. *Note Pix:: `intSLList a;' Declares a to be an empty list. `intSLList b = a;' Sets b to an element-by-element copy of a. `a.empty()' returns true if a contains no elements `a.length();' returns the number of elements in a. `a.prepend(x);' places x at the front of the list. `a.append(x);' places x at the end of the list. `a.join(b)' places all nodes from b to the end of a, simultaneously destroying b. `x = a.front()' returns a reference to the item stored at the head of the list, or triggers an error if the list is empty. `a.rear()' returns a reference to the rear of the list, or triggers an error if the list is empty. `x = a.remove_front()' deletes and returns the item stored at the head of the list. `a.del_front()' deletes the first element, without returning it. `a.clear()' deletes all items from the list. `a.ins_after(Pix i, item);' inserts item after position i. If i is null, insertion is at the front. `a.del_after(Pix i);' deletes the element following i. If i is 0, the first item is deleted. Doubly linked lists =================== Class `DLList' supports the following additional operations, as well as backward traversal via Pixes. `x = a.remove_rear();' deletes and returns the item stored at the rear of the list. `a.del_rear();' deletes the last element, without returning it. `a.ins_before(Pix i, x)' inserts x before the i. `a.del(Pix& iint dir = 1)' deletes the item at the current position, then advances forward if dir is positive, else backward. File: libg++.info, Node: Vector, Next: Plex, Prev: LinkList, Up: Top Vector classes ************** The files `g++-include/Vec.ccP' and `g++-include/AVec.ccP' provide pseudo-generic standard array-based vector operations. The corresponding header files are `g++-include/Vec.hP' and `g++-include/AVec.hP'. Class `Vec' provides operations suitable for any base class that includes an equality operator. Subclass `AVec' provides additional arithmetic operations suitable for base classes that include the full complement of arithmetic operators. `Vecs' are constructed and assigned by copying. Thus, they should normally be passed by reference in applications programs. Several mapping functions are provided that allow programmers to specify operations on vectors as a whole. For illustrative purposes assume that classes `intVec' and `intAVec' have been generated via `genclass'. Constructors and assignment =========================== `intVec a;' declares a to be an empty vector. Its size may be changed via resize. `intVec a(10);' declares a to be an uninitialized vector of ten elements (numbered 0-9). `intVec b(6, 0);' declares b to be a vector of six elements, all initialized to zero. Any value can be used as the initial fill argument. `a = b;' Copies b to a. a is resized to be the same as b. `a = b.at(2, 4)' constructs a from the 4 elements of b starting at b[2]. Assume declarations of `intVec a, b, c' and `int i, x' in the following. Status and access ================= `a.capacity();' returns the number of elements that can be held in a. `a.resize(20);' sets a's length to 20. All elements are unchanged, except that if the new size is smaller than the original, than trailing elements are deleted, and if greater, trailing elements are uninitialized. `a[i];' returns a reference to the i'th element of a, or produces an error if i is out of range. `a.elem(i)' returns a reference to the i'th element of a. Unlike the `[]' operator, i is not checked to ensure that it is within range. `a == b;' returns true if a and b contain the same elements in the same order. `a != b;' is the converse of a == b. Constructive operations ======================= `c = concat(a, b);' sets c to the new vector constructed from all of the elements of a followed by all of b. `c = map(f, a);' sets c to the new vector constructed by applying int function f(int) to each element of a. `c = merge(a, b, f);' sets c to the new vector constructed by merging the elements of ordered vectors a and b using ordering (comparison) function f. `c = combine(f, a, b);' sets c to the new vector constructed by applying int function f(int, int) to successive pairs of a and b. The result has length the shorter of a and b. `c = reverse(a)' sets c to a, with elements in reverse order. Destructive operations ====================== `a.reverse();' reverses a in-place. `a.sort(f)' sorts a in-place using comparison function f. The sorting method is a variation of the quicksort functions supplied with GNU emacs. `a.fill(0, 4, 2)' fills the 2 elements starting at a[4] with zero. Other operations ================ `a.apply(f)' applies function f to each element in a. `x = a.reduce(f, base)' accumulates the results of applying function f to successive elements of a starting with base. `a.index(int targ);' returns the index of the leftmost occurrence of the target, or -1, if it does not occur. `a.error(char* msg)' invokes the error handler. The default version prints the error message, then aborts. AVec operations. ================ AVecs provide additional arithmetic operations. All vector-by-vector operators generate an error if the vectors are not the same length. The following operations are provided, for `AVecs a, b' and base element (scalar) `s'. `a = b;' Copies b to a. a and b must be the same size. `a = s;' fills all elements of a with the value s. a is not resized. `a + s; a - s; a * s; a / s' adds, subtracts, multiplies, or divides each element of a with the scalar. `a += s; a -= s; a *= s; a /= s;' adds, subtracts, multiplies, or divides the scalar into a. `a + b; a - b; product(a, b), quotient(a, b)' adds, subtracts, multiplies, or divides corresponding elements of a and b. `a += b; a -= b; a.product(b); a.quotient(b);' adds, subtracts, multiplies, or divides corresponding elements of b into a. `s = a * b;' returns the inner (dot) product of a and b. `x = a.sum();' returns the sum of elements of a. `x = a.sumsq();' returns the sum of squared elements of a. `x = a.min();' returns the minimum element of a. `x = a.max();' returns the maximum element of a. `i = a.min_index();' returns the index of the minimum element of a. `i = a.max_index();' returns the index of the maximum element of a. Note that it is possible to apply vector versions other arithmetic operators via the mapping functions. For example, to set vector b to the cosines of doubleVec a, use `b = map(cos, a);'. This is often more efficient than performing the operations in an element-by-element fashion. File: libg++.info, Node: Plex, Next: Stack, Prev: Vector, Up: Top Plex classes ************ A "Plex" is a kind of array with the following properties: * Plexes may have arbitrary upper and lower index bounds. For example a Plex may be declared to run from indices -10 .. 10. * Plexes may be dynamically expanded at both the lower and upper bounds of the array in steps of one element. * Only elements that have been specifically initialized or added may be accessed. * Elements may be accessed via indices. Indices are always checked for validity at run time. Plexes may be traversed via simple variations of standard array indexing loops. * Plex elements may be accessed and traversed via Pixes. * Plex-to-Plex assignment and related operations on entire Plexes are supported. * Plex classes contain methods to help programmers check the validity of indexing and pointer operations. * Plexes form "natural" base classes for many restricted-access data structures relying on logically contiguous indices, such as array-based stacks and queues. * Plexes are implemented as pseudo-generic classes, and must be generated via the `genclass' utility. Four subclasses of Plexes are supported: A `FPlex' is a Plex that may only grow or shrink within declared bounds; an `XPlex' may dynamically grow or shrink without bounds; an `RPlex' is the same as an `XPlex' but better supports indexing with poor locality of reference; a `MPlex' may grow or shrink, and additionally allows the logical deletion and restoration of elements. Because these classes are virtual subclasses of the "abstract" class `Plex', it is possible to write user code such as `void f(Plex& a) ...' that operates on any kind of Plex. However, as with nearly any virtual class, specifying the particular Plex class being used results in more efficient code. Plexes are implemented as a linked list of `IChunks'. Each chunk contains a part of the array. Chunk sizes may be specified within Plex constructors. Default versions also exist, that use a `#define'd' default. Plexes grow by filling unused space in existing chunks, if possible, else, except for FPlexes, by adding another chunk. Whenever Plexes grow by a new chunk, the default element constructors (i.e., those which take no arguments) for all chunk elements are called at once. When Plexes shrink, destructors for the elements are not called until an entire chunk is freed. For this reason, Plexes (like C++ arrays) should only be used for elements with default constructors and destructors that have no side effects. Plexes may be indexed and used like arrays, although traversal syntax is slightly different. Even though Plexes maintain elements in lists of chunks, they are implemented so that iteration and other constructs that maintain locality of reference require very little overhead over that for simple array traversal Pix-based traversal is also supported. For example, for a plex, p, of ints, the following traversal methods could be used. for (int i = p.low(); i < p.fence(); p.next(i)) use(p[i]); for (int i = p.high(); i > p.ecnef(); p.prev(i)) use(p[i]); for (Pix t = p.first(); t != 0; p.next(t)) use(p(i)); for (Pix t = p.last(); t != 0; p.prev(t)) use(p(i)); Except for MPlexes, simply using `++i' and `--i' works just as well as `p.next(i)' and `p.prev(i)' when traversing by index. Index-based traversal is generally a bit faster than Pix-based traversal. `XPlexes' and `MPlexes' are less than optimal for applications in which widely scattered elements are indexed, as might occur when using Plexes as hash tables or "manually" allocated linked lists. In such applications, `RPlexes' are often preferable. `RPlexes' use a secondary chunk index table that requires slightly greater, but entirely uniform overhead per index operation. Even though they may grow in either direction, Plexes are normally constructed so that their "natural" growth direction is upwards, in that default chunk construction leaves free space, if present, at the end of the plex. However, if the chunksize arguments to constructors are negative, they leave space at the beginning. All versions of Plexes support the following basic capabilities. (letting `Plex' stand for the type name constructed via the genclass utility (e.g., `intPlex', `doublePlex')). Assume declarations of `Plex p, q', `int i, j', base element `x', and Pix `pix'. `Plex p;' Declares p to be an initially zero-sized Plex with low index of zero, and the default chunk size. For FPlexes, chunk sizes represent maximum sizes. `Plex p(int size);' Declares p to be an initially zero-sized Plex with low index of zero, and the indicated chunk size. If size is negative, then the Plex is created with free space at the beginning of the Plex, allowing more efficient add_low() operations. Otherwise, it leaves space at the end. `Plex p(int low, int size);' Declares p to be an initially zero-sized Plex with low index of low, and the indicated chunk size. `Plex p(int low, int high, Base initval, int size = 0);' Declares p to be a Plex with indices from low to high, initially filled with initval, and the indicated chunk size if specified, else the default or (high - low + 1), whichever is greater. `Plex q(p);' Declares q to be a copy of p. `p = q;' Copies Plex q into p, deleting its previous contents. `p.length()' Returns the number of elements in the Plex. `p.empty()' Returns true if Plex p contains no elements. `p.full()' Returns true if Plex p cannot be expanded. This always returns false for XPlexes and MPlexes. `p[i]' Returns a reference to the i'th element of p. An exception (error) occurs if i is not a valid index. `p.valid(i)' Returns true if i is a valid index into Plex p. `p.low(); p.high();' Return the minimum (maximum) valid index of the Plex, or the high (low) fence if the plex is empty. `p.ecnef(); p.fence();' Return the index one position past the minimum (maximum) valid index. `p.next(i); i = p.prev(i);' Set i to the next (previous) index. This index may not be within bounds. `p(pix)' returns a reference to the item at Pix pix. `pix = p.first(); pix = p.last();' Return the minimum (maximum) valid Pix of the Plex, or 0 if the plex is empty. `p.next(pix); p.prev(pix);' set pix to the next (previous) Pix, or 0 if there is none. `p.owns(pix)' Returns true if the Plex contains the element associated with pix. `p.Pix_to_index(pix)' If pix is a valid Pix to an element of the Plex, returns its corresponding index, else raises an exception. `ptr = p.index_to_Pix(i)' if i is a valid index, returns a the corresponding Pix. `p.low_element(); p.high_element();' Return a reference to the element at the minimum (maximum) valid index. An exception occurs if the Plex is empty. `p.can_add_low(); p.can_add_high();' Returns true if the plex can be extended one element downward (upward). These always return true for XPlex and MPlex. `j = p.add_low(x); j = p.add_high(x);' Extend the Plex by one element downward (upward). The new minimum (maximum) index is returned. `j = p.del_low(); j = p.del_high()' Shrink the Plex by one element on the low (high) end. The new minimum (maximum) element is returned. An exception occurs if the Plex is empty. `p.append(q);' Append all of Plex q to the high side of p. `p.prepend(q);' Prepend all of q to the low side of p. `p.clear()' Delete all elements, resetting p to a zero-sized Plex. `p.reset_low(i);' Resets p to be indexed starting at low() = i. For example. if p were initially declared via `Plex p(0, 10, 0)', and then re-indexed via `p.reset_low(5)', it could then be indexed from indices 5 .. 14. `p.fill(x)' sets all p[i] to x. `p.fill(x, lo, hi)' sets all of p[i] from lo to hi, inclusive, to x. `p.reverse()' reverses p in-place. `p.chunk_size()' returns the chunk size used for the plex. `p.error(const char * msg)' calls the resettable error handler. MPlexes are plexes with bitmaps that allow items to be logically deleted and restored. They behave like other plexes, but also support the following additional and modified capabilities: `p.del_index(i); p.del_Pix(pix)' logically deletes p[i] (p(pix)). After deletion, attempts to access p[i] generate a error. Indexing via low(), high(), prev(), and next() skip the element. Deleting an element never changes the logical bounds of the plex. `p.undel_index(i); p.undel_Pix(pix)' logically undeletes p[i] (p(pix)). `p.del_low(); p.del_high()' Delete the lowest (highest) undeleted element, resetting the logical bounds of the plex to the next lowest (highest) undeleted index. Thus, MPlex del_low() and del_high() may shrink the bounds of the plex by more than one index. `p.adjust_bounds()' Resets the low and high bounds of the Plex to the indexes of the lowest and highest actual undeleted elements. `int i = p.add(x)' Adds x in an unused index, if possible, else performs add_high. `p.count()' returns the number of valid (undeleted) elements. `p.available()' returns the number of available (deleted) indices. `int i = p.unused_index()' returns the index of some deleted element, if one exists, else triggers an error. An unused element may be reused via undel. `pix = p.unused_Pix()' returns the pix of some deleted element, if one exists, else 0. An unused element may be reused via undel. File: libg++.info, Node: Stack, Next: Queue, Prev: Plex, Up: Top Stacks ****** Stacks are declared as an "abstract" class. They are currently implemented in any of three ways. `VStack' implement fixed sized stacks via arrays. `XPStack' implement dynamically-sized stacks via XPlexes. `SLStack' implement dynamically-size stacks via linked lists. All possess the same capabilities. They differ only in constructors. VStack constructors require a fixed maximum capacity argument. XPStack constructors optionally take a chunk size argument. SLStack constructors take no argument. Assume the declaration of a base element `x'. `Stack s; or Stack s(int capacity)' declares a Stack. `s.empty()' returns true if stack s is empty. `s.full()' returns true if stack s is full. XPStacks and SLStacks never become full. `s.length()' returns the current number of elements in the stack. `s.push(x)' pushes x on stack s. `x = s.pop()' pops and returns the top of stack `s.top()' returns a reference to the top of stack. `s.del_top()' pops, but does not return the top of stack. When large items are held on the stack it is often a good idea to use `top()' to inspect and use the top of stack, followed by a `del_top()' `s.clear()' removes all elements from the stack. File: libg++.info, Node: Queue, Next: Deque, Prev: Stack, Up: Top Queues ****** Queues are declared as an "abstract" class. They are currently implemented in any of three ways. `VQueue' implement fixed sized Queues via arrays. `XPQueue' implement dynamically-sized Queues via XPlexes. `SLQueue' implement dynamically-size Queues via linked lists. All possess the same capabilities; they differ only in constructors. `VQueue' constructors require a fixed maximum capacity argument. `XPQueue' constructors optionally take a chunk size argument. `SLQueue' constructors take no argument. Assume the declaration of a base element `x'. `Queue q; or Queue q(int capacity);' declares a queue. `q.empty()' returns true if queue q is empty. `q.full()' returns true if queue q is full. XPQueues and SLQueues are never full. `q.length()' returns the current number of elements in the queue. `q.enq(x)' enqueues x on queue q. `x = q.deq()' dequeues and returns the front of queue `q.front()' returns a reference to the front of queue. `q.del_front()' dequeues, but does not return the front of queue `q.clear()' removes all elements from the queue. File: libg++.info, Node: Deque, Next: PQ, Prev: Queue, Up: Top Double ended Queues ******************* Deques are declared as an "abstract" class. They are currently implemented in two ways. `XPDeque' implement dynamically-sized Deques via XPlexes. `DLDeque' implement dynamically-size Deques via linked lists. All possess the same capabilities. They differ only in constructors. XPDeque constructors optionally take a chunk size argument. DLDeque constructors take no argument. Double-ended queues support both stack-like and queue-like capabilities: Assume the declaration of a base element `x'. `Deque d; or Deque d(int initial_capacity)' declares a deque. `d.empty()' returns true if deque d is empty. `d.full()' returns true if deque d is full. Always returns false in current implementations. `d.length()' returns the current number of elements in the deque. `d.enq(x)' inserts x at the rear of deque d. `d.push(x)' inserts x at the front of deque d. `x = d.deq()' dequeues and returns the front of deque `d.front()' returns a reference to the front of deque. `d.rear()' returns a reference to the rear of the deque. `d.del_front()' deletes, but does not return the front of deque `d.del_rear()' deletes, but does not return the rear of the deque. `d.clear()' removes all elements from the deque. File: libg++.info, Node: PQ, Next: Set, Prev: Deque, Up: Top Priority Queue class prototypes. ******************************** Priority queues maintain collections of objects arranged for fast access to the least element. Several prototype implementations of priority queues are supported. `XPPQs' implement 2-ary heaps via XPlexes. `SplayPQs' implement PQs via Sleater and Tarjan's (JACM 1985) splay trees. The algorithms use a version of "simple top-down splaying" (described on page 669 of the article). The simple-splay mechanism for priority queue functions is loosely based on the one used by D. Jones in the C splay tree functions available from volume 14 of the uunet.uu.net archives. `PHPQs' implement pairing heaps (as described by Fredman and Sedgewick in `Algorithmica', Vol 1, p111-129). Storage for heap elements is managed via an internal freelist technique. The constructor allows an initial capacity estimate for freelist space. The storage is automatically expanded if necessary to hold new items. The deletion technique is a fast "lazy deletion" strategy that marks items as deleted, without reclaiming space until the items come to the top of the heap. All PQ classes support the following operations, for some PQ class `Heap', instance `h', `Pix ind', and base class variable `x'. `h.empty()' returns true if there are no elements in the PQ. `h.length()' returns the number of elements in h. `ind = h.enq(x)' Places x in the PQ, and returns its index. `x = h.deq()' Dequeues the minimum element of the PQ into x, or generates an error if the PQ is empty. `h.front()' returns a reference to the minimum element. `h.del_front()' deletes the minimum element. `h.clear();' deletes all elements from h; `h.contains(x)' returns true if x is in h. `h(ind)' returns a reference to the item indexed by ind. `ind = h.first()' returns the Pix of first item in the PQ or 0 if empty. This need not be the Pix of the least element. `h.next(ind)' advances ind to the Pix of next element, or 0 if there are no more. `ind = h.seek(x)' Sets ind to the Pix of x, or 0 if x is not in h. `h.del(ind)' deletes the item with Pix ind. File: libg++.info, Node: Set, Next: Bag, Prev: PQ, Up: Top Set class prototypes ******************** Set classes maintain unbounded collections of items containing no duplicate elements. These are currently implemented in several ways, differing in representation strategy, algorithmic efficiency, and appropriateness for various tasks. (Listed next to each are average (followed by worst-case, if different) time complexities for [a] adding, [f] finding (via seek, contains), [d] deleting, elements, and [c] comparing (via ==, <=) and [m] merging (via |=, -=, &=) sets). `XPSets' implement unordered sets via XPlexes. ([a O(n)], [f O(n)], [d O(n)], [c O(n^2)] [m O(n^2)]). `OXPSets' implement ordered sets via XPlexes. ([a O(n)], [f O(log n)], [d O(n)], [c O(n)] [m O(n)]). `SLSets' implement unordered sets via linked lists ([a O(n)], [f O(n)], [d O(n)], [c O(n^2)] [m O(n^2)]). `OSLSets' implement ordered sets via linked lists ([a O(n)], [f O(n)], [d O(n)], [c O(n)] [m O(n)]). `AVLSets' implement ordered sets via threaded AVL trees ([a O(log n)], [f O(log n)], [d O(log n)], [c O(n)] [m O(n)]). `BSTSets' implement ordered sets via binary search trees. The trees may be manually rebalanced via the O(n) `balance()' member function. ([a O(log n)/O(n)], [f O(log n)/O(n)], [d O(log n)/O(n)], [c O(n)] [m O(n)]). `SplaySets' implement ordered sets via Sleater and Tarjan's (JACM 1985) splay trees. The algorithms use a version of "simple top-down splaying" (described on page 669 of the article). (Amortized: [a O(log n)], [f O(log n)], [d O(log n)], [c O(n)] [m O(n log n)]). `VHSets' implement unordered sets via hash tables. The tables are automatically resized when their capacity is exhausted. ([a O(1)/O(n)], [f O(1)/O(n)], [d O(1)/O(n)], [c O(n)/O(n^2)] [m O(n)/O(n^2)]). `VOHSets' implement unordered sets via ordered hash tables The tables are automatically resized when their capacity is exhausted. ([a O(1)/O(n)], [f O(1)/O(n)], [d O(1)/O(n)], [c O(n)/O(n^2)] [m O(n)/O(n^2)]). `CHSets' implement unordered sets via chained hash tables. ([a O(1)/O(n)], [f O(1)/O(n)], [d O(1)/O(n)], [c O(n)/O(n^2)] [m O(n)/O(n^2)]). The different implementations differ in whether their constructors require an argument specifying their initial capacity. Initial capacities are required for plex and hash table based Sets. If none is given `DEFAULT_INITIAL_CAPACITY' (from `<T>defs.h') is used. Sets support the following operations, for some class `Set', instances `a' and `b', `Pix ind', and base element `x'. Since all implementations are virtual derived classes of the `<T>Set' class, it is possible to mix and match operations across different implementations, although, as usual, operations are generally faster when the particular classes are specified in functions operating on Sets. Pix-based operations are more fully described in the section on Pixes. *Note Pix:: `Set a; or Set a(int initial_size);' Declares a to be an empty Set. The second version is allowed in set classes that require initial capacity or sizing specifications. `a.empty()' returns true if a is empty. `a.length()' returns the number of elements in a. `Pix ind = a.add(x)' inserts x into a, returning its index. `a.del(x)' deletes x from a. `a.clear()' deletes all elements from a; `a.contains(x)' returns true if x is in a. `a(ind)' returns a reference to the item indexed by ind. `ind = a.first()' returns the Pix of first item in the set or 0 if the Set is empty. For ordered Sets, this is the Pix of the least element. `a.next(ind)' advances ind to the Pix of next element, or 0 if there are no more. `ind = a.seek(x)' Sets ind to the Pix of x, or 0 if x is not in a. `a == b' returns true if a and b contain all the same elements. `a != b' returns true if a and b do not contain all the same elements. `a <= b' returns true if a is a subset of b. `a |= b' Adds all elements of b to a. `a -= b' Deletes all elements of b from a. `a &= b' Deletes all elements of a not occurring in b.