The United Nations has been involved in land mine clearance operations in numerous countries as part of peace-building initiatives in recent years. Four such operations-in Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia and Mozambique-account for a large share of United Nations resources devoted to mine clearance. The experience gained in these countries-by the United Nations and its related agencies, nongovernmental organizations, governments, and the people themselves-has led the United Nations to focus its policy on the creation of indigenous capacities as the most effective way to ensure that mine clearance operations will continue after direct United Nations assistance ends.
Cambodia
A de-miner from the NGO Norwegian People's Aid has described mine clearance work in Cambodia as being similar to "putting a pencil in the ground to a depth of 6 centimeters (3 inches) 400 times in just one square meter (square yard)." This repetitive, delicate poking and prodding has paid off. When the United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia (UNAMIC) arrived in the country in 1991, Cambodians suffered 600 mine-related casualties a month. Today the monthly toll is less than 100. However, the proportion of amputees in Cambodia's population continues to be one of the world's highest (one in 236, as opposed to about 1 in 22,000 in the United States).
Although the country is still infested with up to 10,000,000 mines and the Khmer Rouge is still deploying mines in areas under its control, nearly 16.5 million square meters (19.8 million square yards) of the country have been de-mined. Approximately 40,000 mines have been uncovered, along with 320,000 pieces of unexploded ordnance. A further 25 million square meters (30 million square yards) of mined land have been identified and marked in an effort to reduce casualties.
Cambodia is also on its way towards achieving a critically important goal: an independent, national de-mining capability. The United Nations, donor nations and NGOs realized early on that Cambodia should be made self- sufficient in mine clearing as quickly as possible. Shortly after the deployment of UNAMIC in 1991, the Secretary-General recommended to the Security Council that the mission's mandate be expanded to include mine clearance training and de-mining. The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) continued this work after its deployment in 1992. UNTAC's Mine Clearance Training Unit conducted mine surveys, launched mine awareness programs, cleared mines and recruited and trained Cambodian de-miners.
Cambodia's Supreme National Council established the Cambodian Mine Action Center (CMAC) in June 1992 in order to ensure that a national capacity would be developed to sustain all aspects of mine-related activities after the departure of United Nations peace-keepers and for decades to come. Today, CMAC employs 1,556 mine clearance personnel throughout the country, divided into De-mining Platoons, Mine Marking Teams, Explosive Ordnance Disposal Teams and Mobile Mine Awareness Teams. With the exception of 28 international military staff people and a few NGO experts, the CMAC staff is entirely Cambodian.
Afghanistan
Afghanistan's Mine Clearance Program (MCP) is the longest-running United Nations-supported program of its kind, with the largest complement of de-miners. Although nearly 110,000 mines have been cleared in the past six years, prolonged conflict has left nearly 10,000,000 land-mines scattered around the country. Afghanistan's 1995 mine action plan sets out a series of goals in addition to mine clearance: mine awareness instructors hope to reach 900,000 civilians this year; 240 new de-miners will receive mine clearance training; and four mine survey teams aim to cover 18 million square meters (23.6 million square yards).
A lack of security has prevented mine clearance operations from being based in Afghanistan itself. The MCP is part of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan (UNOCHA). The de-mining program is managed, with a staff of five international experts, from Islamabad, Pakistan. MCP Program Manager Ian Mansfield says it may be possible to move the office into Afghanistan by the end of 1995. Three regional MCP offices are in operation: at Kabul and Quetta in Afghanistan and at Peshawar in Pakistan. A total of 3,000 Afghan de-miners are engaged in mine clearance through the MCP, in 48 teams deployed nationwide, along with ten canine mine detection teams.
Significant progress has been made in de-mining selected areas of the country. In 1993, the United Nations identified 466 square kilometers (180 square miles) infested with approximately ten million mines. Of this area, MCP manager Mansfield says, 118 square kilometers (45.5 square miles) were designated "high priority" areas (such as roads, abandoned villages, farmland and land around wells) where land-mines "were stopping people from returning to normal lives." Other mined areas, such as old Soviet observation posts and opium fields, are low priority. By the end of 1994, almost half the "high priority" area had been cleared.
One of the major successes of the de-mining program is in western Afghanistan, around the city of Herat. A 15 kilometer (8 mile) belt of mines surrounded the city when de-mining started in 1993. Herat today "is basically clear of mines," Mansfield says, thanks to eight teams working in the region. When he first visited the region in May 1992, Mansfield adds, there was one civilian mine casualty a day. That number has been reduced to two or three per month.
In 1995, Afghanistan's de-mining progress was overshadowed by a new crisis in the capital. When fighting in and around Kabul ended in March 1995, the United Nations identified 142 new mined areas covering 14 square kilometers (5.4 square miles) around the capital. As displaced families returned home, the number of land-mine casualties rose sharply to 1,500 in April alone. Dealing with this situation has become "the new priority," Mansfield says. "We have had to divert quite a few teams into Kabul, the civilian casualty rate was so high that we couldn't ignore it... This will occupy our attention for a year or two." The front lines changed frequently during the fighting and all factions used a mix of mines, making it impossible to determine who was responsible for the newly-mined areas. Mansfield says UNOCHA urged the new government to clear the mines its forces laid but, he adds, the defeated factions "are not capable of clearing their own mines."
When the de-mining began in 1989, the UN worked directly with NGOs because there was no functioning government in Afghanistan. The result is the most elaborate nongovernmental de-mining operation in the world, in which the United Nations finances the work of eight NGOs (six Afghan, one Iranian, one British). Coordination by the United Nations has helped establish a clear division of labor. For example, the Afghan Red Crescent Society works in mine awareness and medical training in the area around Kabul, the Afghan Technical Consultants clear mines in the priority areas in the eastern, northern and central regions and Britain's Halo Trust clears mines in the Parwan and Baghlan provinces in the north.
"One of the things we are proudest of," MCP's Mansfield says, "is that the program is implemented through Afghan NGOs." Mansfield adds that the program "could very easily be handed over to the government" whenever it is ready to assume the responsibility.
Mozambique
Compared to Cambodia and Afghanistan, the de-mining challenge in Mozambique is relatively small. Mozambique, a country only four times the size of Cambodia, is believed to have "only" about two million mines, most of which are concentrated in four provinces. Unlike Afghanistan, Angola or Cambodia, the peace agreement in Mozambique has held firm. The government and the main opposition party, RENAMO, signed the agreement in October 1992. Within two months the Security Council approved the UN Operation in Mozambique (UNOMOZ), which was mandated to deal with military, political, electoral and humanitarian issues. Coordination of humanitarian assistance was to be handled by the humanitarian arm of UNOMOZ, the United Nations Office for Humanitarian Assistance Coordination (UNOCHA). The peace agreement led to the demobilization of former combatants and free and fair elections in October 1994.
Despite the generally favorable political climate and the available organizational support, however, the United Nations de-mining program in Mozambique was slow to get under way. After long delays, in May 1994 the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA) assumed responsibility for part of the program. An Accelerated De-mining Program (ADP) was begun and steps were taken towards creating an indigenous national de-mining capacity in the country. At the same time, de-mining contractors, working under the direction of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), began clearing more than 2,000 kilometers, particularly routes used by returning refugees and relief supply transport.
Lieutenant Colonel Paul King, who became Chief Technical Advisor to the ADP in June 1995, says the program is moving "fast and furious," with 450 de-miners divided into ten platoons and deployed throughout the country. By mid-May 1995, the ADP had cleared nearly 284,000 square meters (341,000 square yards), which yielded more than 3,600 mines and the 1,780 pieces of unexploded ordnance. In addition to the ADP operation, private contractors and NGOs also have de-mining teams and training centers in various part of the country. For all of Mozambique, a total of nearly 6,000 mines have been cleared over an area of 2,046,000 square meters (2,455,000 square yards).
The ADP's first objective, to train and equip a cadre of 450 Mozambican de-miners, has been achieved. Work continues towards the second goal: to create a management structure for de-mining operated entirely by Mozambicans. The ADP headquarters staff of 50, composed mostly of Mozambicans, is responsible for mine surveys, medical and logistical needs, finance and administration.
A ministerial-level National Mine Clearance Commission (NMCC) was recently set up in Mozambique under the chairmanship of the foreign minister. The NMCC will eventually take over setting long-term national de-mining policies, strategies and priorities. It has not yet been decided when Mozambique will take full responsibility for managing the mine-clearance program and it is clear that the country will continue to need expatriate advice for a considerable period of time. "But," ADP Technical Adviser King cautions, "what is needed is a long-term national de-mining capacity which will be self-sustaining for 15 to 20 years. Without a structure, it will fall over."
Angola
The prospect of lasting peace in Angola brings with it a major de-mining challenge for Angolans and the international community. With more than 70,000 amputees and an estimated 9,000,000 to 15,000,000 land mines-a number greater than its population-Angola vies with Cambodia for the unenviable honor of "amputee capital of the world," and with Afghanistan for the title of "most mine-laden country." The 1995 Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal for Angola says the mine problem has "left the national land transport system useless, and paralyzed the economic base for growth and development."
Some mines were cleared in Angola during the brief period of peace between May 1991 and September 1992. Although some 80,000 mines were destroyed, land mine accidents have been reported in areas previously thought to be cleared. Mining was intensified when hostilities between UNITA and Government forces resumed in 1992, leading to the complete collapse of the already crippled infrastructure.
The United Nations Central Mine Action Office (CMAO) in Angola has been operating since March 1994 as part of the Unit for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance in Angola (UCAH), DHA's presence in the country. International workers are conducting mine awareness programs and beginning a comprehensive mine survey.
In September 1994, UN agencies and Angolan NGOs began a mine awareness campaign, utilizing national media, training sessions and the distribution of posters, tote bags and clothing with awareness messages. UNICEF is engaged in mine-awareness activities inside Angola, while the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is working in the refugee camps in Zaire and Zambia. Two NGOs-CARE International and the Mines Advisory Group-are working with Angolans both inside and outside the country. Norwegian Peoples Aid is planning to work with the one million internally displaced persons inside Angola. James D. Megill, the Program Manager of CMAO, says that the success of the mine awareness program is "the immediate goal...We are seeing an instant payback in the form of alleviation of casualties."
A comprehensive mine survey requires the end of hostilities and free access to all parts of the country, elements missing until recently. The 1994 Lusaka Accords, the basis for the current cease-fire and negotiations, provide for the free passage of mine clearance personnel throughout the country. "There was awful trouble getting [the survey] off the ground," CMAO manager Megill says. Concerns on the part of both the Government and UNITA-which feared that information on minefields could compromise their own security-accounted in part for the delay, but lack of money also proved to be an obstacle. Norway pledged three-quarters of the $2 million needed, but it was not until April 1995 that the shortfall was covered by a contribution from the Netherlands. The survey began in June. "There has been broad participation [from the public and humanitarian organizations] in terms of locating mines but we have not cobbled together the total picture," Megill says.
Source: United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs
