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GNU Info File
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1992-07-19
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48.5 KB
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1,293 lines
This is Info file gcc.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.47 from the input
file gcc.texi.
This file documents the use and the internals of the GNU compiler.
Copyright (C) 1988, 1989, 1992 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the sections entitled "GNU General Public License" and "Boycott"
are included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire
resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission
notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the sections entitled "GNU General Public
License" and "Boycott", and this permission notice, may be included in
translations approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the
original English.
File: gcc.info, Node: Cross-Compiler, Next: PA Install, Prev: Other Dir, Up: Installation
Building and Installing a Cross-Compiler
========================================
GNU CC can function as a cross-compiler for many machines, but not
all.
* Cross-compilers for the Mips as target do not work because the
auxiliary programs `mips-tdump.c' and `mips-tfile.c' can't be
compiled on anything but a Mips.
* Cross-compilers to or from the Vax probably don't work completely
because the Vax uses an incompatible floating point format (not
IEEE format).
Since GNU CC generates assembler code, you probably need a
cross-assembler that GNU CC can run, in order to produce object files.
If you want to link on other than the target machine, you need a
cross-linker as well. You also need header files and libraries suitable
for the target machine that you can install on the host machine.
To build GNU CC as a cross-compiler, you start out by running
`configure'. You must specify two different configureations, the host
and the target. Use the `--host=HOST' option for the host and
`--target=TARGET' to specify the target type. For example, here is how
to configure for a cross-compiler that runs on a hypothetical Intel 386
system and produces code for an HP 68030 system running BSD:
configure --target=m68k-hp-bsd4.3 --host=i386-bozotheclone-bsd4.3
Next you should install the cross-assembler and cross-linker (and
`ar' and `ranlib'). Put them in the directory `/usr/local/TARGET'.
The installation of GNU CC will find them there and copy or link them
to the proper place to find them when you run the cross-compiler later.
If you want to install any additional libraries to use with the
cross-compiler, put them in the directory `/usr/local/TARGET/lib'; all
files in that subdirectory will be installed in the proper place when
you install the cross-compiler. Likewise, put the header files for the
target machine in `/usr/local/TARGET/include'.
Then you can proceed just as for compiling a single-machine compiler
through the step of building stage 1.
When you are using a cross-compiler configuration, building stage 1
does not compile all of GNU CC. This is because one part of building,
the compilation of `libgcc2.c', requires use of the cross-compiler.
However, when you type `make install' to install the bulk of the
cross-compiler, that will also compile `libgcc2.c' and install the
resulting `libgcc.a'.
You will find it necessary to produce a substitute for `libgcc1.a'.
Normally this file is compiled with the "native compiler" for the
target machine; compiling it with GNU CC does not work. But compiling
it with the host machine's compiler also doesn't work--that produces a
file that would run on the host, and you need it to run on the target.
We can't give you any automatic way to produce this substitute. For
some targets, the subroutines in `libgcc1.c' are not actually used. You
need not provide the ones that won't be used. The ones that most
commonly are used are the multiplication, division and remainder
routines--many RISC machines rely on the library for this. One way to
make them work is to define the appropriate `perform_...' macros for
the subroutines that you need. If these definitions do not use the C
arithmetic operators that they are meant to implement, you might be
able to compile them with the cross-compiler you have just built.
Do not try to build stage 2 for a cross-compiler. It doesn't work to
rebuild GNU CC as a cross-compiler using the cross-compiler, because
that would produce a program that runs on the target machine, not on the
host. For example, if you compile a 386-to-68030 cross-compiler with
itself, the result will not be right either for the 386 (because it was
compiled into 68030 code) or for the 68030 (because it was configured
for a 386 as the host). If you want to compile GNU CC into 68030 code,
whether you compile it on a 68030 or with a cross-compiler on a 386, you
must specify a 68030 as the host when you configure it.
File: gcc.info, Node: PA Install, Next: Sun Install, Prev: Cross-Compiler, Up: Installation
Installing GNU CC on the HP Precision Architecture
==================================================
There are two variants of this CPU, called 1.0 and 1.1, which have
different machine descriptions. You must use the right one for your
machine. All 7NN machines and 8N7 machines use 1.1, while all other
8NN machines use 1.0.
The easiest way to handle this problem is to use `configure hpNNN'
or `configure hpNNN-hpux', where NNN is the model number of the
machine. Then `configure' will figure out if the machine is a 1.0 or
1.1. Use `uname -a' to find out the model number of your machine.
`-g' does not work on HP-UX, since that system uses a peculiar
debugging format which GNU CC does not know about. There is a
preliminary version available of some modified GNU tools including the
GDB debugger which do work with GNU CC for debugging. You can get them
by anonymous ftp from `mancos.cs.utah.edu' in the `dist' subdirectory.
You would need to install GAS in the file
/usr/local/lib/gcc-lib/CONFIGURATION/GCCVERSION/as
where CONFIGURATION is the configuration name (perhaps `hpNNN-hpux')
and GCCVERSION is the GNU CC version number.
If you do this, delete the line
#undef DBX_DEBUGGING_INFO
from `tm.h' before you build GNU CC, to enable generation of debugging
information.
File: gcc.info, Node: Sun Install, Next: 3b1 Install, Prev: PA Install, Up: Installation
Installing GNU CC on the Sun
============================
Make sure the environment variable `FLOAT_OPTION' is not set when
you compile `libgcc.a'. If this option were set to `f68881' when
`libgcc.a' is compiled, the resulting code would demand to be linked
with a special startup file and would not link properly without special
pains.
There is a bug in `alloca' in certain versions of the Sun library.
To avoid this bug, install the binaries of GNU CC that were compiled by
GNU CC. They use `alloca' as a built-in function and never the one in
the library.
Some versions of the Sun compiler crash when compiling GNU CC. The
problem is a segmentation fault in cpp. This problem seems to be due to
the bulk of data in the environment variables. You may be able to avoid
it by using the following command to compile GNU CC with Sun CC:
make CC="TERMCAP=x OBJS=x LIBFUNCS=x STAGESTUFF=x cc"
File: gcc.info, Node: 3b1 Install, Next: Unos Install, Prev: Sun Install, Up: Installation
Installing GNU CC on the 3b1
============================
Installing GNU CC on the 3b1 is difficult if you do not already have
GNU CC running, due to bugs in the installed C compiler. However, the
following procedure might work. We are unable to test it.
1. Comment out the `#include "config.h"' line on line 37 of `cccp.c'
and do `make cpp'. This makes a preliminary version of GNU cpp.
2. Save the old `/lib/cpp' and copy the preliminary GNU cpp to that
file name.
3. Undo your change in `cccp.c', or reinstall the original version,
and do `make cpp' again.
4. Copy this final version of GNU cpp into `/lib/cpp'.
5. Replace every occurrence of `obstack_free' in the file `tree.c'
with `_obstack_free'.
6. Run `make' to get the first-stage GNU CC.
7. Reinstall the original version of `/lib/cpp'.
8. Now you can compile GNU CC with itself and install it in the normal
fashion.
File: gcc.info, Node: Unos Install, Next: VMS Install, Prev: 3b1 Install, Up: Installation
Installing GNU CC on Unos
=========================
Use `configure unos' for building on Unos.
The Unos assembler is named `casm' instead of `as'. For some
strange reason linking `/bin/as' to `/bin/casm' changes the behavior,
and does not work. So, when installing GNU CC, you should install the
following script as `as' in the subdirectory where the passes of GCC
are installed:
#!/bin/sh
casm $*
The default Unos library is named `libunos.a' instead of `libc.a'.
To allow GNU CC to function, either change all references to `-lc' in
`gcc.c' to `-lunos' or link `/lib/libc.a' to `/lib/libunos.a'.
When compiling GNU CC with the standard compiler, to overcome bugs in
the support of `alloca', do not use `-O' when making stage 2. Then use
the stage 2 compiler with `-O' to make the stage 3 compiler. This
compiler will have the same characteristics as the usual stage 2
compiler on other systems. Use it to make a stage 4 compiler and
compare that with stage 3 to verify proper compilation.
(Perhaps simply defining `ALLOCA' in `x-crds' as described in the
comments there will make the above paragraph superfluous. Please
inform us of whether this works.)
Unos uses memory segmentation instead of demand paging, so you will
need a lot of memory. 5 Mb is barely enough if no other tasks are
running. If linking `cc1' fails, try putting the object files into a
library and linking from that library.
File: gcc.info, Node: VMS Install, Prev: Unos Install, Up: Installation
Installing GNU CC on VMS
========================
The VMS version of GNU CC is distributed in a backup saveset
containing both source code and precompiled binaries.
To install the `gcc' command so you can use the compiler easily, in
the same manner as you use the VMS C compiler, you must install the VMS
CLD file for GNU CC as follows:
1. Define the VMS logical names `GNU_CC' and `GNU_CC_INCLUDE' to
point to the directories where the GNU CC executables (`gcc-cpp',
`gcc-cc1', etc.) and the C include files are kept. This should be
done with the commands:
$ assign /system /translation=concealed -
disk:[gcc.] gnu_cc
$ assign /system /translation=concealed -
disk:[gcc.include.] gnu_cc_include
with the appropriate disk and directory names. These commands can
be placed in your system startup file so they will be executed
whenever the machine is rebooted. You may, if you choose, do this
via the `GCC_INSTALL.COM' script in the `[GCC]' directory.
2. Install the `GCC' command with the command line:
$ set command /table=sys$common:[syslib]dcltables -
/output=sys$common:[syslib]dcltables gnu_cc:[000000]gcc
$ install replace sys$common:[syslib]dcltables
3. To install the help file, do the following:
$ lib/help sys$library:helplib.hlb gcc.hlp
Now you can invoke the compiler with a command like `gcc /verbose
file.c', which is equivalent to the command `gcc -v -c file.c' in
Unix.
If you wish to use GNU C++ you must first install GNU CC, and then
perform the following steps:
1. Define the VMS logical name `GNU_GXX_INCLUDE' to point to the
directory where the preprocessor will search for the C++ header
files. This can be done with the command:
$ assign /system /translation=concealed -
disk:[gcc.gxx_include.] gnu_gxx_include
with the appropriate disk and directory name. If you are going to
be using libg++, this is where the libg++ install procedure will
install the libg++ header files.
2. Obtain the file `gcc-cc1plus.exe', and place this in the same
directory that `gcc-cc1.exe' is kept.
The GNU C++ compiler can be invoked with a command like `gcc /plus
/verbose file.cc', which is equivalent to the command `g++ -v -c
file.cc' in Unix.
We try to put corresponding binaries and sources on the VMS
distribution tape. But sometimes the binaries will be from an older
version that the sources, because we don't always have time to update
them. (Use the `/version' option to determine the version number of
the binaries and compare it with the source file `version.c' to tell
whether this is so.) In this case, you should use the binaries you get
to recompile the sources. If you must recompile, here is how:
1. Copy the file `vms.h' to `tm.h', `xm-vms.h' to `config.h',
`vax.md' to `md.' and `vax.c' to `aux-output.c'. The files to be
copied are found in the subdirectory named `config'; they should
be copied to the main directory of GNU CC. If you wish, you may
use the command file `config-gcc.com' to perform these steps for
you.
2. Setup the logical names and command tables as defined above. In
addition, define the VMS logical name `GNU_BISON' to point at the
to the directories where the Bison executable is kept. This
should be done with the command:
$ assign /system /translation=concealed -
disk:[bison.] gnu_bison
You may, if you choose, use the `INSTALL_BISON.COM' script in the
`[BISON]' directory.
3. Install the `BISON' command with the command line:
$ set command /table=sys$common:[syslib]dcltables -
/output=sys$common:[syslib]dcltables -
gnu_bison:[000000]bison
$ install replace sys$common:[syslib]dcltables
4. Type `@make-gcc' to recompile everything (alternatively, you may
submit the file `make-gcc.com' to a batch queue). If you wish to
build the GNU C++ compiler as well as the GNU CC compiler, you must
first edit `make-gcc.com' and follow the instructions that appear
in the comments.
5. In order to use GCC, you need a library of functions which GCC
compiled code will call to perform certain tasks, and these
functions are defined in the file `libgcc2.c'. To compile this
you should use the command procedure `make-l2.com', which will
generate the library `libgcc2.olb'. `libgcc2.olb' should be built
using the compiler built from the same distribution that
`libgcc2.c' came from, and `make-gcc.com' will automatically do
all of this for you.
To install the library, use the following commands:
$ lib gnu_cc:[000000]gcclib/delete=(new,eprintf)
$ lib libgcc2/extract=*/output=libgcc2.obj
$ lib gnu_cc:[000000]gcclib libgcc2.obj
The first command simply removes old modules that will be replaced
with modules from libgcc2. If the VMS librarian complains about
those modules not being present, simply ignore the message and
continue on with the next command.
Whenever you update the compiler on your system, you should also
update the library with the above procedure.
You may wish to build GCC in such a way that no files are written
to the directory where the source files reside. An example would
be the when the source files are on a read-only disk. In these
cases, execute the following DCL commands (substituting your
actual path names):
$ assign dua0:[gcc.build_dir.]tran=conc, -
dua1:[gcc.source_dir.]/tran=conc gcc_build
$ set default gcc_build:[000000]
where `dua1:[gcc.source_dir.]' contains the source code, and
`dua0:[gcc.build_dir.]' is meant to contain all of the generated
object files and executables. Once you have done this, you can
proceed building GCC as described above. (Keep in mind that
`gcc_build' is a rooted logical name, and thus the device names in
each element of the search list must be an actual physical device
name rather than another rooted logical name).
*If you are building GNU CC with a previous version of GNU CC, you
also should check to see that you have the newest version of the
assembler*. In particular, GNU CC version 2 treats global constant
variables slightly differently from GNU CC version 1, and GAS
version 1.38.1 does not have the patches required to work with GCC
version 2. If you use GAS 1.38.1, then `extern const' variables
will not have the read-only bit set, and the linker will generate
warning messages about mismatched psect attributes for these
variables. These warning messages are merely a nuisance, and can
safely be ignored.
If you are compiling with a version of GNU CC older than 1.33,
specify `/DEFINE=("inline=")' as an option in all the
compilations. This requires editing all the `gcc' commands in
`make-cc1.com'. (The older versions had problems supporting
`inline'.) Once you have a working 1.33 or newer GNU CC, you can
change this file back.
Under previous versions of GNU CC, the generated code would
occasionally give strange results when linked to the sharable `VAXCRTL'
library. Now this should work.
Even with this version, however, GNU CC itself should not be linked
to the sharable `VAXCRTL'. The `qsort' routine supplied with `VAXCRTL'
has a bug which can cause a compiler crash.
Similarly, the preprocessor should not be linked to the sharable
`VAXCRTL'. The `strncat' routine supplied with `VAXCRTL' has a bug
which can cause the preprocessor to go into an infinite loop.
If you attempt to link to the sharable `VAXCRTL', the VMS linker
will strongly resist any effort to force it to use the `qsort' and
`strncat' routines from `gcclib'. Until the bugs in `VAXCRTL' have
been fixed, linking any of the compiler components to the sharable
VAXCRTL is not recommended. (These routines can be bypassed by placing
duplicate copies of `qsort' and `strncat' in `gcclib' under different
names, and patching the compiler sources to use these routines). Both
of the bugs in `VAXCRTL' are still present in VMS version 5.4-1, which
is the most recent version as of this writing.
The executables that are generated by `make-cc1.com' and
`make-cccp.com' use the nonshared version of `VAXCRTL' (and thus use
the `qsort' and `strncat' routines from `gcclib.olb').
File: gcc.info, Node: Extensions, Next: Trouble, Prev: Installation, Up: Top
GNU Extensions to the C Language
********************************
GNU C provides several language features not found in ANSI standard
C. (The `-pedantic' option directs GNU CC to print a warning message if
any of these features is used.) To test for the availability of these
features in conditional compilation, check for a predefined macro
`__GNUC__', which is always defined under GNU CC.
* Menu:
* Statement Exprs:: Putting statements and declarations inside expressions.
* Local Labels:: Labels local to a statement-expression.
* Labels as Values:: Getting pointers to labels, and computed gotos.
* Nested Functions:: As in Algol and Pascal, lexical scoping of functions.
* Naming Types:: Giving a name to the type of some expression.
* Typeof:: `typeof': referring to the type of an expression.
* Lvalues:: Using `?:', `,' and casts in lvalues.
* Conditionals:: Omitting the middle operand of a `?:' expression.
* Long Long:: Double-word integers--`long long int'.
* Zero Length:: Zero-length arrays.
* Variable Length:: Arrays whose length is computed at run time.
* Macro Varargs:: Macros with variable number of arguments.
* Subscripting:: Any array can be subscripted, even if not an lvalue.
* Pointer Arith:: Arithmetic on `void'-pointers and function pointers.
* Initializers:: Non-constant initializers.
* Constructors:: Constructor expressions give structures, unions
or arrays as values.
* Labeled Elements:: Labeling elements of initializers.
* Cast to Union:: Casting to union type from any member of the union.
* Case Ranges:: `case 1 ... 9' and such.
* Function Attributes:: Declaring that functions have no side effects,
or that they can never return.
* Function Prototypes:: Prototype declarations and old-style definitions.
* Dollar Signs:: Dollar sign is allowed in identifiers.
* Character Escapes:: `\e' stands for the character ESC.
* Variable Attributes:: Specifying attributes of variables.
* Alignment:: Inquiring about the alignment of a type or variable.
* Inline:: Defining inline functions (as fast as macros).
* Extended Asm:: Assembler instructions with C expressions as operands.
(With them you can define "built-in" functions.)
* Asm Labels:: Specifying the assembler name to use for a C symbol.
* Explicit Reg Vars:: Defining variables residing in specified registers.
* Alternate Keywords:: `__const__', `__asm__', etc., for header files.
* Incomplete Enums:: `enum foo;', with details to follow.
File: gcc.info, Node: Statement Exprs, Next: Local Labels, Up: Extensions
Statements and Declarations within Expressions
==============================================
A compound statement enclosed in parentheses may appear as an
expression in GNU C. This allows you to use loops, switches, and local
variables within an expression.
Recall that a compound statement is a sequence of statements
surrounded by braces; in this construct, parentheses go around the
braces. For example:
({ int y = foo (); int z;
if (y > 0) z = y;
else z = - y;
z; })
is a valid (though slightly more complex than necessary) expression for
the absolute value of `foo ()'.
The last thing in the compound statement should be an expression
followed by a semicolon; the value of this subexpression serves as the
value of the entire construct. (If you use some other kind of statement
last within the braces, the construct has type `void', and thus
effectively no value.)
This feature is especially useful in making macro definitions "safe"
(so that they evaluate each operand exactly once). For example, the
"maximum" function is commonly defined as a macro in standard C as
follows:
#define max(a,b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
But this definition computes either A or B twice, with bad results if
the operand has side effects. In GNU C, if you know the type of the
operands (here let's assume `int'), you can define the macro safely as
follows:
#define maxint(a,b) \
({int _a = (a), _b = (b); _a > _b ? _a : _b; })
Embedded statements are not allowed in constant expressions, such as
the value of an enumeration constant, the width of a bit field, or the
initial value of a static variable.
If you don't know the type of the operand, you can still do this,
but you must use `typeof' (*note Typeof::.) or type naming (*note
Naming Types::.).
File: gcc.info, Node: Local Labels, Next: Labels as Values, Prev: Statement Exprs, Up: Extensions
Locally Declared Labels
=======================
Each statement expression is a scope in which "local labels" can be
declared. A local label is simply an identifier; you can jump to it
with an ordinary `goto' statement, but only from within the statement
expression it belongs to.
A local label declaration looks like this:
__label__ LABEL;
or
__label__ LABEL1, LABEL2, ...;
Local label declarations must come at the beginning of the statement
expression, right after the `({', before any ordinary declarations.
The label declaration defines the label *name*, but does not define
the label itself. You must do this in the usual way, with `LABEL:',
within the statements of the statement expression.
The local label feature is useful because statement expressions are
often used in macros. If the macro contains nested loops, a `goto' can
be useful for breaking out of them. However, an ordinary label whose
scope is the whole function cannot be used: if the macro can be
expanded several times in one function, the label will be multiply
defined in that function. A local label avoids this problem. For
example:
#define SEARCH(array, target) \
({ \
__label__ found; \
typeof (target) _SEARCH_target = (target); \
typeof (*(array)) *_SEARCH_array = (array); \
int i, j; \
int value; \
for (i = 0; i < max; i++) \
for (j = 0; j < max; j++) \
if (_SEARCH_array[i][j] == _SEARCH_target) \
{ value = i; goto found; } \
value = -1; \
found: \
value; \
})
File: gcc.info, Node: Labels as Values, Next: Nested Functions, Prev: Local Labels, Up: Extensions
Labels as Values
================
You can get the address of a label defined in the current function
(or a containing function) with the unary operator `&&'. The value has
type `void *'. This value is a constant and can be used wherever a
constant of that type is valid. For example:
void *ptr;
...
ptr = &&foo;
To use these values, you need to be able to jump to one. This is
done with the computed goto statement(1), `goto *EXP;'. For example,
goto *ptr;
Any expression of type `void *' is allowed.
One way of using these constants is in initializing a static array
that will serve as a jump table:
static void *array[] = { &&foo, &&bar, &&hack };
Then you can select a label with indexing, like this:
goto *array[i];
Note that this does not check whether the subscript is in bounds--array
indexing in C never does that.
Such an array of label values serves a purpose much like that of the
`switch' statement. The `switch' statement is cleaner, so use that
rather than an array unless the problem does not fit a `switch'
statement very well.
Another use of label values is in an interpreter for threaded code.
The labels within the interpreter function can be stored in the
threaded code for super-fast dispatching.
You can use this mechanism to jump to code in a different function.
If you do that, totally unpredictable things will happen. The best way
to avoid this is to store the label address only in automatic variables
and never pass it as an argument.
---------- Footnotes ----------
(1) The analogous feature in Fortran is called an assigned goto,
but that name seems inappropriate in C, where one can do more than
simply store label addresses in label variables.
File: gcc.info, Node: Nested Functions, Next: Naming Types, Prev: Labels as Values, Up: Extensions
Nested Functions
================
A "nested function" is a function defined inside another function.
The nested function's name is local to the block where it is defined.
For example, here we define a nested function named `square', and call
it twice:
foo (double a, double b)
{
double square (double z) { return z * z; }
return square (a) + square (b);
}
The nested function can access all the variables of the containing
function that are visible at the point of its definition. This is
called "lexical scoping". For example, here we show a nested function
which uses an inherited variable named `offset':
bar (int *array, int offset, int size)
{
int access (int *array, int index)
{ return array[index + offset]; }
int i;
...
for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
... access (array, i) ...
}
It is possible to call the nested function from outside the scope of
its name by storing its address or passing the address to another
function:
hack (int *array, int size)
{
void store (int index, int value)
{ array[index] = value; }
intermediate (store, size);
}
Here, the function `intermediate' receives the address of `store' as
an argument. If `intermediate' calls `store', the arguments given to
`store' are used to store into `array'. But this technique works only
so long as the containing function (`hack', in this example) does not
exit. If you try to call the nested function through its address after
the containing function has exited, all hell will break loose.
A nested function can jump to a label inherited from a containing
function, provided the label was explicitly declared in the containing
function (*note Local Labels::.). Such a jump returns instantly to the
containing function, exiting the nested function which did the `goto'
and any intermediate functions as well. Here is an example:
bar (int *array, int offset, int size)
{
__label__ failure;
int access (int *array, int index)
{
if (index > size)
goto failure;
return array[index + offset];
}
int i;
...
for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
... access (array, i) ...
...
return 0;
/* Control comes here from `access'
if it detects an error. */
failure:
return -1;
}
A nested function always has internal linkage. Declaring one with
`extern' is erroneous. If you need to declare the nested function
before its definition, use `auto' (which is otherwise meaningless for
function declarations).
bar (int *array, int offset, int size)
{
__label__ failure;
auto int access (int *, int);
...
int access (int *array, int index)
{
if (index > size)
goto failure;
return array[index + offset];
}
...
}
File: gcc.info, Node: Naming Types, Next: Typeof, Prev: Nested Functions, Up: Extensions
Naming an Expression's Type
===========================
You can give a name to the type of an expression using a `typedef'
declaration with an initializer. Here is how to define NAME as a type
name for the type of EXP:
typedef NAME = EXP;
This is useful in conjunction with the statements-within-expressions
feature. Here is how the two together can be used to define a safe
"maximum" macro that operates on any arithmetic type:
#define max(a,b) \
({typedef _ta = (a), _tb = (b); \
_ta _a = (a); _tb _b = (b); \
_a > _b ? _a : _b; })
The reason for using names that start with underscores for the local
variables is to avoid conflicts with variable names that occur within
the expressions that are substituted for `a' and `b'. Eventually we
hope to design a new form of declaration syntax that allows you to
declare variables whose scopes start only after their initializers;
this will be a more reliable way to prevent such conflicts.
File: gcc.info, Node: Typeof, Next: Lvalues, Prev: Naming Types, Up: Extensions
Referring to a Type with `typeof'
=================================
Another way to refer to the type of an expression is with `typeof'.
The syntax of using of this keyword looks like `sizeof', but the
construct acts semantically like a type name defined with `typedef'.
There are two ways of writing the argument to `typeof': with an
expression or with a type. Here is an example with an expression:
typeof (x[0](1))
This assumes that `x' is an array of functions; the type described is
that of the values of the functions.
Here is an example with a typename as the argument:
typeof (int *)
Here the type described is that of pointers to `int'.
If you are writing a header file that must work when included in
ANSI C programs, write `__typeof__' instead of `typeof'. *Note
Alternate Keywords::.
A `typeof'-construct can be used anywhere a typedef name could be
used. For example, you can use it in a declaration, in a cast, or
inside of `sizeof' or `typeof'.
* This declares `y' with the type of what `x' points to.
typeof (*x) y;
* This declares `y' as an array of such values.
typeof (*x) y[4];
* This declares `y' as an array of pointers to characters:
typeof (typeof (char *)[4]) y;
It is equivalent to the following traditional C declaration:
char *y[4];
To see the meaning of the declaration using `typeof', and why it
might be a useful way to write, let's rewrite it with these macros:
#define pointer(T) typeof(T *)
#define array(T, N) typeof(T [N])
Now the declaration can be rewritten this way:
array (pointer (char), 4) y;
Thus, `array (pointer (char), 4)' is the type of arrays of 4
pointers to `char'.
File: gcc.info, Node: Lvalues, Next: Conditionals, Prev: Typeof, Up: Extensions
Generalized Lvalues
===================
Compound expressions, conditional expressions and casts are allowed
as lvalues provided their operands are lvalues. This means that you
can take their addresses or store values into them.
For example, a compound expression can be assigned, provided the last
expression in the sequence is an lvalue. These two expressions are
equivalent:
(a, b) += 5
a, (b += 5)
Similarly, the address of the compound expression can be taken.
These two expressions are equivalent:
&(a, b)
a, &b
A conditional expression is a valid lvalue if its type is not void
and the true and false branches are both valid lvalues. For example,
these two expressions are equivalent:
(a ? b : c) = 5
(a ? b = 5 : (c = 5))
A cast is a valid lvalue if its operand is an lvalue. A simple
assignment whose left-hand side is a cast works by converting the
right-hand side first to the specified type, then to the type of the
inner left-hand side expression. After this is stored, the value is
converted back to the specified type to become the value of the
assignment. Thus, if `a' has type `char *', the following two
expressions are equivalent:
(int)a = 5
(int)(a = (char *)(int)5)
An assignment-with-arithmetic operation such as `+=' applied to a
cast performs the arithmetic using the type resulting from the cast,
and then continues as in the previous case. Therefore, these two
expressions are equivalent:
(int)a += 5
(int)(a = (char *)(int) ((int)a + 5))
You cannot take the address of an lvalue cast, because the use of its
address would not work out coherently. Suppose that `&(int)f' were
permitted, where `f' has type `float'. Then the following statement
would try to store an integer bit-pattern where a floating point number
belongs:
*&(int)f = 1;
This is quite different from what `(int)f = 1' would do--that would
convert 1 to floating point and store it. Rather than cause this
inconsistency, we think it is better to prohibit use of `&' on a cast.
If you really do want an `int *' pointer with the address of `f',
you can simply write `(int *)&f'.
File: gcc.info, Node: Conditionals, Next: Long Long, Prev: Lvalues, Up: Extensions
Conditional Expressions with Omitted Operands
=============================================
The middle operand in a conditional expression may be omitted. Then
if the first operand is nonzero, its value is the value of the
conditional expression.
Therefore, the expression
x ? : y
has the value of `x' if that is nonzero; otherwise, the value of `y'.
This example is perfectly equivalent to
x ? x : y
In this simple case, the ability to omit the middle operand is not
especially useful. When it becomes useful is when the first operand
does, or may (if it is a macro argument), contain a side effect. Then
repeating the operand in the middle would perform the side effect
twice. Omitting the middle operand uses the value already computed
without the undesirable effects of recomputing it.
File: gcc.info, Node: Long Long, Next: Zero Length, Prev: Conditionals, Up: Extensions
Double-Word Integers
====================
GNU C supports data types for integers that are twice as long as
`long int'. Simply write `long long int' for a signed integer, or
`unsigned long long int' for an unsigned integer.
You can use these types in arithmetic like any other integer types.
Addition, subtraction, and bitwise boolean operations on these types
are open-coded on all types of machines. Multiplication is open-coded
if the machine supports fullword-to-doubleword a widening multiply
instruction. Division and shifts are open-coded only on machines that
provide special support. The operations that are not open-coded use
special library routines that come with GNU CC.
There may be pitfalls when you use `long long' types for function
arguments, unless you declare function prototypes. If a function
expects type `int' for its argument, and you pass a value of type `long
long int', confusion will result because the caller and the subroutine
will disagree about the number of bytes for the argument. Likewise, if
the function expects `long long int' and you pass `int'. The best way
to avoid such problems is to use prototypes.
File: gcc.info, Node: Zero Length, Next: Variable Length, Prev: Long Long, Up: Extensions
Arrays of Length Zero
=====================
Zero-length arrays are allowed in GNU C. They are very useful as
the last element of a structure which is really a header for a
variable-length object:
struct line {
int length;
char contents[0];
};
{
struct line *thisline = (struct line *)
malloc (sizeof (struct line) + this_length);
thisline->length = this_length;
}
In standard C, you would have to give `contents' a length of 1, which
means either you waste space or complicate the argument to `malloc'.
File: gcc.info, Node: Variable Length, Next: Macro Varargs, Prev: Zero Length, Up: Extensions
Arrays of Variable Length
=========================
Variable-length automatic arrays are allowed in GNU C. These arrays
are declared like any other automatic arrays, but with a length that is
not a constant expression. The storage is allocated at the point of
declaration and deallocated when the brace-level is exited. For
example:
FILE *
concat_fopen (char *s1, char *s2, char *mode)
{
char str[strlen (s1) + strlen (s2) + 1];
strcpy (str, s1);
strcat (str, s2);
return fopen (str, mode);
}
Jumping or breaking out of the scope of the array name deallocates
the storage. Jumping into the scope is not allowed; you get an error
message for it.
You can use the function `alloca' to get an effect much like
variable-length arrays. The function `alloca' is available in many
other C implementations (but not in all). On the other hand,
variable-length arrays are more elegant.
There are other differences between these two methods. Space
allocated with `alloca' exists until the containing *function* returns.
The space for a variable-length array is deallocated as soon as the
array name's scope ends. (If you use both variable-length arrays and
`alloca' in the same function, deallocation of a variable-length array
will also deallocate anything more recently allocated with `alloca'.)
You can also use variable-length arrays as arguments to functions:
struct entry
tester (int len, char data[len][len])
{
...
}
The length of an array is computed once when the storage is allocated
and is remembered for the scope of the array in case you access it with
`sizeof'.
If you want to pass the array first and the length afterward, you can
use a forward declaration in the parameter list--another GNU extension.
struct entry
tester (int len; char data[len][len], int len)
{
...
}
The `int len' before the semicolon is a "parameter forward
declaration", and it serves the purpose of making the name `len' known
when the declaration of `data' is parsed.
You can write any number of such parameter forward declarations in
the parameter list. They can be separated by commas or semicolons, but
the last one must end with a semicolon, which is followed by the "real"
parameter declarations. Each forward declaration must match a "real"
declaration in parameter name and data type.
File: gcc.info, Node: Macro Varargs, Next: Subscripting, Prev: Variable Length, Up: Extensions
Macros with Variable Numbers of Arguments
=========================================
In GNU C, a macro can accept a variable number of arguments, much as
a function can. The syntax for defining the macro looks much like that
used for a function. Here is an example:
#define eprintf(format, args...) \
fprintf (stderr, format, ## args)
Here `args' is a "rest argument": it takes in zero or more
arguments, as many as the call contains. All of them plus the commas
between them form the value of `args', which is substituted into the
macro body where `args' is used. Thus, we have these expansions:
eprintf ("%s:%d: ", input_file_name, line_number)
==>
fprintf (stderr, "%s:%d: ", input_file_name, line_number)
Note that the comma after the string constant comes from the definition
of `eprintf', whereas the last comma comes from the value of `args'.
The reason for using `##' is to handle the case when `args' matches
no arguments at all. In this case, `args' has an empty value. In this
case, the second comma in the definition becomes an embarrassment: if
it got through to the expansion of the macro, we would get something
like this:
fprintf (stderr, "success!\n", )
which is invalid C syntax. `##' gets rid of the comma, so we get the
following instead:
fprintf (stderr, "success!\n")
This is a special feature of the GNU C preprocessor: `##' adjacent
to a rest argument discards the token on the other side of the `##', if
the rest argument value is empty.
File: gcc.info, Node: Subscripting, Next: Pointer Arith, Prev: Macro Varargs, Up: Extensions
Non-Lvalue Arrays May Have Subscripts
=====================================
Subscripting is allowed on arrays that are not lvalues, even though
the unary `&' operator is not. For example, this is valid in GNU C
though not valid in other C dialects:
struct foo {int a[4];};
struct foo f();
bar (int index)
{
return f().a[index];
}
File: gcc.info, Node: Pointer Arith, Next: Initializers, Prev: Subscripting, Up: Extensions
Arithmetic on `void'- and Function-Pointers
===========================================
In GNU C, addition and subtraction operations are supported on
pointers to `void' and on pointers to functions. This is done by
treating the size of a `void' or of a function as 1.
A consequence of this is that `sizeof' is also allowed on `void' and
on function types, and returns 1.
The option `-Wpointer-arith' requests a warning if these extensions
are used.
File: gcc.info, Node: Initializers, Next: Constructors, Prev: Pointer Arith, Up: Extensions
Non-Constant Initializers
=========================
The elements of an aggregate initializer for an automatic variable
are not required to be constant expressions in GNU C. Here is an
example of an initializer with run-time varying elements:
foo (float f, float g)
{
float beat_freqs[2] = { f-g, f+g };
...
}
File: gcc.info, Node: Constructors, Next: Labeled Elements, Prev: Initializers, Up: Extensions
Constructor Expressions
=======================
GNU C supports constructor expressions. A constructor looks like a
cast containing an initializer. Its value is an object of the type
specified in the cast, containing the elements specified in the
initializer.
Usually, the specified type is a structure. Assume that `struct
foo' and `structure' are declared as shown:
struct foo {int a; char b[2];} structure;
Here is an example of constructing a `struct foo' with a constructor:
structure = ((struct foo) {x + y, 'a', 0});
This is equivalent to writing the following:
{
struct foo temp = {x + y, 'a', 0};
structure = temp;
}
You can also construct an array. If all the elements of the
constructor are (made up of) simple constant expressions, suitable for
use in initializers, then the constructor is an lvalue and can be
coerced to a pointer to its first element, as shown here:
char **foo = (char *[]) { "x", "y", "z" };
Array constructors whose elements are not simple constants are not
very useful, because the constructor is not an lvalue. There are only
two valid ways to use it: to subscript it, or initialize an array
variable with it. The former is probably slower than a `switch'
statement, while the latter does the same thing an ordinary C
initializer would do. Here is an example of subscripting an array
constructor:
output = ((int[]) { 2, x, 28 }) [input];
Constructor expressions for scalar types and union types are is also
allowed, but then the constructor expression is equivalent to a cast.
File: gcc.info, Node: Labeled Elements, Next: Cast to Union, Prev: Constructors, Up: Extensions
Labeled Elements in Initializers
================================
Standard C requires the elements of an initializer to appear in a
fixed order, the same as the order of the elements in the array or
structure being initialized.
In GNU C you can give the elements in any order, specifying the array
indices or structure field names they apply to.
To specify an array index, write `[INDEX]' before the element value.
For example,
int a[6] = { [4] 29, [2] 15 };
is equivalent to
int a[6] = { 0, 0, 15, 0, 29, 0 };
The index values must be constant expressions, even if the array being
initialized is automatic.
In a structure initializer, specify the name of a field to initialize
with `FIELDNAME:' before the element value. For example, given the
following structure,
struct point { int x, y; };
the following initialization
struct point p = { y: yvalue, x: xvalue };
is equivalent to
struct point p = { xvalue, yvalue };
You can also use an element label when initializing a union, to
specify which element of the union should be used. For example,
union foo { int i; double d; };
union foo f = { d: 4 };
will convert 4 to a `double' to store it in the union using the second
element. By contrast, casting 4 to type `union foo' would store it
into the union as the integer `i', since it is an integer. (*Note Cast
to Union::.)
You can combine this technique of naming elements with ordinary C
initialization of successive elements. Each initializer element that
does not have a label applies to the next consecutive element of the
array or structure. For example,
int a[6] = { [1] v1, v2, [4] v4 };
is equivalent to
int a[6] = { 0, v1, v2, 0, v4, 0 };
Labeling the elements of an array initializer is especially useful
when the indices are characters or belong to an `enum' type. For
example:
int whitespace[256]
= { [' '] 1, ['\t'] 1, ['\h'] 1,
['\f'] 1, ['\n'] 1, ['\r'] 1 };
File: gcc.info, Node: Case Ranges, Next: Function Attributes, Prev: Cast to Union, Up: Extensions
Case Ranges
===========
You can specify a range of consecutive values in a single `case'
label, like this:
case LOW ... HIGH:
This has the same effect as the proper number of individual `case'
labels, one for each integer value from LOW to HIGH, inclusive.
This feature is especially useful for ranges of ASCII character
codes:
case 'A' ... 'Z':
*Be careful:* Write spaces around the `...', for otherwise it may be
parsed wrong when you use it with integer values. For example, write
this:
case 1 ... 5:
rather than this:
case 1...5:
File: gcc.info, Node: Cast to Union, Next: Case Ranges, Prev: Labeled Elements, Up: Extensions
Cast to a Union Type
====================
A cast to union type is like any other cast, except that the type
specified is a union type. You can specify the type either with `union
TAG' or with a typedef name.
The types that may be cast to the union type are those of the members
of the union. Thus, given the following union and variables:
union foo { int i; double d; };
int x;
double y;
both `x' and `y' can be cast to type `union' foo.
Using the cast as the right-hand side of an assignment to a variable
of union type is equivalent to storing in a member of the union:
union foo u;
...
u = (union foo) x == u.i = x
u = (union foo) y == u.d = y
You can also use the union cast as a function argument:
void hack (union foo);
...
hack ((union foo) x);