Microsoft Bookshelf 1991/TheConciseColumbiaEncyclopedia.txt

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 The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia




   Aachen

 Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle, city (1986 pop. 238,600), North
 Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany. It is an industrial center producing
 textiles, machinery, and other manufactures. Its mineral baths have been
 famous since Roman times. CHARLEMAGNE made it his northern capital,
 building a palace and cathedral there, and the city was (936-1531) the
 coronation place of German kings. Later it was taken by France (1801) and
 then by Prussia (1815). After WORLD WAR I Aachen was occupied by the
 Allies, and two thirds of it was destroyed during WORLD WAR II.

   Aakjaer, Jeppe

 Aakjaer, Jeppe, 1866-1930, Danish poet. His lyric gift is apparent in
 Songs of the Rye (1906) and Heimdal's Wanderings (1924). He also wrote
 novels, mostly about his native Jutland, e.g., The Peasant's Son (1899).

   Aalto, Alvar

 Aalto, Alvar, 1896-1976, Finnish architect. He adapted Finnish building
 traditions to modern technology. Among his buildings are the Maison Carre
 in Paris and Baker House in Cambridge, Mass. (1947-48). He was also
 famous for his designs for laminated-wood furniture.

   aardvark

 aardvark, nocturnal MAMMAL (genus Orycteropus) found in Africa. About 6
 ft (180 cm) long, it has a long snout, large, erect ears, a body almost
 devoid of hair, and a long tail. It claws open ant and termite nests with
 its forefeet and uses its long, sticky tongue to capture insects.

   Aaron

 Aaron, in the BIBLE, the first high priest, the brother of MOSES, and his
 spokesman. Through him Jehovah performed miracles, although Aaron had
 made the GOLDEN CALF and allowed its worship. His descendants became
 temple priests.

   Aaron, Hank

 Aaron, Hank (Henry Louis Aaron), 1934-, American baseball player; b.
 Mobile, Ala. A right-handed batter, he played with the Braves (1954-74)
 in Milwaukee and Atlanta and with the Milwaukee Brewers (1975-76). In
 1974 he broke Babe RUTH'S career record for home runs, finishing with
 755. He set records for runs batted in, extra-base hits, and total bases.

   abacus

 abacus, an ancient computing device using movable beads strung on a
 number of parallel wires within a frame. Each wire represents a decimal
 place: ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. The beads are grouped to form
 numbers and shifted in specified patterns to add, subtract, multiply, or
 divide.

   Abadan

 Abadan, city (1976 pop. 294,068), Khuzestan prov., SW Iran, on Abadan
 Island, in the SHATT AL ARAB delta, at the head of the PERSIAN GULF.
 After oil was discovered (1908) nearby, Abadan became the terminus of oil
 pipelines and an oil-refining and shipping center. Iraqi forces damaged
 its major oil refinery in their invasion of Khuzestan in 1980.

   abalone

 abalone, marine GASTROPOD mollusk (genus Haliotis), covered by a single
 ear-shaped shell perforated with respiratory holes on one side. The
 abalone is hunted for its large, edible muscular foot and the iridescent
 MOTHER-OF-PEARL lining of its shell, used for buttons. It feeds by
 scraping the substrate with its rasping tongue (radula).

   abandonment

 abandonment, in U.S. law, voluntary, intentional, and absolute
 relinquishment of rights or property without conveying them to any other
 person. Abandonment also means willfully leaving one's spouse or
 children, intending not to return. In many states the abandonment of a
 child is a criminal offense.

   Abbas I

 Abbas I (Abbas the Great), 1557-1629, shah of PERSIA (1587-1628), of the
 Safavid dynasty. He broke the power of the tribal chiefs, ended the Uzbek
 threat, and extended his domain at the expense of the Turks and
 Portuguese.

   Abbasid

 Abbasid or Abbaside, Arabic family descended from Abbas, d.653, the uncle
 of MUHAMMAD. They rose to power by massacring the ruling Umayyad family
 and held the CALIPHATE from 749 to 1258. Prominent Abbasid caliphs
 include al-MANSUR and HARUN AR-RASHID, under whom the caliphate reached
 its greatest power. The long Abbasid decline ended with their overthrow
 (13th cent.) by the Seljuk Turks.

   Abbey Theatre

 Abbey Theatre: see THEATER.

   Abbott, George

 Abbott, George, 1889-, American theatrical director and playwright; b.
 Forestville, N.Y. He was a master of FARCE and MUSICALS. His hits include
 Three Men on a Horse (1935), Damn Yankees (1955), and Fiorello! (1960;
 Pulitzer).

   Abbott and Costello

 Abbott and Costello, American comedy team. Its members were William "Bud"
 Abbott, 1898-1974, and Lou (Cristillo) Costello 1908-59. They performed
 (1931-57) routines ("Who's on First") on the stage, radio, and television
 and in a series of successful films, including Buck Privates (1941).

   abbreviation

 abbreviation, in writing, arbitrary shortening of a word, usually by
 cutting off letters from the end, as in U.S. and Gen. (General).
 Contraction serves the same purpose but is understood strictly to be the
 shortening of a word by cutting out letters in the middle, the omission
 sometimes being indicated by an apostrophe, as in the word don't. Most
 abbreviations are followed by a period. Usage, however, differs widely,
 and recently omission of periods has become common, as in NATO and UN. A
 period is never used when apostrophes appear. A list of abbreviations
 used in this encyclopedia may be found at the front of the book.

   Abd al-Hamid

 Abd al-Hamid, sultans of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). Abd al-Hamid I,
 1725-89 (r.1774-89), witnessed the decline of Turkey and the rise of
 Russia as the foremost power in the area. Abd al-Hamid II, 1842-1918
 (r.1876-1909), suspended (1876) the constitution and ruled as an absolute
 monarch. The last RUSSO-TURKISH WAR was a disaster, resulting in a great
 loss of Turkish lands. He was eventually deposed by the Young Turks.

   Abd ar-Rahman

 Abd ar-Rahman, Muslim rulers of Spain. Abd ar-Rahman, d. 732, governor of
 Spain (721-32), fought the Franks and was defeated by CHARLES MARTEL. Abd
 ar-Rahman I,  d.788, first Umayyad emir of Cordoba (756-88), escaped to
 Spain after his family's massacre by the Abbasid. There he defeated (756)
 the emir of Cordoba and established himself in power. Abd ar-Rahman III
 (891-961), Umayyad emir and first caliph (929-61) of Cordoba, regained
 lands lost by his predecessors, maintained a powerful military force, and
 made Cordoba one of the greatest cities in the West.

   Abdias

 Abdias: see OBADIAH.

   abdomen

 abdomen, in vertebrates, portion of the trunk between the diaphragm and
 lower pelvis. In humans the abdominal cavity is lined with a thin
 membrane, the peritoneum, which encloses the STOMACH, intestines, LIVER,
 and GALL BLADDER. The PANCREAS, KIDNEYS, urinary bladder, and, in the
 female, reproductive organs are also located within the abdominal cavity.
 In insects and some other invertebrates the term abdomen refers to the
 rear portion of the body.

   Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem

 Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, 1947-, American basketball player; b. N.Y.C. as
 Ferdinand Lewis ("Lew") Alcindor. He led the Univ. of California, Los
 Angeles, to three national titles (1967-69) and played center for the
 Milwaukee Bucks (1969-75) and Los Angeles Lakers (1975-88). The 7 ft 2
 in. (218 cm) Abdul-Jabbar won most-valuable-player honors six times and
 scored a total of 37,639 points (breaking the all-time record).

   Abdullah

 Abdullah, 1882-1951, emir of Transjordan (1921-46) and king of JORDAN
 (1946-51). In the first ARAB-ISRAELI WAR he commanded the Arab Legion and
 annexed those portions of Palestine not assigned to Israel.

   a Becket, Thomas

 a Becket, Thomas: see  THOMAS A BECKET, SAINT.

   Abe Kobo

 Abe Kobo, 1924-, Japanese novelist and dramatist. Often compared to
 KAFKA, he treats the contemporary human predicament in a realistic yet
 symbolic style. His minute descriptions of surrealistic situations often
 lend his works a nightmarish quality. Among Abe's novels are Woman in the
 Dunes (tr. and film 1964) and Secret Rendezvous (tr. 1979). His plays
 include Friends (tr. 1969).

   Abel

 Abel, in the BIBLE, son of ADAM and EVE. A shepherd, he was killed by his
 brother CAIN. Gen. 4.1-8.

   Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur)

 Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur), 1908-87, American labor leader; b. Magnolia,
 Ohio. He worked in a Canton rolling mill at 17 and was appointed (1937)
 staff representative of the organization that became the United
 Steelworkers of America. He was an Ohio district director of the union
 (1942-52), became (1953) secretary-treasurer, and served (1965-77) as
 president.

   Abel, Niels Henrik

 Abel, Niels Henrik, 1802-29, Norwegian mathematician. One of the greatest
 mathematicians of the 19th cent., he pioneered in the theory of elliptic
 functions, investigated generalizations of the binomial theorem, and
 proved the impossibility of representing a solution of a general equation
 of fifth degree or higher by a radical expression.

   Abelard, Peter

 Abelard, Peter, 1079-1142, French philosopher. Because his fame as a
 dialectician drew so many students, he is regarded as the founder of the
 Univ. of Paris. His secret marriage to a pupil, Heloise, ended when her
 uncle, Canon Fulbert of Notre Dame, hired ruffians to emasculate him.
 Becoming a monk, he built a hermitage and monastery, the Paraclete, which
 he later presented to Heloise, who had become an abbess. Abelard's first
 theological work had been burned (1121) as heretical; in 1140 the mystic
 St. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX secured his condemnation by the council of Sens,
 and he retired in submission to Cluny. Following PLATO in theology,
 Abelard espoused the method of ARISTOTLE'S dialectic, holding that the
 system of LOGIC could be applied to the truths of faith. His view of
 universals anticipated the conceptualism of St. THOMAS AQUINAS. His most
 influential and controversial work, Sic et non, collected contradictory
 writings of the Church fathers.

   Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of

 Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of, 1784-1860, British
 statesman. He served in the cabinets of WELLINGTON and PEEL as foreign
 secretary (1828-30; 1841-46). In 1842 he settled the Northeast Boundary
 Dispute with the U.S. by the WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY. As prime minister
 (1852-55) he was quite successful in home affairs, but he resigned after
 failing to prevent British involvement in the unpopular CRIMEAN WAR.

   Aberhart, William

 Aberhart, William, 1878-1943, premier of ALBERTA (1935-43). He helped to
 organize (c.1932) the SOCIAL CREDIT movement to make direct payments to
 all citizens and headed the first Social Credit government.

   Abernathy, Ralph

 Abernathy, Ralph, 1926-, American civil rights leader; b. Linden, Ala. A
 Baptist minister, he helped organize the Montgomery bus boycott (1955).
 He was treasurer, vice president, and, after the assassination of Martin
 Luther KING, Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership
 Conference. An advocate of nonviolence as the only acceptable means to
 social change, he led the Poor People's Campaign on Washington, D.C.,
 after King's death. He resigned (1977) from the SCLC and has worked with
 CIVIL RIGHTS and peace groups.

   aberration

 aberration, in optics, condition that causes a blurring and loss of
 clearness in the images produced by lenses or mirrors. Spherical
 aberration is the failure of a LENS or MIRROR of spherical section to
 bring parallel rays of light to a single focus; it can be prevented by
 using a more complex parabolic section. Chromatic aberration, the blurred
 coloring at the edge of an image, arises because some colors of light are
 bent, or refracted, more than others after passing through a lens; it can
 be cured by using a corrective lens.

   aberration of starlight

 aberration of starlight, angular displacement, caused by the earth's
 orbital motion, of the apparent path of light from a star, resulting in a
 displacement of its apparent position from its true position.

   Abidjan

 Abidjan, city (1982 est. pop. 951,216), former capital of Ivory Coast, on
 the Gulf of Guinea. It is the largest city and administrative center of
 Ivory Coast. Its port is on an island connected with the rest of the city
 by two bridges. Coffee, cocoa, timber, pineapples, and plantains are the
 chief exports. Processed food, textiles, automobiles, and chemicals are
 among the manufactures. One of Africa's most modern cities, it has an
 international airport nearby and growing tourism. Abidjan became (1934)
 the capital of France's Ivory Coast colony, but the capital was moved to
 Yamousoukro in the 1980s.

   Abilene

 Abilene, city (1986 est. pop. 112,430), seat of Taylor co., W central
 Texas; inc. 1882. First settled (1881) by buffalo hunters, it grew as a
 cattle-shipping point. It is a center of industry (e.g., petroleum,
 aircraft, electronics) and agriculture (e.g., cattle, cotton, sorghum)
 and serves as headquarters for regional oil interests. It is the site of
 Abilene Christian Univ., Hardin-Simmons Univ., and McMurry College.

   ablative

 ablative: see CASE.

   ablaut

 ablaut [Ger.,=off-sound], in INFLECTION, vowel variation (as in English
 sing, sang, sung, song) caused by former differences in syllabic accent.
 In a prehistoric period the corresponding forms of the language (known
 through scientific reconstruction) had differences in accent, not
 differences in vowel.

   ABM

 ABM (antiballistic missile): see MISSILE, GUIDED.

   abolitionists

 abolitionists, in U.S. history, especially from 1830 to 1860, advocates
 of the compulsory emancipation of black slaves. Abolitionists are to be
 distinguished from free-soilers, who opposed the extension of SLAVERY.
 The active campaign had its mainspring in the revival (1820s) in the
 North of evangelical religion, with its moral urgency to end sinful
 practices. It reached crusading stage in the 1830s, led by Theodore D.
 Weld, the brothers Arthur and Lewis Tappan, and William Lloyd GARRISON.
 The American Anti-Slavery Society, established in 1833, flooded the slave
 states with abolitionist literature and lobbied in Washington, D.C.
 Writers like J.G. WHITTIER and orators such as Wendell PHILLIPS lent
 strength to the cause. Despite unanimity on their goal, abolitionists
 were divided over the method of achieving it, Garrison advocating moral
 suasion, others direct political action. Uncle Tom's Cabin, by Harriet B.
 STOWE, became an effective piece of abolitionist propaganda, and the
 KANSAS question aroused both North and South. The culminating act of
 abolitionism was John BROWN'S raid on Harpers Ferry. Abolitionist demands
 for immediate freeing of the slaves after the outbreak of the CIVIL WAR
 resulted in Pres. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. The abolitionist
 movement was one of high moral purpose and courage; its uncompromising
 temper hastened the demise of slavery in the U.S.

   abominable snowman

 abominable snowman or yeti,manlike creature associated with the
 Himalayas. Known through tracks ascribed to it and alleged encounters, it
 is supposedly 6 to 7 ft (1.8 to 2.1 m) tall and covered with long hair.
 While many scholars dismiss it as a myth, others claim it may be a kind
 of ape.

   abortion

 abortion, expulsion of the embryo or fetus before it is viable outside
 the uterus, i.e., before the 28th week after conception, in humans (see
 REPRODUCTION). Spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, may be caused by
 death of the fetus due to abnormality or disease or by trauma to the
 expectant mother. Abortion may also be induced, the fetus removed from
 the uterus by such procedures as vacuum suction, dilation and curettage,
 intrauterine saline injection, and hysterotomy (surgical incision of the
 uterus). Abortion was long practiced as a form of BIRTH CONTROL until
 pressure from the Roman Catholic Church and changing opinion led in the
 19th cent. to the passage of strict antiabortion laws. Attitudes toward
 abortion have become more liberal in the 20th cent. By the 1970s,
 abortion had been legalized in most European countries, the USSR, and
 Japan; in the U.S., according to a 1973 Supreme Court ruling (see ROE V.
 WADE), abortions are permitted during the first six months of pregnancy.
 Abortion remains a controversial issue in the U.S., however, and in 1977
 Congress barred the use of Medicaid funds for abortion except for
 therapeutic reasons and in certain other specified instances.

   Abraham

 Abraham or Abram,progenitor of the Hebrews. He is an example of the man
 devoted to God, as in his willingness to sacrifice his son ISAAC. Revered
 by several religions, he is principally important as the founder of
 JUDAISM. He received the promise of CANAAN for his people, who are
 descended from Isaac. Gen. 11-25. Through another son, ISHMAEL, he is
 considered by Muslims an ancestor of the Arabs.

   Abram

 Abram: see ABRAHAM.

   Abrams, Creighton Williams

 Abrams, Creighton Williams, 1914-74, U.S. military officer; b.
 Springfield, Mass. He served with distinction in World War II, in Korea
 (1953-54), and in West Germany (1960-62). In 1964 he was promoted to
 general. After serving as deputy commander of the U.S. forces in the
 VIETNAM WAR under Gen. William C. WESTMORELAND, he was commanding general
 (1968-72). He was also U.S. army chief of staff (1972-74).

   abrasive

 abrasive, material used to grind, smooth, cut, or polish another
 substance. Natural abrasives include SAND, PUMICE, CORUNDUM, and ground
 QUARTZ. Carborundum (SILICON CARBIDE) and ALUMINA (aluminum oxide) are
 major synthetic abrasives. The hardest abrasives are natural or synthetic
 DIAMONDS, used in the form of dust or minuscule stones.

   Abravanel

 Abravanel or Abarbanel, Judah,c.1460-c.1523, Jewish philosopher, also
 known as Leone Ebreo; b. Lisbon. He was influenced by the scholars of the
 Platonic Academy of Florence and by MAIMONIDES and IBN GABIROL. His
 Philosophy of Love (pub. posthumously, 1535), a classic exposition of
 platonic love, had a profound effect on philosophers of the 16th and 17th
 cent., notably BRUNO and SPINOZA.

   Absalom

 Absalom, beloved son of DAVID. He murdered his brother AMNON and fled.
 After being forgiven by David, Absalom stirred up a rebellion, in which
 he died. 2 Sam. 13-19.

   Abscam

 Abscam, U.S. scandal resulting from an investigation begun in 1978 by the
 Federal Bureau of Investigation. The FBI created a front (Abdul
 Enterprises, Ltd., hence, Abscam) for its agents, who, posing as
 associates of an Arab sheik, offered selected public officials money or
 other considerations in exchange for special favors. The videotaped
 meetings resulted in the indictments (1980) and convictions of one
 senator and four congressmen on charges including bribery and conspiracy;
 another congressman was convicted on lesser charges. The FBI's tactics
 raised questions about entrapment, and the conviction of Florida
 Congressmen Richard Kelly was overturned (1982).

   abscess

 abscess, accumulation of pus in tissues as a result of infection.
 Characterized by inflammation and painful swelling, it may occur in
 various parts of the body, e.g., skin, gum, eyelid, and middle ear. Many
 abscesses respond to treatment with ANTIBIOTICS; others require surgical
 drainage.

   absentee ownership

 absentee ownership, system under which a person (or a corporation)
 controls and owns capital, such as land or factories, in a region where
 that person does not reside and employs others to supervise and work it.
 Revolution and reform have abolished or greatly reduced the amount of
 absentee control throughout the world. In the U.S. the term has been
 applied to the concentration of economic power through various corporate
 devices.

   absolute value

 absolute value, magnitude of a mathematical expression, disregarding its
 sign; thus the absolute value is always positive. In symbols, if |a|
 denotes the absolute value of a number a, then |a|=a for a>0 and |a|=-a
 for a<0.

   absolute zero

 absolute zero, the zero point of the ideal gas temperature scale, denoted
 by 0 degrees on the KELVIN and Rankine temperature scales (-273.15 deg
 C.; -459.67 deg F). At this point, the volume of an ideal gas would be
 zero and, theoretically, all molecular motion would cease. In actuality,
 all gases condense well above this point. See also TEMPERATURE.

   absorption

 absorption, taking of molecules of one substance directly into another
 substance. Absorption may be either a physical or a chemical process.
 Physical absorption depends on the solubility of the substance absorbed,
 and chemical absorption involves chemical reactions between the absorbed
 substance and the absorbing medium. See also ADSORPTION.

   abstract expressionism

 abstract expressionism, movement in painting that emerged in New York
 City in the mid-1940s and attained prominence in American art in the
 following decade; also called action painting and the New York School.
 Given impetus by the work of Arshile GORKY, abstract expressionism is
 marked by an attention to surface qualities, i.e., brushstroke and
 texture; the use of huge canvases; the harnessing of accidents that occur
 while painting; and the glorification of the act of painting itself. The
 first important school in American painting to declare independence from
 European styles and to influence art abroad, abstract expressionism
 enormously affected the kinds of art that followed it, especially in the
 use of color and material. Major artists in the movement include Jackson
 POLLOCK, Willem DE KOONING, Hans HOFMANN, Robert MOTHERWELL, Franz KLINE
 and Mark ROTHKO.

   Abu al-Ala al-Maari

 Abu al-Ala al-Maari, 973-1057, Arabic poet. He was blind from childhood.
 Brilliantly original, he discarded classicism for intellectual urbanity.
 Later he favored ascetic purity and wrote more stereotypical poetry.

   Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan

 Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan, 897-967, Arabic scholar. He is mainly known
 for his poetic anthology Kitab al-Aghani [book of songs], an important
 source for information on medieval Islamic society.

   Abu Bakr

 Abu Bakr, 573-634, 1st caliph, father-in-law and successor of MUHAMMAD.
 He was probably the Prophet's first convert. During his critical two-year
 caliphate (632-34), ISLAM began the phenomenal growth that was to make it
 a world religion.

   Abu Dhabi

 Abu Dhabi, city (1980 pop. 265,702), capital of the UNITED ARAB EMIRATES.

   Abu Hanifa

 Abu Hanifa, c.699-767, Muslim theologian. A wealthy merchant from Kufa,
 Iraq, he founded Hanifi, the first of Islam's four orthodox schools of
 law. His thinking reflects a concern for the solidarity of the Muslim
 community. Accorded official status in many countries formerly under
 Ottoman administration, Hanifi is the most widespread of Islamic legal
 systems.

   Abuja

 Abuja, designated federal capital of Nigeria. Plans to move the capital
 from LAGOS were approved in 1976, and a 3,000-sq mi (7,770-sq km) capital
 territory was created near the old town of Abuja (now renamed Sulaija).
 The site, near the center of the country, has a good climate and is
 sparsely populated. The move is to be completed about 1990.

   Abu Nuwas

 Abu Nuwas, d. c.810, Arabic poet. A favorite of the caliphs HARUN
 AR-RASHID and Amin, he spent much time in Baghdad. His exquisite poetry
 echoes the extravagance of court life.

   Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair

 Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair, 967-1049, Persian poet, a Sufi and a DERVISH.
 He was the first to write rubaiyat (quatrains) in the Sufistic strain
 that OMAR KHAYYAM made famous.

   Abu Simbel

 Abu Simbel or Ipsambul,village, S Egypt, on the NILE R. Its two temples,
 hewn (c.1250 BC) out of rock cliffs in the reign of RAMSES II, were
 dismantled and raised over 200 ft (61 m) to avoid waters rising behind
 the ASWAN HIGH DAM. The project was completed (1966) with UNESCO aid.

   Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus

 Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus, c.805-c.845, Arabic poet, compiler of the
 HAMASA. Often describing historical events, his poems of valor are
 important as source material.

   Abyssinian cat

 Abyssinian cat: see under CAT.

   Ac

 Ac, chemical symbol of the element ACTINIUM.

   AC

 AC: see ELECTRICITY; GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   acacia

 acacia, plant (genus Acacia) of the PULSE family, mostly tropical and
 subtropical thorny shrubs and trees. Some have a feathery foliage
 composed of leaflets; others have no leaves but have flattened leaflike
 stems containing chlorophyll. Various species yield lac (for shellac),
 catechu (a dye), gum arabic, essential oils, tannins, and hardwood
 timber.

   academic freedom

 academic freedom, right of scholars to study, inquire, teach, and publish
 without control or restraint from the institutions that employ them. The
 concept is based on the notion that truth is best discovered through open
 investigation of all data. Its less clearly developed corollary is the
 obligation to pursue open and thorough inquiry regardless of personal
 considerations. Initiated during the ENLIGHTENMENT by scholars outside
 the university, academic freedom gained general acceptance only after
 university education was secularized.

   Acadia

 Acadia, region and former French colony, centered on NOVA SCOTIA, but
 including also PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND and much of the mainland coast from
 Quebec to Maine. In 1605 the French founded Port Royal (now ANNAPOLIS
 ROYAL), the first and chief town. During the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS, the
 Peace of Utrecht (1713) gave Britain possession of the Nova Scotian
 peninsula, and, by the Treaty of PARIS (1763), all of Acadia fell to
 Britain. Doubting the loyalty of the French inhabitants (called
 Acadians), the British expelled many of them in 1755 and 1758. Most were
 scattered among the British colonies to the south, many of them later
 returning to the area. Other exiles found havens elsewhere, notably the
 Cajuns of S Louisiana, who still preserve a separate folk culture. The
 sufferings of the expulsion are depicted in LONGFELLOW'S poem Evangeline.

   Acadia National Park

 Acadia National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   acanthus

 acanthus, common name for the Acanthaceae, a family of chiefly perennial
 herbs and shrubs, mostly tropical. Many members have decorative spiny
 leaves and are cultivated as ornamentals, e.g., bear's breech, whose
 ornate leaves provided a motif often used in Greek and Roman art and
 architecture. In Christian art, the acanthus symbolizes heaven.

   Acapulco

 Acapulco, city (1980 pop. 409,335), winter resort on the tropical Pacific
 coast of S Mexico, known for its fine beaches, luxury hotels and villas,
 and deep-sea fishing. Founded (1550) on a natural harbor, it was a base
 for Spanish explorers and was important in trade with the Philippines. It
 became a favored haunt of wealthy vacationers in the 1920s.

   acceleration

 acceleration: see MOTION.

   accelerator

 accelerator: see PARTICLE ACCELERATOR.

   accounting

 accounting, classification, analysis, and interpretation of the
 financial, or bookkeeping, records of an enterprise, used to evaluate the
 progress or failures of a business and to recognize the factors that
 determine its true condition. In the U.S. accountants who pass a required
 examination are granted the title Certified Public Accountant (CPA). A
 branch of accounting is auditing, the examination of accounts by persons
 who have had no part in their preparation. Annual audits are required for
 all publicly held businesses.

   Accra

 Accra, city (1984 pop. 964,879), capital of Ghana, on the Gulf of Guinea.
 The nation's largest city and its administrative and economic center,
 Accra is linked by road and rail with KUMASI, in the interior, and with
 the seaport of Tema. Manufactures include processed food, timber, and
 textiles. The city became (1876) the capital of the British Gold Coast
 colony and grew economically after completion (1923) of a railroad to the
 interior. Riots in the city (1948) accelerated the movement for Ghana's
 independence. Today Accra is a sprawling, modern city with wide avenues;
 points of interest include a 17th-cent. Danish castle.

   acculturation

 acculturation, the more or less continuous interaction between social
 groups brought about by accommodation and resulting in the intermixture
 of shared, learned behavior patterns. It may result in almost complete
 absorption of the CULTURE of one of the groups or a relatively equal
 merging of traits and patterns from both cultures. Not infrequently,
 acculturative processes result in social disturbance and individual
 psychological maladjustment.

   accusative

 accusative: see CASE.

   acetaminophen

 acetaminophen, an ANALGESIC and fever-reducing medicine similar in effect
 to ASPIRIN. Gentler to the stomach than aspirin, it lacks aspirin's
 anti-inflammatory effect.

   acetone, dimethyl ketone

 acetone, dimethyl ketone, or 2-propanone(CH3COCH3), colorless, flammable
 liquid. Acetone is widely used in industry as a solvent for many organic
 substances and is a component of most paint and varnish removers. It is
 used in making synthetic RESINS and fillers, smokeless powders, and many
 other organic compounds.

   acetylcholine

 acetylcholine, organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
 nitrogen, essential for the conduction of nerve impulses in animals. It
 is found in highest concentrations on neuron surfaces and is liberated at
 nerve cell endings. There is strong evidence that acetylcholine is the
 transmitter substance that conducts impulses from one cell to another in
 the parasympathetic nervous system, and from nerve cells to smooth
 muscle, skeletal muscle, and exocrine glands.

   acetylene

 acetylene or ethyne(HC=CH), a colorless gas and the simplest alkyne (see
 HYDROCARBON). Explosive on contact with air, it is stored dissolved under
 pressure in ACETONE. It is used to make neoprene RUBBER, PLASTICS, and
 RESINS. The oxyacetylene torch mixes and burns oxygen and acetylene to
 produce a very hot flame-as high as 6300 degF (3480 degC)-that can cut
 steel and weld iron and other metals.

   Achaea

 Achaea, region of ancient GREECE, in the N Peloponnesus on the Gulf of
 Corinth, home of the Achaeans, the ruling class in the PELOPONNESUS from
 c.1250 BC Before the 5th cent. BC the Achaean cities joined in the First
 Achaean League, which was dissolved after it opposed (338 BC) PHILIP II
 of Macedon. The Second Achaean League, formed in 280 BC, almost drove
 MACEDON from Achaea but was stopped by SPARTA. In 198 BC, with Roman aid,
 the league won power. Later, suspecting pro-Macedonian sympathies, Rome
 deported many Achaeans (168 BC) to Italy. In 146 BC Achaea waged a
 suicidal war against Rome, which easily won, dissolved the league, and
 ended Greek liberty.

   Achaemenids

 Achaemenids, dynasty of ancient PERSIA. The Achaemenid rulers (c.550-330
 BC) included CYRUS THE GREAT, Cambyses, DARIUS I, Xerxes I, and
 ARTAXERXES I. The dynasty ended with DARIUS III.

   Achebe, Chinua

 Achebe, Chinua, 1930-, Nigerian novelist. His novels, written in English,
 depict Ibo society and the impact of colonialism, e.g., Things Fall Apart
 (1958) and A Man of the People (1966). A former broadcaster and diplomat
 for Biafra, he has also published poetry, e.g., Christmas in Biafra
 (1973).

   Acheson, Dean Gooderham

 Acheson, Dean Gooderham, 1893-1971, U.S. secretary of state (1949-53); b.
 Middletown, Conn. Serving Pres. TRUMAN, he established the policy of
 containment of Communist expansion. He also helped to establish the NORTH
 ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION.

   Achilles

 Achilles, in Greek mythology, foremost hero of the TROJAN WAR; son of
 Peleus and Thetis. Thetis attempted to make him immortal by bathing him
 in the river STYX, but the heel she held remained vulnerable. Knowing
 Achilles was fated to die at Troy, Thetis disguised him as a girl and hid
 him at Skyros. He was found by ODYSSEUS, who persuaded him to go to war.
 At Troy he quarreled with AGAMEMNON and sulked in his tent until his
 friend Patroclus was killed by HECTOR. Filled with grief and rage,
 Achilles slew Hector and dragged his body to the Greek camp. He was later
 killed by PARIS, who wounded his heel.

   acidophilus milk

 acidophilus milk: see FERMENTED MILK.

   acid rain

 acid rain, form of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail) containing
 high levels of sulfuric or nitric acids (pH below 5.5-5.6). Produced when
 sulfur dioxide and various nitrogen oxides combine with atmospheric
 moisture, acid rain can contaminate drinking water, damage vegetation and
 aquatic life, and erode buildings and monuments. It has been an
 increasingly serious problem since the 1950s, particularly in the NE
 U.S., Canada, and W Europe, especially Scandinavia. Automobile exhausts
 and the burning of high-sulfur industrial fuels are thought to be the
 main causes, but natural sources, e.g., volcanic gases and forest fires,
 may also be significant. See also ECOLOGY; POLLUTION; WASTE DISPOSAL.

   acid rock

 acid rock: see ROCK MUSIC.

   acids and bases

 acids and bases, two related classes of chemicals; the members of each
 class have a number of common properties when dissolved in a solvent,
 usually water. Acids in water solutions exhibit the following common
 properties: they taste sour; turn LITMUS paper red; and react with
 certain metals, such as zinc, to yield hydrogen gas. Bases in water
 solutions exhibit these common properties: they taste bitter; turn litmus
 paper blue; and feel slippery. When a water solution of acid is mixed
 with a water solution of base, a SALT and water are formed; this process,
 called neutralization, is complete only if the resulting solution has
 neither acidic nor basic properties. When an acid or base dissolves in
 water, a certain percentage of the acid or base particles will break up,
 or dissociate, into oppositely charged ions. The Arrhenius theory of
 acids and bases defines an acid as a compound that can dissociate in
 water to yield hydrogen ions (H+) and a base as a compound that can
 dissociate in water to yield hydroxyl ions (OH-). The Bronsted-Lowry
 theory defines an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor.
 The Lewis theory defines an acid as a compound that can accept a pair of
 electrons and a base as a compound that can donate a pair of electrons.
 Each of the three theories has its own advantages and disadvantages; each
 is useful under certain conditions. Strong acids, such as HYDROCHLORIC
 ACID, and strong bases, such as potassium hydroxide, have a great
 tendency to dissociate in water and are completely ionized in solution.
 Weak acids, such as acetic acid, and weak bases, such as AMMONIA, are
 reluctant to dissociate in water and are only partially ionized in
 solution. Strong acids and strong bases make very good ELECTROLYTES (see
 ELECTROLYSIS), i.e., their solutions readily conduct electricity. Weak
 acids and weak bases make poor electrolytes. See also AMPHOTERISM;
 BUFFER; CATALYST; INDICATORS, ACID-BASE; TITRATION; article on pH.

   ACLU

 ACLU: see AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION.

   Acmeists

 Acmeists, school of Russian poets that arose in 1912 in reaction to the
 SYMBOLISTS; it emphasized concreteness of imagery and clarity of
 expression. The leading Acmeists were Nikolai Gumilev, Anna AKHMATOVA,
 and Osip MANDELSTAM.

   acne

 acne, inflammatory disease of the sebaceous glands, characterized by
 blackheads, cysts, and pimples. The lesions appear on the face, neck,
 chest, back, and arms, and may be mild to severe. Most prevalent during
 adolescence, acne may appear in adulthood. Its cause is unknown, but
 contributing factors include genetic predisposition and hormonal changes
 during puberty. Treatment includes use of cleansers, ANTIBIOTICS,
 surgical drainage of lesions, and, for severe cases, retinoic acid
 derivatives.

   Acoma

 Acoma or Acoma,pueblo in W central New Mexico, situated atop a
 steep-sided 357-ft (109-m) MESA. Founded c.1100-1250, it is considered
 the oldest continuously inhabited community in the U.S. The resident
 PUEBLO INDIANS retain aspects of their 700-year-old culture; the men are
 weavers, the women highly skilled and renowned potters.

   Aconcagua

 Aconcagua, mountain 22,835 ft (6,960 m) high, in the ANDES of Argentina.
 It is the highest peak in the Americas.

   acorn

 acorn: see OAK.

   acoustics

 acoustics, the science of SOUND, including its production, propagation,
 and effects. An important practical application of acoustics is in the
 designing of auditoriums, which requires a knowledge of the
 characteristics of sound WAVES. Reflection of sound can cause an ECHO,
 and repeated reflections in an enclosed space can cause reverberation,
 the persistence of sound. Some reverberation in auditoriums is desirable
 to avoid deadening the sound of music. Reflection can be reduced through
 the proper configuration and texture of walls, and by the use of
 sound-absorbent materials. Another acoustical problem is INTERFERENCE,
 which can create "dead spots" in auditoriums for certain frequencies.

   acquired characteristics

 acquired characteristics, modifications produced in an individual plant
 or animal as a result of mutilation, disease, use and disuse, or any
 distinctly environmental influence. Belief in the inheritability of
 acquired characteristics was accepted by LAMARCK but ultimately rejected
 by modern geneticists, who have affirmed that inheritance is determined
 solely by reproductive cells and unaffected by somatic (body) cells.

   acquired immune deficiency syndrome

 acquired immune deficiency syndrome: see AIDS.

   acropolis

 acropolis, elevated, fortified section of ancient Greek cities. The
 Acropolis of Athens was adorned in the 5th cent. BC with some of the
 world's greatest architectural monuments. The remains of the PARTHENON,
 ERECHTHEUM, and Propylaea still stand.

   acrylic

 acrylic, more common name for polyacrylonitrile. Acrylic is a polymer
 composed of the acrylonitrile monomer CH2:CHCN. It is used as a fiber in
 SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS such as Arilan and Orlon.

   Actaeon

 Actaeon, in Greek mythology, a hunter. Because he saw ARTEMIS bathing
 naked, she changed him into a stag, and he was killed by his own dogs.

   actinide series

 actinide series, the radioactive metals, with atomic numbers 89 through
 103, in group IIIb of the PERIODIC TABLE. They are ACTINIUM, THORIUM,
 PROTACTINIUM, URANIUM, NEPTUNIUM, PLUTONIUM, AMERICIUM, CURIUM
 , BERKELIUM, CALIFORNIUM, EINSTEINIUM, FERMIUM, MENDELEVIUM
 , NOBELIUM, and LAWRENCIUM. All members of the series have chemical
 properties similar to actinium. Those elements with atomic numbers
 greater than 92 are called TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS.

   actinium

 actinium (Ac), radioactive element; discovered in 1899 by Andre Debierne
 in uranium residues from pitchblende. Actinium, a silver-white metal, is
 the first member of the ACTINIDE SERIES. The most stable isotope has a


   action painting

 action painting: see ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM.

   activation energy

 activation energy: see CATALYST.

   active

 active: see VOICE.

   Acts of the Apostles

 Acts of the Apostles, fifth book of the NEW TESTAMENT, between the
 GOSPELS and the EPISTLES. The only contemporary historical account of
 CHRISTIANITY'S early expansion, it was written between AD 60 and 80 as a
 sequel to the Gospel of St. LUKE, who is its traditional author. The Acts
 chiefly deal with the work of St. PETER (1-12) and St. PAUL (13-21).

   acupuncture

 acupuncture, technique of medical treatment, based on traditional Chinese
 medicine, in which a number of very fine metal needles are inserted into
 the skin at any of some 800 specially designated points. In China it has
 long been used for pain relief and treatment of such ailments as
 ARTHRITIS, HYPERTENSION, and ULCERS. More recently it has been used as an
 ANESTHESIA for childbirth and some surgery. (Unlike conventional
 anesthesia, it does not lower blood pressure or depress breathing.) It
 has been suggested that acupuncture works by stimulating the production
 of ENDORPHINS. U.S. research on acupuncture has focused on its use in
 pain relief and anesthesia.

   ADA

 ADA: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Adam

 Adam [Heb.,=man], in the BIBLE, the first man. His story, from his
 creation to his expulsion (with EVE, his wife) from the Garden of EDEN,
 is told in Gen. 1.26-5.5. To St. PAUL, Adam represented the earthy side
 of man, as in 1 Cor. 15.20-22, 42-58.

   Adam, Adolphe Charles

 Adam, Adolphe Charles, 1803-56, French composer. His more than 50 stage
 works include the ballet Giselle (1841). He also wrote the popular song
 Cantique de Noel.

   Adam, Robert

 Adam, Robert, 1728-92, and James Adam, 1730-94, Scottish architects,
 brothers. Robert possessed the great creative talents. They designed
 public and private buildings in England and Scotland, and numerous
 interiors, pieces of furniture, and decorative objects. Robert's light,
 elegant style was a personal reconstitution of Palladian, Renaissance,
 and antique elements. The Adam manner grew vastly popular and has never
 disappeared. Interesting examples of Adam planning and decoration are at
 Osterly Park (1761-80) and Syon House (1762-69), both near London.

   Adams

 Adams, family of distinguished Americans from Massachusetts. John Adams
 was president of the U.S. (see separate article). He and his wife,
 Abigail (Smith) Adams, were the parents of John Quincy Adams, who was
 also president of the U.S. (see separate article). His son, Charles
 Francis Adams, 1807-86, b. Boston, was U.S. minister to Great Britain
 (1861-68). He maintained the Northern cause with a wisdom and dignity
 that won British respect, and he is credited with preventing British
 recognition of the CONFEDERACY. Later he represented the U.S. in the
 settlement of the ALABAMA CLAIMS. His son Charles Francis Adams,
 1835-1915, b. Boston, was an economist and historian. An expert on
 railroad financing, he was president of the Union Pacific RR (1884-90).
 His works include Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892). His
 brother Brooks Adams, 1848-1927, b. Quincy, Mass., was a historian. His
 belief that civilizations rose and fell according to the growth and
 decline of commerce was first developed in The Law of Civilization and
 Decay (1895). Among his other important works are America's Economic
 Supremacy (1900) and Theory of Social Revolutions (1913). His ideas
 influenced another brother, Henry Adams, 1838-1918, b. Boston, who was
 also a writer and historian. In developing a philosophy of history he
 found a unifying principle in force, or energy, and applied it in two
 books, Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres (1913) and The Education of Henry
 Adams (1918). He also wrote History of the United States of America (9
 vol., 1889-91).

   Adams, Ansel

 Adams, Ansel, 1902-84, American photographer; b. San Francisco. Working
 against the aesthetic of the 1930s, he produced superb regional
 landscapes, notably of the American Southwest. He also wrote technical
 manuals and helped to found the first museum and college photography
 departments.

   Adams, James Truslow

 Adams, James Truslow, 1878-1949, American historian; b. Brooklyn, N.Y.
 His works include The Founding of New England (1921; Pulitzer), The Adams
 Family (1930), and The Epic of America (1931). He was editor of the
 Dictionary of American History (6 vol., 1940).

   Adams, John

 Adams, John, 1735-1826, 2d president of the U.S. (1797-1801); b. Quincy
 (then in Braintree), Mass.; father of John Quincy ADAMS. He graduated
 from Harvard Univ. in 1755 and became a lawyer. As a moderate but
 forceful leader of the group who opposed British measures leading to the
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION, he later served in both CONTINENTAL CONGRESSES and
 argued eloquently for the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, which he signed.
 Adams served the new nation as a diplomat, negotiating the Treaty of
 PARIS (1783) to end the Revolution and serving (1785-88) as envoy to
 Great Britain. He became Pres. WASHINGTON'S vice president (1789-97) and
 in 1797 succeeded him as president. Adams's administration as president
 revealed his honest and stubborn integrity. Although allied with
 Alexander HAMILTON and the conservative, property-respecting Federalists,
 he was not dominated by them in their struggle with the Jeffersonians
 (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). By conciliation he prevented war with France
 (see XYZ AFFAIR). He did not wholly support the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS.
 After 1801 he lived in retirement in Quincy. His wife, Abigail (Smith)
 Adams, 1744-1818, b. Weymouth, Mass., was the chief figure in the social
 life of her husband's administration. Lively and intelligent, she was one
 of the most distinguished and influential of American first ladies.

   Adams, John Couch

 Adams, John Couch, 1819-92, English astronomer. By mathematical
 calculation based on irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus,
 he and U.J.J. LEVERRIER independently and accurately predicted (1845-46)
 the position of the then unknown planet NEPTUNE. Adams also made valuable
 studies of the moon's motions, of the great meteor shower of 1866, and of
 terrestrial magnetism.

   Adams, John Quincy

 Adams, John Quincy, 1767-1848, 6th president of the U.S. (1825-29); b.
 Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass; son of John and Abigail ADAMS; father
 of Charles Francis Adams (see ADAMS, family). As U.S. senator from
 Massachusetts (1803-8), he angered his fellow Federalists by supporting
 Jeffersonian policies (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). He gained fame as
 secretary of state (1817-25) for Pres. James MONROE, his greatest
 achievement being the MONROE DOCTRINE. Elected president (1825) in the
 House of Representatives through the support of Henry CLAY, Adams had an
 unhappy, ineffective administration, despite his attempts to institute a
 program of internal improvements. He won new respect as a U.S.
 representative from Massachusetts (1831-48), eloquently attacking all
 measures that would extend SLAVERY.

   Adams, Samuel

 Adams, Samuel, 1722-1803, American Revolutionary patriot; b. Boston. His
 speeches and writings helped to spark the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. He signed
 the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, was a member (1774-81) of the
 CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, and was governor (1794-97) of Massachusetts.

   Adana

 Adana, city (1985 pop. 776,000), capital of Adana prov., S Turkey, on the
 Seyhan R. Turkey's fourth largest city, it is the commercial center of a
 farming region where cotton, grains, and other crops are grown. The
 city's manufactures include processed food and textiles. An ancient city
 probably founded by the HITTITES, it prospered from 66 BC as a Roman
 colony. It later declined but was revived (AD c.782) by HARUN AR-RASHID.
 In the 16th cent. it passed to the Ottoman Turks. Near Adana is a Hittite
 archaeological site.

   adaptation

 adaptation, in biology, the adjustment of living matter to environmental
 conditions, including other living things. Animals and plants are adapted
 for securing food and surviving even in conditions of drought, great
 heat, or extreme cold. Adaptations are believed to arise when genetic
 variations that increase an organism's chances of survival are passed on
 to succeeding generations. See also ECOLOGY; EVOLUTION; GENETICS.

   adaptive radiation

 adaptive radiation, in biology, the evolution of an ancestral species
 adapted to a particular way of life into several species, each adapted to
 a different habitat. Illustrating the principle are the 14 species of
 DARWIN'S finches, small land birds of the Galapagos Islands: 3 are
 ground-dwelling seedeaters, 3 live on cactus plants and are seedeaters, 1
 is a tree-dwelling seedeater, 7 are tree-dwelling insect eaters, but all
 derive from a single species of ground-dwelling, seedeating finch that
 probably emigrated from the South American mainland.

   Addams, Charles Samuel

 Addams, Charles Samuel, 1912-88, American cartoonist; b. Westfield, N.J.
 His work, best known from The New Yorker magazine, is famed for its wit,
 fantasy, and sense of the macabre.

   Addams, Jane

 Addams, Jane, 1860-1935, American social worker; b. Cedar ville, Ill. In
 1889 she and Ellen Gates Starr founded Hull House, a Chicago settlement
 house that served the neighborhood poor and became a center for social
 reform activities. A leader of the WOMAN SUFFRAGE and pacifist movements,
 Addams shared the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize. She wrote several books on
 social issues and two autobiographical volumes.

   addax

 addax: see ANTELOPE.

   adder

 adder: see VIPER.

   addiction

 addiction: see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE.

   Addis Ababa

 Addis Ababa, city (1984 est. pop. 1,412,575), capital of Ethiopia. Addis
 Ababa is Ethiopia's largest city, its administrative and communications
 center, and the main trade center for coffee (Ethiopia's chief export),
 tobacco, grains, and hides; much of its commerce is shipped by rail to
 the port of DJIBOUTI. Addis Ababa became (1889) Ethiopia's capital and
 was captured (1936) by the Italians and made the capital of ITALIAN EAST
 AFRICA. It was retaken by the Allies in 1941 and returned to Ethiopian
 rule. A modern city, it has been the site of many international
 conferences and organizations, including the ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN
 UNITY. Notable buildings include Coptic and Roman Catholic cathedrals.

   Addison, Joseph

 Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, English essayist, poet, and statesman. His
 Remarks on Italy (1705) recorded early travels. The prominence he
 attained with the epic Campaign (1704) on MARLBOROUGH'S victory at
 Blenheim led to political appointments, and he served in Parliament
 (1708-19). Addison contributed to his friend Richard STEELE'S periodical
 the Tatler after 1710. There, and in the SPECTATOR and Guardian, he
 raised the English essay to an unequaled height. In prose marked by
 simplicity, order, and precision, Addison advocated reason and moderation
 in life.

   Addison's disease

 Addison's disease, progressive disease brought about by atrophy of the
 outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland; also called chronic
 adrenocortical insufficiency. The deterioration of this tissue causes a
 decrease in the secretion of vital steroid hormones, producing such
 symptoms as ANEMIA, weakness, abnormal skin pigmentation, and weight
 loss. The cause of the disease is unknown. Once thought inevitably fatal,
 the disease is treated with adrenocortical hormones that enable its
 victims to lead a nearly normal life.

   Adelaide

 Adelaide, city (1986 est. pop. 993,100), capital and chief port of South
 Australia, at the mouth of the Torrens R., on Gulf St. Vincent. It has
 automotive, textile, and other industries, and exports grains, wool,
 dairy products, and fruit. Founded in 1836, it was named for William IV's
 consort. The biennial Adelaide Festival of the Arts, begun in 1960, is
 held in the Adelaide Festival Centre (opened 1977). It is also known for
 its parks.

   Aden

 Aden, city (1984 est. pop. 318,000), capital and chief port of Southern
 Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen), on the Gulf of Aden near
 the southern entrance to the Red Sea. The city is built on two
 peninsulas, each with a high volcanic headland. Most of the population
 lives on Aden peninsula; Little Aden peninsula has an oil refinery and
 other industries. Aden has been the chief trade center of S ARABIA since
 ancient times. It declined with the discovery (15th cent.) of an
 all-water route around Africa to India, but revived when the SUEZ CANAL
 opened in 1869. The region was held by Muslim Arabs (7th-16th cent.) and
 by the Ottoman Turks (from 1538). The British captured Aden in 1839 and
 made it a crown colony in 1935. In 1967 Southern Yemen became
 independent; Aden has been its capital since 1970.

   Aden, Gulf of

 Aden, Gulf of, western arm of the Arabian Sea, 550 mi (885 km) long,
 between E Africa and SW Asia. It is connected with the RED SEA by the BAB
 EL MANDEB and is an important link in the MEDITERRANEAN SEA-SUEZ
 CANAL-INDIAN OCEAN sea lane.

   Adenauer, Konrad

 Adenauer, Konrad, 1876-1967, West German chancellor (1949-63). He was a
 member of the Catholic Center party until 1933, when he was imprisoned by
 the NAZIS. After World War II he was a founder and president of the
 Christian Democratic Union. As chancellor, he presided over the
 spectacular rebirth of West GERMANY'S economy, and guided that nation's
 reentry into the European community and recovery in 1955 of its full
 sovereignty.

   adenoids

 adenoids: see TONSILS.

   adenosine triphosphate

 adenosine triphosphate (ATP), compound composed of adenine (a PURINE),
 ribose, and three phosphate units; one of the most important
 low-molecular-weight molecules in living matter. It is a rich source of
 the chemical energy necessary for the success of a vast number of
 chemical reactions in the cell. ATP also plays a role in kidney function,
 transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, active transport of
 materials through cell membranes, and synthesis of NUCLEIC ACIDS and
 other large molecules.

   adhesion and cohesion

 adhesion and cohesion, attractive forces between material bodies.
 Adhesive forces act between different substances, whereas cohesive forces
 act within a single substance, holding its atoms, ions, or molecules
 together. Without these forces, solids and liquids would act as gases.
 SURFACE TENSION in liquids results from cohesion, and CAPILLARITY results
 from a combination of adhesion and cohesion. FRICTION between two solid
 bodies depends in part on adhesion.

   Adirondack Mountains

 Adirondack Mountains, forested mountain wilderness area, NE New York,
 with many scenic gorges, waterfalls, and lakes. The Adirondacks rise to a
 high point of 5,344 ft (1,629 m) at Mt. Marcy and are geologically a
 southern extension of the CANADIAN SHIELD. Lake Placid and Lake George
 are important area resorts.

   adjective

 adjective: see PART OF SPEECH.

   Adler, Alfred

 Adler, Alfred, 1870-1937, Austrian psychiatrist, early associate of
 Sigmund FREUD and founder of the school of individual psychology.
 Rejecting Freud's emphasis on sex, Adler maintained that personality
 difficulties are rooted in a feeling of inferiority (see COMPLEX)
 deriving from restrictions on the individual's need for self-assertion.
 His best-known work is The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology
 (1923).

   Adler, Cyrus

 Adler, Cyrus, 1863-1940, American Jewish educator; b. Van Buren, Ark.
 Founder of the American Jewish Historical Society, American Jewish
 Committee, and Jewish Welfare Board, he was president of Dropsie College
 (1908-40) and the Jewish Theological Seminary (1924-40). He was an editor
 of the Jewish Encyclopedia, and wrote articles and books.

   Adler, Felix

 Adler, Felix, 1851-1933, American educator and leader in social welfare;
 b. Germany. Founder of the ETHICAL CULTURE MOVEMENT (1876) and Society,
 he also organized the Workingmen's Lyceum, the Workingmen's School, and
 the Manhattan Trade School for Girls. He was for many years chairman of
 the National Child Labor Committee, and wrote Creed and Deed (1877) and
 An Ethical Philosophy of Life (1918), among other books.

   Adler, Larry

 Adler, Larry, 1914-, American harmonica player; b. Baltimore. He played
 with the world's major symphony orchestras and is generally credited with
 elevating the harmonica to concert status in the classical music world.

   adolescence

 adolescence, time of life from onset of puberty to full adulthood.
 Falling approximately between the ages of 12 and 21, adolescence is
 characterized by physical changes leading to sexual maturity, problems of
 sex-role identification and achievement, and movement toward personal
 independence. Psychologists regard adolescence as a period of social
 pressure specifically related to the society, not as a unique biological
 period.

   Adonis

 Adonis, in Greek mythology, beautiful youth loved by APHRODITE and
 PERSEPHONE. When he was killed by a boar, both goddesses claimed him.
 ZEUS decreed that he spend half the year above the ground with Aphrodite,
 the other half in the underworld with Persephone. His death and
 resurrection, symbolic of the seasonal cycle, were celebrated at the
 festival Adonia.

   adoption

 adoption, act creating the legal relation of parent and child. It was
 known in antiquity but was not part of the English COMMON LAW. In the
 U.S. it is governed by statute. Adoption's historical roots include the
 need to continue a family line where there is no natural heir. Today the
 usual focus is the child's welfare. A hearing before a judge is generally
 required, as is consent of the natural parent or guardian and that of the
 child if he or she is above a certain age. The natural parents generally
 lose their rights and duties toward the child; the adoptive parents
 assume them. Many states now permit adoption by unmarried adults.
 Adoption by relatives is most common; in adoption by unrelated adults,
 the courts attempt to ease adjustment to the adoptive family by
 maintaining secrecy regarding the child's origin. In recent years,
 however, a growing number of adopted children have attempted to identify
 their natural parents. FOSTER CARE is an arrangement in which a family or
 institution provides a home for a child whose parents cannot care for him
 (or her); unlike adoption, foster care is temporary.

   Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund

 Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund, 1903-69, German philosopher, sociologist,
 and music critic. From 1928, he was closely associated with the Frankfurt
 Institute for Social Research. When the Nazis came to power, he emigrated
 to Britain (1934) and then the U.S. (1938), where with Max Horkheimer he
 wrote the Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947) and collaborated on The
 Authoritarian Personality (1950), a study of fascism. He returned to
 Frankfurt (1949) and was director (1958-69) of the institute.

   adrenal glands

 adrenal glands, pair of small endocrine glands (see ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
 situated atop the kidneys. The outer yellowish layer (cortex) secretes
 about 30 steroid hormones, most importantly aldosterone, which regulates
 water and salt balance in the body, and cortisol, which controls
 carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. The inner reddish portion
 (medulla) of the adrenals secretes the emergency-response hormones
 EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline) and norepinephrine.

   adrenaline

 adrenaline: see EPINEPHRINE.

   Adrian I

 Adrian I, d. 795, pope (772-95). A Roman, he successfully urged
 CHARLEMAGNE to defeat the LOMBARDS and acquired from him additional lands
 for the PAPAL STATES. He supported the Byzantine empress Irene in her
 struggle against ICONOCLASM.

   Adrian IV

 Adrian IV, d. 1159, pope (1154-59). The only Englishman to become pope,
 he was originally named Nicholas Breakspear. In 1155 he defeated the
 opposition of Arnold of Brescia and crowned Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK
 I. He later quarreled with Frederick and William I of Sicily. His
 donation of Ireland as a fief to Henry II of England is disputed.

   Adrian

 Adrian, Roman emperor: see HADRIAN.

   Adrian, Gilbert

 Adrian, Gilbert: see FASHION.

   Adriatic Sea

 Adriatic Sea, arm of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA, c.500 mi (800 km) long,
 between Italy (W) and Yugoslavia and Albania (E). It is 58-140 mi (93-225
 km) wide, with a maximum depth of c.4,100 ft (1,250 m). VENICE is the
 chief port.

   adsorption

 adsorption, the adhesion of molecules to the surfaces of solids, as
 opposed to ABSORPTION, in which the molecules actually enter the
 absorbing medium. Charcoal, for example, which has a great surface area
 because of its porous nature, can adsorb large volumes of gases,
 including most of the poisonous ones, and thus is used in gas masks and
 filters.

   adult education

 adult education or continuing education,organized instruction provided to
 men and women beyond the age of general public education. The range of
 emphasis in adult education has come to include everything from the
 job-oriented (see VOCATIONAL EDUCATION) to the purely academic. Modern
 adult education probably began with European political groups and
 vocational classes. In the U.S., some forms date from colonial times;
 Benjamin FRANKLIN was among those who established debating and discussion
 groups. In the 19th cent. the LYCEUM and the CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT
 contributed to the growth of adult education. Public lectures were
 popular, and the establishment of LAND-GRANT COLLEGES stimulated the
 demand for education in the developing heartland. By the end of the
 century other forms, among them labor colleges, correspondence schools,
 and factory and other vocational classes, had come into being. The GREAT
 DEPRESSION brought an increased demand for practical training, and after
 World War II the G.I. Bill of Rights enabled thousands to attend schools
 and colleges. Adult education today faces an increasing demand created by
 expanding leisure time, a highly competitive labor market, and greater
 population growth, especially among young adults and those past
 traditional retirement age. The field now embraces such diverse areas as
 high-school equivalency; physical and emotional development; practical
 arts; applied science; recreation; and academic, business, and
 professional subjects; the courses are provided in schools, colleges,
 libraries, work places, and other facilities.

   Advent

 Advent, Christian penitential season, lasting in the West from the Sunday
 nearest Nov. 30 until Christmas. It is the first season of the church
 calendar.

   Advent Christian Church

 Advent Christian Church: see ADVENTISTS.

   Adventists

 Adventists, members of a group of religious denominations whose
 distinctive doctrine centers in their belief concerning the imminent
 second coming of Christ. Adventism is specifically applied to the
 teachings of William Miller. The largest group, the Seventh-Day
 Adventists, were formally organized in 1863 and are fundamentally
 evangelical. Other Adventist groups are the Church of God, the Advent
 Christian Church, and the Primitive Advent Christian Church.

   adverb

 adverb: see PART OF SPEECH.

   advertising

 advertising, in general, any openly sponsored offering of goods,
 services, or ideas through any medium of public communication. The main
 advertising media include newspapers, magazines, television, radio, and
 direct mail. The advertising agency, working on a commission basis, has
 been largely responsible for the development of modern advertising.
 Defenders of advertising say that it is meant to sell products, not
 create values, and that it furthers product improvement through
 competition, while critics contend that it creates false values and
 impels people to buy things they neither need nor want. The U.S. is the
 world leader in advertising expenditures, and the term "Madison Avenue"
 (the street in N.Y.C. where many advertising agencies have had
 headquarters) has come to symbolize the industry.

   A.E.

 A.E.: see RUSSELL, GEORGE WILLIAM.

   Aegean civilization

 Aegean civilization, cultures of pre-Hellenic GREECE. MINOAN CIVILIZATION
 flourished on Crete and MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION on the Greek mainland.
 Sites of other cultures have been found at TROY and in the Cyclades.

   Aegean Sea

 Aegean Sea, arm of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA, off SE Europe, between Greece
 and Turkey, center of the classical Greek world. The island-studded sea
 is c.400 mi (640 km) long, 200 mi (320 km) wide, and more than 6,600 ft
 (2,010 m) deep off N CRETE at its southern limit. Major islands include
 EVVOIA, the Sporades, the CYCLADES, SAMOS, KHIOS, LESBOS, Thasos, and th
 DODECANESE. Sardines and sponges are taken from the sea, and some natural
 gas has been found off NE Greece.

   Aegisthus

 Aegisthus, in Greek mythology, son of Thyestes. Aegisthus revenged his
 brothers' murder by killing his uncle ATREUS. He was later CLYTEMNESTRA'S
 lover, helped her to slay AGAMEMNON, and was himself killed by ORESTES.

   Aeken, Jerom van

 Aeken, Jerom van: see BOSCH, HIERONYMUS.

   Aemilian Way

 Aemilian Way: see ROMAN ROADS.

   Aeneas

 Aeneas, in classical legend, a Trojan; son of Anchises and VENUS. After
 Troy's fall he escaped, tarried with DIDO at CARTHAGE, then went to
 Italy, where his descendants founded Rome. His deeds are celebrated in
 VERGIL'S Aeneid.

   Aeolians

 Aeolians: see GREECE.

   aerial

 aerial: see ANTENNA.

   aerobics

 aerobics [from Gr. meaning=with oxygen], endurance exercises in which the
 volume of breathing is increased and the heart is forced to beat faster
 than usual for a prolonged period of time, thereby pumping an increased
 amount of oxygen-rich blood to the muscles being used. Such aerobic
 activities as running, swimming, and cycling can strengthen the
 cardiovascular system, improving the body's use of oxygen and allowing
 the heart to work less strenuously.

   aerodynamics

 aerodynamics, study of gases in motion. Because the principal application
 of aerodynamics is the design of AIRPLANES, air is the principal gas with
 which this science is concerned. Bernoulli's principle, which states that
 the pressure of a moving gas decreases as its velocity increases, has
 been used to explain the lift produced by a wing having a curved upper
 surface and a flat lower surface (see AIRFOIL). Because the flow is
 faster across the curved surface than across the plane one, a greater
 pressure is exerted in the upward direction. Aerodynamics is also
 concerned with the drag caused by air friction, which is reduced by
 making the surface area of the craft as small as possible. At speeds
 close to the speed of sound, or Mach 1 (see MACH NUMBER), there is also a
 large, sudden increase of drag, which has been called the sonic, or
 sound, barrier. Aerodynamics is also used in designing automobile bodies
 and trains for minimum drag and in computing wind stresses on bridges,
 buildings, and the like. The WIND TUNNEL is one of the basic experimental
 tools of the aerodynamicist. See SHOCK WAVE; SONIC BOOM.

   aeronautics

 aeronautics: see AERODYNAMICS; AIRPLANE; AVIATION.

   aerosol

 aerosol, a COLLOID in which small solid or liquid particles are suspended
 in a gas. Natural aerosols such as fog or smoke occur throughout the
 ATMOSPHERE, which is itself an aerosol. The term is also used to describe
 a container of paint, insecticide, or other substance held under pressure
 by a propellant, which releases the substance in the form of a fine spray
 or foam. The fluorocarbon FREON was until recently the most common
 aerosol propellant, but its use has diminished because it is thought to
 contribute to the destruction of the OZONE layer of the stratosphere.

   Aeschines

 Aeschines, c.390-314? BC, Athenian orator. He became politically powerful
 through his oratorical gifts. Opposing resistance to PHILIP II of
 Macedon, he was the bitter rival of DEMOSTHENES.

   Aeschylus

 Aeschylus, 525-456 BC, Athenian tragic poet. First of the three great
 Greek tragedians, he preceded SOPHOCLES and EURIPIDES. He wrote perhaps
 90 plays, of which seven survive intact. Often credited with inventing
 TRAGEDY, he added an actor to what had been a dialogue, thus increasing
 its possibilities. His choral lyrics rank with those of PINDAR. Among his
 best-known plays are The Seven against Thebes and Prometheus Bound. His
 only extant trilogy, the Oresteia, a history of the house of ATREUS, is
 considered by many the greatest Attic tragedy.

   Aesop

 Aesop, semilegendary ancient Greek fabulist, supposedly a slave. The
 FABLES called Aesop's were preserved by various writers and include "The
 Fox and the Grapes" and "The Tortoise and the Hare."

   aesthetics

 aesthetics, branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art and the
 criteria of artistic judgment. The conception of art as imitation of
 nature was formulated by PLATO and developed by ARISTOTLE, both of whom
 held that beauty inheres in the object itself and may be judged
 objectively. KANT held that the subject may have universal validity,
 while other thinkers, e.g., HUME, identified beauty with that which
 pleases the observer. Modern philosophers especially concerned with
 aesthetic questions have included CROCE, CASSIRER, John DEWEY, and
 SANTAYANA.

   AEthelbert

 AEthelbert, d. 616, king of Kent (560?-616). Although he was defeated
 (568) by the West Saxons, he later became the strongest ruler in S
 England. In 597 he was converted to Christianity by St. AUGUSTINE OF
 CANTERBURY and became the first Christian king of Anglo-Saxon England.

   AEthelbert

 AEthelbert, d. 865, king of WESSEX (860-65), son of AETHELWULF. After his
 father's death in 858, he ruled KENT, Surrey, SUSSEX, and ESSEX,
 reuniting them with Wessex when in 860 he succeeded his brother
 AEthelbald in that kingdom.

   AEthelflad

 AEthelflad or Ethelfleda , d. 918, daughter of ALFRED and wife of
 AEthelred, ealdorman of MERCIA. After her husband's death in 911, she
 ruled the semi-independent Mercia alone and was known as the Lady of the
 Mercians.

   AEthelred

 AEthelred, 965-1016, king of England (978-1016), called AEthelred the
 Unready [Old Eng., without counsel]. He was the son of EDGAR, and the
 half brother and successor of Edward the Martyr. A weak king, he reigned
 at the height of Danish power. Although he began paying tribute through
 the DANEGELD to the Danes in 991, they returned in 997 to plunder his
 realm, staying until 1000. In 1002 AEthelred married Emma, sister of the
 duke of Normandy, possibly hoping to gain an ally. Although by 1009 a
 navy existed, the treason of its commanders rendered it useless. In 1013
 the Danish king Sweyn returned to conquer; he was well received in the
 DANELAW and London capitulated. AEthelred fled to Normandy but was
 restored in 1014 on Sweyn's death. In 1016 AEthelred's son EDMUND
 IRONSIDE succeeded him, made a treaty with CANUTE, son of Sweyn, and
 died. Canute succeeded him and married AEthelred's widow.

   AEthelstan

 AEthelstan: see ATHELSTAN.

   AEthelwulf

 AEthelwulf, d. 858, king of WESSEX (839-56), son of EGBERT and father of
 AETHELBERT and ALFRED. With his son AEthelbald, he won a notable victory
 over the Danes at Aclea (851). He married Judith of France in 856. A man
 of great piety, he learned while on a pilgrimage in Rome that AEthelbald
 would resist his return. He left his son as king in Wessex and ruled in
 Kent and its dependencies.

   aether

 aether: see ETHER, in physics.

   Aetna

 Aetna: see ETNA.

   Aetolia

 Aetolia, region of ancient GREECE, N of the gulfs of Corinth and Calydon,
 E of the Achelous R. It was the center of the Aetolian League, formed in
 the 4th cent. BC to oppose the Achaean League (see under ACHAEA) and the
 Macedonians. With Rome it defeated PHILIP V of Macedon (197 BC), but then
 it allied itself against Rome with ANTIOCHUS III of Syria. His defeat
 (189 BC) marked the end of the league's power.

   affirmative action

 affirmative action, U.S. program to overcome the effects of past
 discrimination by giving some form of preferential treatment to ethnic
 minorities and women. The term is usually applied to those plans that set
 forth goals and time tables, required since the early 1970s of government
 contractors and universities receiving public funds. The Equal Employment
 Opportunities Act (1972) set up a commission to enforce such plans. The
 establishment of racial quotas in the name of affirmative action brought
 charges of so-called reverse discrimination in the late 1970s. The U.S.
 Supreme Court accepted such an argument in 1978 in the UNIVERSITY OF
 CALIFORNIA REGENTS V. BAKKE, but in 1979 the Court approved the use of
 quotas in a case involving voluntary affirmative-action programs in
 unions and private businesses. In the 1980s, under the Reagan
 administration, the federal government's role in affirmative action was
 considerably diluted.

   affluent society

 affluent society, a term coined by John Kenneth GALBRAITH in The Affluent
 Society (1958) to describe the U.S. economy after World War II. Such a
 society is rich in private resources but poor in public services because
 of a misplaced priority on increasing production in the private sector.
 This derives from the conventional economic theory that resources are
 always scarce. The term has lost its original ironic meaning and is now
 used simply to indicate widespread prosperity.

   Afghan hound

 Afghan hound, tall, swift HOUND; shoulder height, 24-28 in. (61-71.1 cm);
 weight, 50-60 lb (22.7-27.2 kg). Its long, silky coat may be any color.
 The breed originated in Egypt c.5,000 years ago, was perfected in
 Afghanistan, and was brought to England after World War I.

   Afghanistan

 Afghanistan, officially the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, republic
 (1982 est. pop. 15,163,000), 249,999 sq mi (647,497 sq km), S central
 Asia, bordered by Iran (W), Pakistan (E and S), the USSR (N), and China
 (NE). Principal cities include KABUL (the capital), KANDAHAR, and HERAT.
 Most of Afghanistan is mountainous, and the towering ranges of the HINDU
 KUSH reach a height of more than 24,000 ft (7,315 m); fertile valleys and
 plains, home of most of the population, nestle in the mountains. The land
 is mainly dry, and the rivers (unnavigable for the most part) are used
 for irrigation. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, although less
 than 10% of the land is cultivated; corn, barley, rice, and fruit are
 grown, and sheep are raised for skins, wool, and meat. Industry and
 development of minerals are still in the beginning stages. Imports
 (mostly manufactured goods) greatly exceed exports (wool, hides, fruit).
 The population is diverse, including Afghans, Pathans, Hazararas,
 Tadzhiks, Uzbeks, and nomadic Turkmen; almost all are Muslims. Afghan and
 Iranian are the principal languages.

 History Afghanistan, astride the land route to India (through the famed
 KHYBER PASS), has fallen to many conquerors through the ages, e.g.,
 DARIUS I (c.500 BC); ALEXANDER THE GREAT (329-327 BC); and numerous Arab
 invaders (from the 7th cent. AD), who established Islam as the dominant
 culture. Mahmud of Ghazni, who conquered (11th cent.) an empire
 stretching from Iran to India, was the greatest of Afghanistan's rulers.
 The country was later conquered by JENGHIZ KHAN (c.1220) and TAMERLANE
 (14th cent.). Afghanistan became a united state (1747) under Ahmad Shah,
 who founded the Durani dynasty. During the 19th cent. Britain, to protect
 its Indian empire from Russia, tried to establish authority in
 neighboring Afghanistan; the result was two British-Afghan Wars (1838-42,
 1878-80). An agreement (1907) gave Britain control over Afghanistan's
 foreign affairs, but the emir Amanullah engaged Britain in a third Afghan
 War (1919), which gave Afghanistan full independence. Amanullah embarked
 on a modernization program, and in 1926 proclaimed a monarchy to replace
 the emirate. The last king, Muhammad Zahir Shah, was overthrown in 1973
 in a military coup led by Lt. Gen. Muhammad Daoud Khan, who proclaimed a
 republic. Daoud was killed in a coup in 1978 and a pro-Soviet regime
 installed. In 1979 a Soviet-backed coup, supported by an invasion of
 Soviet troops, killed then-president Hafizulla Amin and replaced him with
 Babrak Karmal, leader of a rival faction. Over 2 million Afghans fled to
 Iran and Pakistan, but strong resistance from rebel forces within the
 country continued. Despite international pressure, Soviet troops remained
 in Afghanistan until early 1989.

   AFL-CIO

 AFL-CIO: see AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL
 ORGANIZATIONS.

   Africa

 Africa, second largest continent, c.11,677,240 sq mi (30,244,050 sq km)
 including Madagascar and smaller offshore islands. It is connected to
 Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Suez. Mt. Kibo (19,340 ft/5,895 m), a peak
 of KILIMANJARO, in Tanzania, is the highest point; the lowest point, 436
 ft (133 m) below sea level, is the Qattarah Depression, in Egypt. E
 Africa's lake-filled GREAT RIFT VALLEY is the continent's most
 spectacular feature. Mountain ranges include the ATLAS MTS. (N), the
 Ethiopian Highlands and Ruwenzori Mts. (E), and the Drakensberg Mts. (S).
 Chief rivers are the NILE, CONGO (Zaire), NIGER, and ZAMBEZI. Climatic
 conditions range from hot and rainy all year near the equator, through
 tropical savanna with alternating wet and dry seasons immediately north
 and south of the equatorial region, to hot and dry in the great SAHARA
 desert, in the north, and the smaller KALAHARI desert, in the south. At
 its north and south extremities the continent has a Mediterranean-type
 climate. The countries of Africa are Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana,
 Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, the Central African
 Republic, Chad, The Comoros, the Congo Republic, Djibouti, Egypt,
 Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
 Ivory Coast, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,
 Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao
 Tome and Principe, Senegal, the Seychelles, Sierra Leone, the Somali
 Republic, the Republic of South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo,
 Tunisia, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; other political units are
 Namibia and Western Sahara (see separate articles). African peoples, who
 make up about 10% of the world's population, are divided into more than
 50 nations and are further fragmented into numerous ethnic and linguistic
 groups (see AFRICAN LANGUAGES). See map of Africa in separate section.

   African art

 African art, traditional art created by peoples S of the Sahara. The
 predominant art forms are MASKS and figures, which were generally used in
 religious ceremonies. The decorative arts, especially in TEXTILES and in
 the ornamentation of everyday tools, were a vital art in nearly all
 African cultures. Established forms evolved long before the arrival (15th
 cent.) of the Portuguese in Africa, but most works older than 150 years
 have perished. Their creators valued them for ritual use rather than
 aesthetic accomplishment. Wood-often embellished with clay, shells,
 beads, ivory, metal, feathers, and shredded raffia-was the dominant
 material. In the Sudan and on the Guinea coast the wood-carving style was
 highly abstract. Distortion often emphasized features of cultic
 significance. The Bambara of W Mali are famous for their striking wooden
 headdresses in the form of antelope heads. In NW Guinea the Baga made
 snake carvings, drums supported by small standing figures, and
 spectacular masks. The southern groups of Senufu of the Ivory Coast made
 masks representing human features with geometric projections and legs
 jutting out of each side of the face. During the 18th and 19th cent. the
 ASHANTI kingdom of Ghana used a system of brass weights to weigh gold
 dust; these weights were small figures cast in CIRE PERDUE. From N
 Nigeria, the remarkable Nok terra-cotta heads are the earliest African
 sculpture yet found (c.500-200 BC). The art of the Yoruba of S Nigeria is
 often brilliantly polychromed. On the banks of the Middle Cross R. are
 about 300 monolithic carvings, supposedly Ekoi ancestor figures from
 between 1600 and 1900. The small tribes of the Cameroon did woodcarvings
 and sculptures that include large house posts and ritual objects. Among
 the Fang tribes of Gabon, decorative motifs on stringed musical
 instruments emphasized the human figure. The Bapende of the W Congo made
 ivory pendants portraying human faces, while the Baluba of the SE Congo
 produced bowls and stools supported by slender figures. The dynamic and
 expressive free-standing figures of the Badjokwe of S Congo and Angola
 are particularly outstanding. African art came to European notice c.1905,
 and such artists as PICASSO and MODIGLIANI were influenced by it. The
 Museum of Primitive Art (N.Y.C.) and the Field Museum of Natural History
 (Chicago) have fine collections of African art.

   African languages

 African languages, geographic rather than linguistic classification of
 languages spoken on the African continent. These languages do not belong
 to a single family but are divided among several distinct linguistic
 stocks having no common origin. The principal linguistic families of
 Africa are now generally said to be Hamito-Semitic; Niger-Kordofanian
 (including Niger-Congo); Nilo-Saharan; and Khoisan, or Click. Two other
 stocks, Indo-European and Malayo-Polynesian, are also represented.

╓┌─────────────────────────────────────┌─────────────────────────────────────╖
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 Hamito-Semitic or Afroasiatic
 Languages (for Hamito-Semitic
 languages that were or are spoken in
 W Asia, see the Hamito-Semitic
 classification in the table "Major
 Languages of Europe, Asia and Some
 Islands of the Pacific and Indian
 Oceans" accompanying the LANGUAGE
 article)

 SEMITIC (spoken in North Africa and
 Ethiopia)

 Arabic                                Egyptian Arabic, Western Arabic

 Ethiopic                              Amharic (or Abyssinian), Geez
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Ethiopic                              Amharic (or Abyssinian), Geez
                                       (Classical Ethiopic),* Tigre,
                                       Tigrinya

 HAMITIC

 Egyptian (was spoken in Egypt)        Ancient Egyptian,* Coptic*

 Berber (spoken throughout North       Kabyle, Modern Berber, Rif, Siwi,
 Africa except Egypt)                  Tamachek, Tuareg, Zanaga

 Cushitic (spoken in Ethiopia and      Agau, Beja, Burji, Galla, Geleba,
 adjoining regions)                    Gimira, Janjaro, Kaffa, Konso, Maji,
                                       Saho-Afar, Sidamo, Somali

 CHAD (spoken near Lake Chad, central  Angas, Bolewa, Gwandara, Hausa, Hiji,
 Africa, and in W Africa)              Kuseri, Mandara, Ngala, Ron, Shirawa,
                                       Sokoro
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
                                      Sokoro

 Indo-European Languages (for a full
 presentation of the Indo-European
 language family, see table
 accompanying the LANGUAGE article)

 GERMANIC

 West Germanic

 Low German                            Afrikaans (spoken in the Republic of
                                       South Africa), English (spoken in
                                       the Republic of South Africa,
                                       Zimbabwe, and a number of other
                                       African countries)

 ITALIC
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
ITALIC

 Romance (spoken in a number of        French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish
 African countries)

 Khoisan or Click Languages (spoken
 in S and E Africa)

                                       Hatsa (or Hadzapi)   Sandawe

 SOUTH AFRICAN KHOISAN                 Bushman, Hottentot

 Malayo-Polynesian Languages (spoken
 in Madagascar; for a full
 presentation of the
 Malayo-Polynesian language family,
 see table accompanying the LANGUAGE
 article)
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
article)

 WESTERN                               Malagasy

 Niger-Kordofanian Languages

 NIGER-CONGO (spoken in S and central
 Africa and in W Africa below the
 Sahara)

 West Atlantic                         Dyola, Fulani, Gola, Kissi, Temne,
                                       Wolof

 Mande                                 Dyula, Malinke, Mende

 Gur (or Voltaic)                      Dagomba, Mamprusi, Mossi

 Kwa                                   Akan, Ashanti, Bini, Ewe, Ibo, Ijo,
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Kwa                                   Akan, Ashanti, Bini, Ewe, Ibo, Ijo,
                                       Nupe, Yoruba

 Benue-Congo

 Bantu                                 Bemba, Ganda, Kikuyu, Kongo, Lingala,
                                       Luba, Makua, Mbundu, Ruanda, Rundi,
                                       Shona, Sotho, Swahili, Thonga, Xhosa,
                                       Zulu

 Non-Bantu                             Efik, Jukun, Tiv

 Adamawa-Eastern                       Banda, Sango, Zande

 KORDOFANIAN (spoken in Sudan)

 Katla                                 Katla

 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

 Koalib                                Koalib

 Talodi                                Talodi

 Tegali                                Tegali

 Tumtum                                Tumtum

 Nilo-Saharan Languages

 SONGHAI (spoken in Mali)              Songhai

 SAHARAN (spoken near Lake Chad and    Daza, Kanuri, Teda, Zaghawa
 in the central Sahara)

 MABAN (spoken east of Lake Chad)      Maba

 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

 FURIAN (spoken in Sudan)              Fur

 KOMAN (spoken in Ethiopia and Sudan)  Ganza, Gule, Gumuz, Koma, Mao, Uduk

 CHARI-NILE (spoken in Sudan, Zaire,
 Uganda, Cameroon, Chad, Central
 African Republic, mainland Tanzania,
 and Ethiopia)

 Eastern Sudanic

 Nubian                                Birked, Midobi

 Nilotic                               Dinka, Masai, Nandi, Nuer, Shilluk,
                                       Suk, Turkana

 Central Sudanic                       Bongo-Bagirmi, Efe, Mangbetu
 MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES (*Asterisk
 indicates a dead language)
 ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Central Sudanic                       Bongo-Bagirmi, Efe, Mangbetu

                                       Berta, Kunama






   African Methodist Episcopal Church

 African Methodist Episcopal Church, a leading black American denomination
 of METHODISM, founded (1816) by Richard Allen. In 1988 the church
 reported a membership of 2,210,000.

   African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church

 African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, one of the largest African
 Methodist bodies, founded (1796) by black American Methodists. The church
 reported a U.S. membership of 1,195,173 in 1988.

   African music

 African music. Sub-Saharan African music, ranging from highly functional
 tribal music to stylized entertainment, is distinguished by striking
 polyrhythmic counterpoint, realized by handclaps, xylophones, and drums,
 and by pitch polyphony, performed by voice and on wind and string
 instruments. Diatonic scales are generally used. To what extent this
 music influenced JAZZ and the black American SPIRITUAL is debated.

   African National Congress

 African National Congress, the oldest non-White political organization in
 South Africa. It was founded in 1912 and was dedicated to reform through
 political action. After the violence at Sharpeville in 1960, the party
 was banned. In 1964, its leader, Nelson MANDELA, was sentenced to life in
 prison and the active leadership has lived in exile. During the late
 1970s, with the South African government's continued exclusion of black
 Africans from political participation, and with the renewal of youth-led
 militant protest, the party, though outlawed, became the popularly
 acknowledged vehicle of mass resistance. See also APARTHEID.

   African Negro literature

 African Negro literature. Although ancient African Muslim books in
 Swahili and Arabic exist, African literature before the 19th cent. is
 almost entirely an oral tradition. The continent's seemingly
 inexhaustible supply of myths, tales, legends, riddles, and proverbs
 continues to enrich African writing, which appears in native, especially
 Bantu, languages, and in French, English, and Portuguese. The African
 writer best known before the 1930s was the South African Thomas Mofolo,
 whose novels (in Sesotho) included Chaka (tr. 1931). French-African
 writers in Paris in the 1930s, led by the poet-statesman Leopold Sedar
 SENGHOR, espoused negritude, a rejection of French assimilationist
 policy. After World War II, writers focused on decaying colonialism and
 on the "new" Africa. National literatures began to appear, notably in
 Nigeria with the work of Chinua ACHEBE, Wole SOYINKA, Amos TUTUOLA, and
 others, and in Senegal and Cameroon. Major African writers in English
 include Ezekiel Mphahlele and Oswald Mtshali (South Africa), Bessie Head
 (Botswana), Ayi Kwei Armah (Ghana), and Ngugiwa Thiong'o and Okot p'Bitek
 (Kenya). Among leading writers in French are Mongo Beti (Cameroon);
 Camara Laye (Guinea); Birago Diop, Sembene Ousmane, and Mariama Ba
 (Senegal); David Diop (born in France), and Tchicaya U Tamsi (Congo). One
 of the best-known writers in Portuguese was Agostinho Neto (1922-79),
 president of Angola (1975-79).

   African violet

 African violet, common name for plants (mostly hybrids of Saintpaulia
 ionantha) of the GESNERIA family, grown chiefly as houseplants for their
 colorful flowers and fuzzy foliage.

   Afrikaans

 Afrikaans, one of the official languages of South Africa. It is a
 Germanic language of the Indo-European family. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES.

   Afro-Americans

 Afro-Americans: see BLACK AMERICANS.

   Ag

 Ag, chemical symbol of the element SILVER.

   Aga Khan III

 Aga Khan III, 1877-1957, Muslim leader. As hereditary ruler of the Muslim
 Ismaili sect he was born to great power and wealth. He supported the
 British in India, founded (1906) the All-India Muslim League, and
 represented India in various international bodies.

   Agamemnon

 Agamemnon, in Greek mythology, leader of the Greeks in the TROJAN WAR;
 brother of MENELAUS; son of ATREUS. His children by CLYTEMNESTRA were
 IPHIGENIA, ELECTRA, and ORESTES. To obtain favorable winds for the fleet
 against Troy, he sacrificed Iphigenia to ARTEMIS, incurring
 Clytemnestra's hatred. At Troy he quarreled with ACHILLES; that dispute
 forms a main theme of HOMER'S Iliad. He withdrew from the war and
 returned to Mycenae, where he was murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover,
 AEGISTHUS. To avenge his death, Orestes and Electra killed Aegisthus and
 their mother.

   Aga Muhammad Khan

 Aga Muhammad Khan or Agha Muhammad Khan,1742-97, shah of PERSIA
 (1796-97), founder of the Kajar, or Qajar, dynasty. In 1794 he killed the
 last ruler of the Zand dynasty and climaxed his campaign for the throne
 with a wholesale massacre. Hated by his subjects for his brutality, he
 was assassinated.

   agar

 agar, product consisting of the sugar galactose, obtained from some red
 ALGAE species (see SEAWEED). Dissolved in boiling water and cooled, agar
 becomes gelatinous; it is used as a culture medium (especially for
 BACTERIA), a laxative, and a food thickener.

   Agassiz, Louis

 Agassiz, Louis(Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz) , 1807-73, Swiss-American
 zoologist and geologist. In 1832 he became professor of natural history
 at the Univ. of Neuchatel, which he made a center for scientific study.
 He also examined glacial movements and deposits before coming to the U.S.
 in 1846, where he taught at Harvard (from 1848) and strongly influenced a
 generation of scientists. His writings include Research on Fossil Fish (5
 vol., 1833-44) and Contributions to the Natural History of the United
 States (4 vol., 1857-62).

   agate

 agate, extremely fine-grained variety of CHALCEDONY, banded in two or
 more colors. The banding occurs because agates are formed by the slow
 deposition of silica from solution into cavities of older rocks. Agates
 are found primarily in Brazil, Uruguay, India, Mexico, and the U.S. They
 are valued as semiprecious GEMS and are used in the manufacture of
 grinding equipment.

   agave

 agave: see AMARYLLIS.

   Agee, James

 Agee, James, 1909-55, American writer; b. Knoxville, Tenn. His works
 include Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941), a telling commentary on
 Depression-era tenant farmers, and A Death in the Family (1957;
 Pulitzer), a poetic novel. His movie criticism and scripts are collected
 in Agee on Film (2 vol., 1958-60).

   Agency for International Development

 Agency for International Development (AID), federal agency in the Dept.
 of State, created by Congress (1961) to consolidate U.S. nonmilitary
 foreign-aid programs to developing countries. AID offers technical,
 capital, and commodity assistance, giving priority to programs in
 agriculture, health, population planning, and education. Among its
 specific concerns are a long-term development plan for the Sahelian
 region of W Africa and the coordination of international disaster
 assistance. All of AID's programs stress maximum involvement by the
 people of developing nations.

   Agent Orange

 Agent Orange: see HERBICIDE.

   Aggeus

 Aggeus, Vulgate form of HAGGAI.

   agglutination

 agglutination, in linguistics: see INFLECTION.

   aggression

 aggression, a form of behavior characterized by verbal or physical
 attack. It may be either appropriate and self-protective or destructive.
 When aggression in adults is not a response to a clear threat, it is
 often considered a symptom of mental disorder. It may be directed
 outward, against others, as in explosive personality disorders, or
 inward, against oneself, leading to self-damaging acts. Some
 investigators of human behavior, such as Sigmund FREUD and Konrad LORENZ,
 have argued that aggressive behavior is innate, while others have
 proposed that it is learned.

   Agincourt

 Agincourt, village, N France, where in 1415 Henry V of England defeated
 an army of French knights in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR. The victory of
 Henry's longbow men made obsolete the warfare methods of the age of
 chivalry and enabled England to conquer much of France.

   aging

 aging: see GERONTOLOGY.

   Agnew, Spiro Theodore

 Agnew, Spiro Theodore, 1918-, 39th vice president of the U.S.; b.
 Baltimore, Md. Governor of Maryland (1967-69), he was vice president
 (1969-73) in the administration of Pres. Richard M. NIXON. A critic of
 liberals and VIETNAM WAR protestors, he resigned (Oct. 10, 1973) after
 evidence revealed political corruption during his years in Maryland
 politics. He pleaded no contest to the charge of evading income tax, was
 sentenced to probation, and fined. In 1981 a state court ordered Agnew to
 repay Maryland over $248,000, for bribes he took while in state office.

   Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef)

 Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef), 1888-1970, Israeli writer; b. Poland as Samuel
 Josef Czaczkes. Regarded as the greatest modern writer of fiction in
 Hebrew, he shared the 1966 Nobel Prize in literature. His novels and
 stories explore Jewish life; they include the novels The Bridal Canopy
 (1919) and The Day Before Yesterday (1945).

   agnosticism

 agnosticism, form of skepticism that holds that the existence of God
 cannot be logically proved or disproved. Agnosticism is not to be
 confused with ATHEISM, which denies the existence of God. KANT and
 Herbert SPENCER considered themselves agnostics.

   Agra

 Agra, former province, N central India. The presidency, or province, of
 Agra was created in 1833 by the British. In 1902 it became part of the
 United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. The city of Agra (1981 pop. 723,676),
 Uttar Pradesh state, is on the Jumna R. A district administrative
 headquarters, it produces shoes, glassware, carpets, and other goods.
 AKBAR founded Agra, and it was a MOGUL capital until 1658. The British
 annexed it in 1836. It is noted for its architecture, especially the TAJ
 MAHAL.

   agrarian laws

 agrarian laws, in ancient Rome, the laws regulating the disposition of
 public lands. Wealthy patricians tended to gain and hold large areas of
 public land, nominally as state tenants. The poorer classes' desire to
 gain public land gave rise to laws, beginning in the 5th cent. BC, that
 included the Licinian Rogations (367 BC; see LICINIUS, fl. 375 BC), and
 the Sempronian Law (133 BC; revived 123 BC). They were often violated or
 ignored. The reform movement ended with DOMITIAN'S edict (AD c.82)
 assigning title to public land in Italy to those who held it. This
 confirmed the long trend toward the dependency of the poor upon the
 powerful.

   agriculture

 agriculture, science of producing crops and livestock; it aims to
 increase production and protect the land from deterioration. Branches
 include AGRONOMY, HORTICULTURE, ENTOMOLOGY, animal husbandry, and
 DAIRYING. Historically, agriculture has been linked with social,
 economic, and political organization. Its development among early peoples
 encouraged stable settlements, and it later became associated with
 landholding, SLAVERY, and FEUDALISM. During the agricultural revolution
 (16th and 17th cent.), horticultural knowledge expanded, and crops and
 farming methods were exchanged internationally. The invention of machines
 such as McCormick's reaper (1831) and the general-purpose tractor
 (c.1924) led to mechanized, large-scale farming. Modern Western
 agriculture also depends on breeding programs; FERTILIZERS and
 PESTICIDES; food processing techniques, e.g., REFRIGERATION; efficient
 marketing; agricultural colleges and research centers; and, in many
 nations, government subsidies. See also GREEN REVOLUTION; ORGANIC
 FARMING.

   Agriculture, United States Department of

 Agriculture, United States Department of, federal executive department
 established (1862) to administer all federal programs related to food
 production and rural life. It assists farmers through its research,
 planning, and service agencies, and aids consumers by inspecting and
 grading many products; it also administers the Food Stamp Program and
 issues a wide range of publications on farming and horticulture. The
 Forest Service and the Soil Conservation Service are part of the
 department.

   agronomy

 agronomy, branch of AGRICULTURE concerned with soil management and with
 the breeding, physiology, and production of major field crops. It deals
 mainly with large-scale crops (e.g., cotton, soybeans, and wheat), while
 HORTICULTURE concerns fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals.

   Aguinaldo, Emilio

 Aguinaldo, Emilio, 1869-1964, Philippine leader. After leading (1896) a
 rebellion against Spanish rule, he cooperated with U.S. forces in the
 SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. He later rebelled (1899-1901) against U.S. rule.

   Ahab

 Ahab, d. c.853 BC, king of Israel (c.874-c.853 BC), son and successor of
 Omri. One of the greatest kings of the northern kingdom, he was killed in
 a war against Damascus. The biblical account of Ahab's reign (1 Kings
 16.28-22.40) is mostly concerned with its religious aspects, especially
 his marriage to Jezebel, a willful woman of Tyre who was attached to
 foreign cults and behavior. To the devout she represented evil, and she
 met her match in ELIJAH.

   Ahad Ha-Am

 Ahad Ha-Am [Heb.,=one of the people], 1856-1927, pseud. of Asher
 Ginsberg, Jewish thinker and Zionist leader; b. Russia. A critic of those
 who sought immediate settlement in Palestine, he saw Palestine as a
 "spiritual center" giving strength and direction to Jews in the Diaspora.
 Some of his essays appear in Selected Essays of Ahad Ha-Am (tr. 1912).

   Ahasuerus

 Ahasuerus: see ESTHER.

   Ahaz

 Ahaz, d. c.727 BC, king of Judah (c.731-727 BC). His reign marked the end
 of the real independence of Judah. In the BIBLE he is opposed by ISAIAH
 for his alliance with Assyria against Israel and Syria, and denounced for
 having heathen abominations and for using the Temple gold to pay tribute
 to Assyria. 2 Kings 16; 2 Chron. 28; Isa. 7.

   Ahmed

 Ahmed, sultans of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). Ahmed I, 1589-1617
 (r.1603-17), made peace (1606) with Austria, agreeing to Transylvania's
 independence and recognizing other European rulers as his equals for the
 first time. Ahmed II, 1642-95 (r.1691-95), saw the beginning of the
 Turks' forced retreat from Hungary. Ahmed III, 1673-1736 (r.1703-30),
 seized (1715) the Peloponnesus and the Ionian Isles (except Corfu) from
 Venice, but he lost important Balkan territories to Austria. He was
 overthrown by the JANISSARIES and died in prison.

   Ahmedabad

 Ahmedabad or Ahmadabad,city (1981 pop. 2,515,000), capital of Gujarat
 state, NW India, on the Sabarmati R. It is an industrial center noted for
 its cotton mills. Founded in 1412 by the Sultan Ahmad Shah, it fell to
 AKBAR in 1573 and prospered under the MOGULS, who controlled the city
 until 1758 when it came under the MAHRATTAS. It has many mosques, tombs,
 and temples. It came under British control in 1818.

   Ahvenanmaa Islands

 Ahvenanmaa Islands or Aland Islands,Finland, strategically important
 group of c.7,000 islands (less than 100 inhabited) at the entrance to the
 Gulf of Bothnia in the Baltic Sea. Originally colonized as part of
 Sweden, the islands were ceded (1809) to Russia, demilitarized (1856) by
 international agreement, and confirmed (1921) as part of Finland by the
 League of Nations. Finland renounced the League's guarantee of autonomy
 in 1951, but accorded rights of self-government to the islanders, who are
 largely Swedish.

   AIDS

 AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome,a fatal disease caused by a
 virus, known as HIV or human immunodeficiency virus that attacks blood
 cells. The disease suppresses the body's immune system, allowing other
 diseases, including cancer and pneumonia, to infect the patient. Spread
 through the exchange of body fluids, it has primarily affected male
 homosexuals, drug users, prostitutes, and hemophiliacs. See also AZT.

   Aiken, Conrad

 Aiken, Conrad, 1889-1973, American writer; b. Savannah, Ga. Often
 concerned with the quest for self-knowledge, he is best known for his
 richly musical verse, e.g., Selected Poems (1929, Pulitzer), A Letter
 from Li Po (1955). His other works include the novels Blue Voyage (1927)
 and Great Circle (1933), short stories, critical essays, and an
 autobiography (1952).

   ailanthus

 ailanthus, tree (genus Ailanthus) of the family Simarubaceae. Ailanthus
 is native to warm regions of Asia and Australia. Its wood is used in
 cabinetmaking and for charcoal manufacture. The bark and leaves are used
 medicinally, and the leaves provide food for silkworms. Females of a
 species called tree of heaven are cultivated for their attractive foliage
 and their resistance to smoke and soot; the flowers of the male plant,
 however, have a disagreeable odor.

   Ailey, Alvin

 Ailey, Alvin, 1931-, American modern dancer and choreographer; b. Rogers,
 Tex. He studied with Lester Horton. In the late 1950s, he formed his own
 company, Alvin Ailey's American Dance Theater, which is noted for its use
 of African motifs. His best-known works include Creation of the World
 (1954) and Revelations (1960).

   Ainu

 Ainu, aborigines of Japan, possibly of Caucasoid descent, having both
 European and Asian physical traits. Oriental invaders forced the Ainu to
 the N Japanese island of HOKKAIDO and to Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands,
 in the USSR. Their animistic religion centers on a bear cult. They live
 by hunting, fishing, farming, and selling crafts to tourists.

   air, law of the

 air, law of the, law connected with the use of the air (including radio
 and telegraph communication); more commonly, body of laws governing civil
 aviation. Spurred by the growth of air transport, the victorious nations
 of World War I, meeting in Paris in 1919, drew up the International
 Convention for Air Navigation, commonly called the Paris Convention; this
 agreement recognized national claims to air space and established rules
 for aircraft registration and operating safety. U.S. air laws are modeled
 on the Convention, and are administered by the FEDERAL AVIATION
 ADMINISTRATION. There are also many general conventions and bilateral
 agreements between nations. In 1944 a conference of 52 nations (not
 including the USSR) established the International Civil Aviation
 Organization (see UNITED NATIONS), to ensure the orderly growth of
 international aviation.

   air conditioning

 air conditioning, mechanical process for controlling the temperature,
 humidity, cleanliness, and circulation of air in buildings and rooms.
 Most air conditioners operate by ducting air across the colder,
 heat-absorbing side of a REFRIGERATION apparatus, and directing the
 cooled air back into the air-conditioned space. Small window conditioners
 vent heat outdoors. Larger systems use circulating water to remove heat.
 Air conditioning provides the heat, humidity, and contamination controls
 essential in the manufacture of such products as chemicals and
 pharmaceuticals.

   aircraft carrier

 aircraft carrier, ship designed to carry aircraft and to permit takeoff
 and landing of planes. Its distinctive features are a flat upper deck
 (flight deck) that functions as a takeoff and landing field, and a main
 deck (hangar deck) beneath the flight deck for storing and servicing the
 aircraft. The aircraft carrier remained an experimental and untested war
 vessel until WORLD WAR II, when the Japanese wreaked havoc on the
 British, Dutch, and U.S. navies with carrier-borne aircraft. By 1942 the
 aircraft carrier had replaced the battleship as the major unit in a
 modern fleet, and during the war it was indispensable in naval operations
 against a sea- or shore-based enemy, with two major battles (Coral Sea
 and Midway, 1942) being fought entirely by aircraft, and the opposing
 fleets never coming within gunshot range of each other. U.S. carriers of
 the Essex class spearheaded the island-hopping campaign in the Pacific. A
 new era in carrier design opened when the U.S. launched (1960) the
 nuclear-powered Enterprise, a vessel capable of lengthy voyages without
 refueling. A nuclear-powered successor, the Nimitz, was the largest ship
 afloat when launched in 1975.

   air-cushion vehicle

 air-cushion vehicle (ACV), ground-effect machine,or  Hovercraft, vehicle
 designed to travel at a short distance above ground or water, moving on a
 cushion of air that is held in a chamber beneath the vehicle. ACVs offer
 the potential for very high speeds. The maximum size of ACVs is now over
 100 tons; some of them travel at over 100 mph (160 km/hr).

   airedale terrier

 airedale terrier, largest of the TERRIER group; shoulder height, c.23 in.
 (58.4 cm); weight, 40-50 lb (18.1-22.7 kg). Its dense, wiry, close-lying
 coat is a mixture of tan, black, and grizzle. The breed was probably
 produced from crosses of the extinct black-and-tan terrier and the
 otterhound.

   airfoil

 airfoil, surface designed to develop a desired force by reaction with a
 fluid, especially air, that is flowing across the surface. Examples of
 airfoils are the fixed wings of AIRPLANES, which produce lift (see
 AERODYNAMICS), and control surfaces, such as ailerons, elevators,
 rudders, and flaps, that are manipulated to produce variable forces.
 Other airfoils include spoilers, propeller blades, and the blades
 utilized in turbojet engines.

   air force

 air force, national military organization for air warfare. Although
 balloons were used by French forces in Italy in 1859 and by the Union in
 the U.S. Civil War, air forces in the modern sense date from WORLD WAR I,
 when the offensive capabilities of the AIRPLANE were first demonstrated.
 Airplanes were first controlled by national armies and used for
 reconnaissance and support of ground forces, but as their effectiveness
 as tactical weapons increased, independent air forces were called for.
 Arguing that future wars would be won by strategic bombing of an enemy's
 industrial centers, military leaders, including Italian Gen. Giulio
 Douhet, U.S. Gen. William MITCHELL, and British Air Chief Marshal Sir
 Hugh Trenchard urged intensive development of air power. By WORLD WAR II,
 control of the air over both land and sea proved crucial in most major
 engagements, and the air force became a separate branch of the armed
 services in many countries. The first great air battle in history was the
 Battle of Britain (1940), in which the British Royal Air Force stood off
 the German Luftwaffe over England. The effect of air power in
 revolutionizing naval warfare was demonstrated in the 1941 surprise
 attack by Japanese aircraft, launched from AIRCRAFT CARRIERS, on PEARL
 HARBOR. Air forces on both sides engaged in strategic and tactical
 bombing, attacks on naval and merchant ships, transportation of personnel
 and cargo, mining of harbors and shipping lanes, antisubmarine patrols,
 and photo reconnaissance, as well as support of ground, naval, and
 amphibious operations. After World War II, the airplane was superseded by
 the missile as a strategic weapon, but with helicopters joining the
 traditional fighter planes, bombers, and cargo planes of the modern air
 force, air power continued to be of primary importance in tactical
 operations, particularly in "limited" wars such as those in Southeast
 Asia and the Middle East. It is also argued that air forces function as
 deterrents to a major war by maintaining ready second-strike retaliatory
 capabilities.

   air navigation

 air navigation, science and technology of determining the position of an
 aircraft with respect to the surface of the earth and accurately
 maintaining a desired course (see navigation). The two most common
 methods are governed by visual flight regulations (VFR) and instrument
 flight regulations (IFR). Small airborne computer systems can now give
 the pilot the plane's position and can carry out dead reckoning by
 monitoring all course and speed changes. The automatic pilot also
 interprets data on direction, speed, and altitude to maintain an aircraft
 in straight, level flight. For landing, the pilot is often guided by
 radio communication from a controller observing the plane via
 ground-based radar. Some systems actually land the plane automatically,
 although the pilot always has the option of overriding manually.

   airplane, aeroplane

 airplane, aeroplane, or aircraft,heavier-than-air vehicle, mechanically
 driven and fitted with fixed wings that support it in flight through the
 dynamic action of the air. On Dec. 17, 1903, Americans Orville and Wilbur
 WRIGHT flew the first airplane near Kitty Hawk, N.C. The machine was a
 biplane with two propellers chain-driven by a gasoline motor. Modern
 airplanes are monoplanes (airplanes with one set of wings). Airplanes may
 further be classified as driven by propeller, JET PROPULSION, or ROCKET.
 The airplane has six main parts: fuselage, wings, stabilizer (or tail
 plane), rudder, one or more engines, and landing gear. The fuselage is
 the main body, usually streamlined in form. The wings are the main
 supporting surfaces. The airplane's lift, or force supporting it in
 flight, is basically the result of the direct action of air against the
 surfaces of the wings (see AERODYNAMICS). With the use of jet engines and
 the resulting higher speeds, airplanes have become less dependent on
 large values of lift from the wings. Consequently wings have been
 shortened and swept back so as to produce less drag, especially at
 supersonic speeds. At the trailing edge of the wings are attached movable
 surfaces, called ailerons (see AIRFOIL) that are used to gain lateral
 control and to turn the plane. Directional stability is provided by the
 tail fin, a fixed vertical airfoil at the rear of the airplane. The
 stabilizer is a fixed horizontal airfoil at the rear of the airplane used
 to suppress undesired pitching motion. The elevators, which are movable
 auxiliary surfaces attached to the stabilizers, are used to produce
 controlled pitching. The rudder, generally at the rear of the tail fin,
 is a movable auxiliary airfoil that gives the craft a yawing movement in
 normal flight. The landing gear is the understructure that supports the
 weight of the craft when on the ground or on the water and that reduces
 the shock on landing. See AVIATION; SEAPLANE; SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING
 AIRCRAFT; VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING AIRCRAFT.

   air plant

 air plant: see EPIPHYTE.

   air pollution

 air pollution: see POLLUTION.

   airship

 airship or dirigible,aircraft consisting of a cigar-shaped balloon that
 carries a propulsion system (propellers), a steering mechanism, and
 accomodations for passengers, crew, and cargo. The balloon section is
 filled with a lighter-than-air gas-either helium, which is nonflammable,
 or hydrogen-to give the airship its lift. The balloon maintains its form
 by the internal gas pressure in the nonrigid (blimp) and semirigid types
 of airships; the latter in addition has a rigid keel. The rigid type
 maintains its form by having a metal framework that holds its shape
 regardless of the internal gas pressure; inside the hull are a number of
 small gas-filled balloons. The first successful power-driven airship was
 built by the French inventor Henri Giffard in 1852. Count Ferdinand von
 ZEPPELIN of Germany invented the first rigid airship, which was completed
 in 1900. The German airship Hindenburg burned at its mooring mast at
 Lakehurst, N.J., in 1937. No rigid airship survived World War II.

   Aix-la-Chapelle

 Aix-la-Chapelle: see AACHEN, West Germany.

   Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of

 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of: see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.

   Ajax

 Ajax, in Greek mythology.1The Telamonian Ajax, hero of the TROJAN WAR. In
 the Iliad he is a huge man, slow of thought and speech, but very
 courageous. He and ODYSSEUS rescued the corpse of ACHILLES. When Odysseus
 was awarded Achilles' armor the disappointed Ajax went mad and committed
 suicide.2The Locrian Ajax, who violated CASSANDRA in the sack of Troy.
 Shipwrecked by ATHENA, he was saved by POSEIDON, but struck dead by
 lightning for his defiance.

   Akbar

 Akbar, 1542-1605, Mogul emperor of INDIA (1556-1605). An outstanding
 general, Akbar added AFGHANISTAN, Baluchistan, and N India to his
 domains. This reign was marked by administrative reform, religious
 toleration, and the flowering of art and literature.

   Akhenaton

 Akhenaton: see IKHNATON.

   Akhmatova, Anna

 Akhmatova, Anna, pseud. of Anna Andreyevna Gorenko, 1889-1966, Russian
 poet of the ACMEIST school. Her brief, highly emotional lyrics are simply
 and musically written. Among her most important volumes are The Rosary
 (1914) and The Course of Time (1966).

   Akiba ben Joseph

 Akiba ben Joseph, AD c.50-c.135, Palestinian rabbi. He compiled a
 collection of Hebrew Oral Law, Mishna of Rabbi Akiba (see MISHNA). After
 siding with BAR KOKBA in his revolt against Rome, Akiba was imprisoned
 and, it is said, tortured to death by the Romans.

   Akihito

 Akihito, 1933-, Japanese emperor designate, son of HIROHITO. Following
 Hirohito's death (1989), he assumed the duties of emperor. He will
 officially assume his father's title in Nov., 1990. He was the first
 member of the royal family to marry (1959) a commoner, Michiko Shodar.

   Akkad

 Akkad, northern part of later BABYLONIA, in Mesopotamia; the southern
 part was SUMER. In the 4th millennium BC a Semitic city-state appeared,
 and under Sargon (c.2340 BC) Akkad became an imperial power. Akkad and
 Sumer were united as Babylonia by HAMMURABI. The name Akkad also appears
 as Accad.

   Akkadian

 Akkadian, language belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the
 Hamito-Semitic family of languages. Also called Assyro-Babylonian,
 Akkadian was current in ancient MESOPOTAMIA (now IRAQ) from about 3000 BC
 until the time of Christ. See LANGUAGE.

   Akron

 Akron, city (1986 est. pop. 222,060), seat of Summit co., NE Ohio, on the
 Little Cuyahoga R. and the Ohio and Erie Canal; settled 1825; inc. as a
 city 1865. It is a port of entry and an important industrial and
 transportation center. From the opening of the first plant in 1870, Akron
 became the rubber capital of the U.S.; corporate and research
 headquarters of the major producers are located there. Metalworking,
 aerospace industries, and polymer research are important. Akron's Art
 Institute is well known.

   Akte

 Akte: see ATHOS.

   Akutagawa Ryunosuke

 Akutagawa Ryunosuke, 1892-1927, Japanese author. One of Japan's finest
 short-story writers, he derived many of his tales from historical
 Japanese sources, but told them with psychological insights in an
 individualistic style. "Rashomon" (1915) and "In a Grove" (1921) were
 made into the classic 1950 film Rashomon, directed by KUROSAWA AKIRA.

   al-

 al-. For Arabic names beginning thus, see the second part of the name,
 e.g., SADAT, ANWAR AL-.

   Al

 Al, chemical symbol of the element ALUMINUM.

   Alabama

 Alabama, state in the SE U.S.; bordered by Tennessee (N), Georgia (E),
 Florida and the Gulf of Mexico (S), and Mississippi (W).

 Area, 51,609 sq mi (133,677 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 4,052,000, a 4.1%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Montgomery. Statehood, Dec. 14, 1819
 (22d state). Highest pt., Cheaha Mt., 2,407 ft (734 m); lowest pt., sea
 level. Nickname, Heart of Dixie. Motto, We Dare Defend Our Rights. State
 bird, yellowhammer. State flower, camellia. State tree, Southern
 (longleaf) pine. Abbr., Ala.; AL.

 Land and People Except for the southern edge of the APPALACHIAN
 MOUNTAINS, in the northeast, Alabama consists mostly of rolling plains
 drained by the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers. The fertile Black Belt is
 located in central Alabama. The climate is subtropical and humid. More
 than 60% of the population lives in metropolitan areas, principally in
 BIRMINGHAM, a steel center; MOBILE, a major U.S. port; MONTGOMERY, the
 capital; and HUNTSVILLE, an aerospace center.

 Economy Although cotton is still grown, it has been supplanted in revenue
 earned by cattle and poultry, soybeans, and peanuts. Dams on the
 TENNESSEE R., in the north, provide power for the state's industries,
 whose leading products are iron and steel, paper and wood products,
 chemicals, and processed foods. Oil is produced in the south, and fishing
 is important along the coast. Lumbering is a major industry throughout
 Alabama. The population (1984) was 73% white and 27% black and other
 groups.

 Government According to the constitution of 1901, the government is
 headed by a governor elected to a four-year term. The legislature is
 composed of a 35-member senate and 105-member house of representatives
 elected to four-year terms. Alabama sends seven representatives and two
 senators to the U.S. Congress and has nine electoral votes.

 History When Spanish explorers, including Hernando DE SOTO, visited the
 region during the 16th cent., they found the CREEK, CHEROKEE, CHOCTAW,
 and CHICKASAW tribes. In 1702 the French established the first white
 settlement. Andrew JACKSON defeated (1814) the Creek Confederacy at
 Horseshoe Bend, ushering in a period of rapid settlement. Subsequently,
 huge plantations utilizing slave labor were established to cultivate
 cotton. Alabama seceded from the Union in 1861. Following the CIVIL WAR
 the defeated state was placed under military rule; it was readmitted to
 the Union in 1868. Alabama slowly recovered from the war and the
 corruption of RECONSTRUCTION, a process made easier by the beginning of
 industrialization. Agricultural diversification began after the boll
 weevil infested the cotton fields during the early 20th cent. The 1954
 Supreme Court decision outlawing school segregation ushered in a painful
 period of INTEGRATION and the growth of the CIVIL RIGHTS movement.
 Despite opposition by Gov. George WALLACE and a few acts of racial
 violence in the state, most public schools in Alabama had been
 successfully desegregated by the early 1970s. In the late 1970s and early
 1980s public attention shifted to assuring the state's economic growth by
 encouraging further diversification of manufacturing industries.

   Alabama claims

 Alabama claims, claims by the U.S. against Great Britain after the U.S.
 CIVIL WAR for damage to merchant ships caused by British-built
 Confederate cruisers. A tribunal (1871-72) at Geneva awarded the U.S.
 $15.5 million for damage caused by the Confederate ships Alabama,
 Florida, and Shenandoah.

   alabaster

 alabaster, fine-grained, translucent variety of the mineral GYPSUM, pure
 white or streaked with reddish brown. Its softness makes it easily carved
 but also easily broken, soiled, and weathered. Quarried in England and
 Italy, it is used to make statuary and other decorative objects. The
 Oriental alabaster of ancient Egyptian and Roman tombs is actually
 MARBLE, a calcium carbonate, whereas gypsum is a calcium sulfate.

   Alain-Fournier

 Alain-Fournier, 1886-1914, French novelist; b. Henri Alban Fournier. His
 single full-length work, The Wanderer (1913), about a youthful search for
 the ideal, is a delicate blend of symbolism and realism.

   Alamein, El

 Alamein, El,or Al Alamayn, town, N Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea.
 During WORLD WAR II it was the site of a decisive British victory (1942)
 against the Germans. The victory saved Egypt for the Allies and led to
 the defeat (1943) of the Axis powers in North Africa.

   Alamo, the

 Alamo, the [Span.,=cottonwood], chapel-fort in San Antonio, Tex., built
 c.1744. It was held by Davy CROCKETT, Jim Bowie, W. TRAVIS, and about 180
 other Texans against a siege by an army of several thousand Mexicans
 under Gen. SANTA ANNA (Feb. 24-Mar. 6, 1836) during the Texas Revolution.
 While the defenders died, their resistance rallied others who defeated
 the Mexicans six weeks later, crying "Remember the Alamo!"

   Aland Islands

 Aland Islands: see AHVENANMAA ISLANDS.

   Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de

 Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de, 1833-91, Spanish writer and diplomat. His
 novels, witty and often realistic, include The Three-Cornered Hat (1874),
 on which FALLA based a ballet, and Captain Venom (1881).

   Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de

 Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de, 1581?-1639, Spanish dramatic poet; b.
 Mexico. His brilliant and lively comedies (2 vol., 1628-34) make him a
 major literary figure of Spain's GOLDEN AGE. The most famous, The
 Suspicious Truth, was the model for The Liar by CORNEILLE.

   Alaric I

 Alaric I, c.370-410, Visigothic king. After the death of Roman Emperor
 THEODOSIUS I he ravaged the Balkans until stopped by STILICHO, invaded
 Italy, and sacked Rome (410).

   Alas, Leopoldo

 Alas, Leopoldo, pseud. Clarin, 1852-1901, Spanish writer. He was a
 professor of law at the Univ. of Oviedo. His masterpiece is the
 naturalistic novel The Regent's Wife (1885), a detailed analysis of
 provincial life.

   Alaska

 Alaska, least populous but largest state in area of the U.S., occupying
 the northwest extremity of the North American continent, separated from
 the coterminous U.S. by NW Canada. It is bordered by British Columbia and
 Yukon Territory (E), the Pacific Ocean (S), the Bering Sea (W), and the
 Arctic Ocean (N).

 Area, 586,412 sq mi (1,518,800 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 534,000, a 32.8%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Juneau. Statehood, Jan. 3, 1959 (49th
 state). Highest pt., Mt. McKinley, 20,320 ft (6,198 m); lowest pt., sea
 level. Motto, North to the Future. State bird, willow ptarmigan. State
 flower, forget-me-not. State tree,  Sitka spruce. Abbr., AK.

 Land and People Along the heavily indented coast are two peninsulas, the
 Seward Peninsula to the west, and, farther south, the Alaska Peninsula,
 from which the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS extend. The interior is dominated by
 rugged mountains, including the Alaska Range, where Denali, or Mount
 MCKINLEY (20,320 ft/6,198 m), the highest point in North America, is
 located. Many tourists are attracted by the state's dramatic scenery,
 some of the most spectacular located in its eight NATIONAL PARKS. Winters
 in the interiors are very cold; summers are brief but hot. The COAST
 RANGES dominate the more temperate panhandle region, in the southeast,
 where the Inside Passage traverses the Alexander Archipelago, located
 just offshore. Principal lowlands are in the central region-drained by
 the YUKON R.-and, in the far north, the North Slope, along the Arctic
 coast. The largest city is ANCHORAGE, followed by FAIRBANKS and JUNEAU;
 about 45% of the population lives in metropolitan areas. In 1984 the
 population, the fastest growing in the U.S., was 79% white, 21% other
 races, mostly ESKIMO and ALEUTS and some blacks.

 Economy The economy has been transformed since the discovery (1968) of
 North Slope oil and natural gas deposits, and their exploitation
 dominates the economy. The Alaska pipeline (built 1974-77) carries oil
 from PRUDHOE BAY to the port of Valdez, in the south. Coal, platinum,
 copper, gold, and uranium are among other minerals mined. Alaska has the
 largest fishing industry in the U.S.; the small manufacturing sector is
 dominated by the processing of fish and lumber. Fur export is important.
 Because of the harsh climate and terrain there is little agriculture.

 Government The constitution (adopted 1956) provides for a governor
 elected to a four-year term. The state legislature is composed of a
 senate whose 20 members serve four-year terms and a house whose 40
 members serve two-year terms. Alaska sends two senators and one
 representative to the U.S. Congress and has three electoral votes.

 History The first white settlers were Russians who crossed the BERING
 STRAIT in search of furs and established (1784) the first permanent
 settlement on Kodiak Island. In 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the U.S. for
 $7.2 million. The first influx of Americans came in the gold rush of the
 1890s and the 1900s. During WORLD WAR II the Japanese occupied (1942)
 Attu and Kiska, in the Aleutian Islands, but were driven out (1943) by
 U.S. forces. The war contributed to Alaska's economic development through
 construction of the Alaska highway and of defense installations. The
 state's greatest economic boom occurred after the extensive oil
 discoveries of 1968, and huge off-shore deposits found in 1980 promised
 future development. Against strong opposition by state residents favoring
 private control of resources, the U.S. Congress approved (1980) the
 Alaska lands bill, which designated more than 104 million acres (42
 million hectares) of national parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness
 areas. In 1989 an oil tanker bringing oil from PRUDHOE BAY spilled
 10-million gallons of oil near the port of Valdez causing severe economic
 and environmental damage.

   Alaskan malamute

 Alaskan malamute, strong, compact WORKING DOG; shoulder height, c.23 in.
 (58.2 cm); weight, 70-85 lb (31.75-38.5 kg). Its coarse coat, composed of
 oily, woolly underhairs and a thick cover coat, may be any shade of gray
 or black, with white markings. The malamute has been raised for centuries
 as a sled dog.

   Alba

 Albaor Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duque de , 1507?-82, Spanish
 governor general and regent of the NETHERLANDS (1567-73). A ruthless
 absolutist, he crushed the rebellious provinces, executing some 18,000
 Netherlanders, and defeated (1572) the invading army of WILLIAM THE
 SILENT. Recalled to Spain, he completed the conquest (1580) of PORTUGAL
 by capturing Lisbon.

   albacore

 albacore: see TUNA.

   Albania

 Albania, Albanian Shqipnija or Shqiperia, officially People's Socialist
 Republic of Albania, republic (1982 pop. 2,786,000), 11,101 sq mi (28,752
 sq km), SE Europe, on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Peninsula;
 bordered by Yugoslavia (N and E) and Greece (S). TIRANE is the capital.
 Except for the fertile ADRIATIC coast, Albania is mountainous, rising to
 9,066 ft (2,763 m) at Mt. Korab. Albania is rich in mineral resources,
 notably chromium, coal, copper, oil, and nickel, and mining is the
 largest source of income. Only one tenth of the land is cultivated, and
 half of that is in vineyards and olive groves; grains, cotton, tobacco,
 and livestock are also important. The leading industries include food
 processing, textiles, and the manufacture of petroleum products,
 footwear, and building materials. Industry, mines, and agriculture are
 nationalized. About 97% of the population is ethnic Albanian. Albania is
 officially an atheist country, but the population is predominantly
 Muslim, with Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox minorities.

 History Albania was settled in ancient times by Illyrians and Thracians;
 the area then comprised parts of ILLYRIA and EPIRUS. The Greeks colonized
 the coast, and the entire region came under Roman and Byzantine rule.
 SCANDERBEG (d. 1468), Albania's national hero, delayed but did not stop
 the OTTOMAN EMPIRE'S conquest of the area, which was complete by 1478.
 More than four centuries of Turkish Islamic rule followed, and national
 aspirations were suppressed until, during the First BALKAN WAR, Albania
 proclaimed independence (1912). In 1913 an international commission
 assigned large areas claimed by Albania to MONTENEGRO, SERBIA, and
 GREECE. The scene of political chaos and a battleground for contending
 European and Balkan forces after WORLD WAR I, the country came (1925)
 under the rule of Ahmed Zogu, who proclaimed himself (1928) King ZOG.
 Italy invaded Albania in 1939, setting up a puppet government that fought
 with the Axis powers in WORLD WAR II. After 1944, power passed to
 antifascist guerrilla leader Enver HOXHA, a Communist, who proclaimed a
 republic in 1946. Opposed to de-Stalinization, Albania broke with the
 USSR in 1961. It became a close ally of China, but that friendship ended
 in 1978. Hoxhe died in 1985 and was succeeded by Ramiz Alia.

   Albany, Alexander Stuart

 Albany, Alexander Stuart or Stewart, duke of:see STUART, ALEXANDER, DUKE
 OF ALBANY.

   Albany

 Albany, city (1986 est. pop. 97,020), state capital and seat of Albany
 co., E N.Y., on the Hudson R.; settled 1624, inc. 1686. A deepwater port
 and trading center for a farm and resort area, it has diversified
 manufactures, including textiles, paper, chemicals, and automotive parts.
 The Dutch built (1613) a fur trading post there; the English took control
 and named the city in 1664. State capital from 1797, it grew with the
 opening of the Erie and Champlain canals (1820s). The state capitol
 (1867-98) and many old houses and new state office buildings are
 prominent in the city, which was redeveloped in the 1960s.

   Albany Congress

 Albany Congress, 1754, a meeting of British colonial representatives in
 Albany, N.Y. Because of the impending war with France, a treaty was made
 between seven British colonies and the Iroquois Indians. Benjamin
 FRANKLIN'S Plan of Union for the colonies was also approved, but was
 later rejected by the colonial legislatures and by the crown.

   Albany Regency

 Albany Regency, informal group of Democratic party leaders in New York
 state after 1820. Developed by Martin VAN BUREN, the Regency was among
 the first effective political machines. It used the SPOILS SYSTEM and
 maintained strict party discipline. After 1842 it split into factions
 (BARNBURNERS and HUNKERS) over internal improvements and slavery.

   albatross

 albatross, sea BIRD (family Diomedeidae) with tapered wings that enable
 it to excel at gliding and flying. Most are found in the South Pacific,
 although a few, e.g., the black-footed albatross (Diomedea nigripes),
 frequent the north Pacific. The wandering albatross (D. exulans), with a
 wingspan of 10 to 12 ft (305 to 366 cm), was made famous by COLERIDGE'S
 Rime of the Ancient Mariner.

   Albee, Edward

 Albee, Edward, 1928-, American playwright; b. Washington, D.C. His
 clever, often satiric plays include the one-act The Zoo Story (1959), and
 the full-length Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962), widely regarded
 as his finest work; A Delicate Balance (1967; Pulitzer); and Seascape
 (1975; Pulitzer).

   Albemarle, George Monck

 Albemarle, George Monck or Monk,1st duke of:see  MONCK, George.

   Albeniz, Isaac

 Albeniz, Isaac, 1860-1909, Spanish pianist and composer. Influenced by
 LISZT and DEBUSSY, he is best remembered for his later piano works,
 especially Iberia (1906-9), which combine Spanish folk material with
 brilliant pianistic idiom.

   Alberdi, Juan Bautista

 Alberdi, Juan Bautista, 1810-84, Argentine political philosopher and
 diplomat. Suggestions in his Bases and Starting Points for the Political
 Organization of the Argentine Republic (1852) were incorporated into the
 constitution of 1853. He served on several diplomatic missions.

   Albers, Josef

 Albers, Josef, 1888-1976, German-American artist, designer, and teacher;
 b. Germany. After working at the BAUHAUS (1920-23), he came to the U.S.
 As director of the Yale School of Art (1950-58), he was a major figure in
 American art education. He is best-known for a series of paintings,
 Homage to the Square, which portrays colors in quasi-concentric squares.

   Albert I

 Albert I, 1875-1934, king of the Belgians (1909-34), nephew and successor
 of LEOPOLD II. During WORLD WAR I he led his country in resisting the
 German invasion (1914). He also improved social conditions in Belgium and
 the Belgian CONGO. His son, LEOPOLD III, succeeded him.

   Albert

 Albert, 1819-61, prince consort of VICTORIA of Great Britain; son of
 Ernest I, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. His initial unpopularity as an alien
 prince was modified by his devotion to the queen and his concern with
 public affairs, particularly diplomacy. His insistence on a moderate
 approach to the TRENT AFFAIR may have avoided war with the U.S.

   Alberta

 Alberta, province (1986 pop. 2,365,825), 255,284 sq mi (661,185 sq km), W
 Canada, bordered by Saskatchewan (E), the Northwest Territories (N),
 British Columbia (W), and Montana (S). Alberta is a high plateau, rising
 in the west to the ROCKY MOUNTAINS and the CONTINENTAL DIVIDE. Although
 it is one of the Prairie Provinces, only about 25% of Alberta's area,
 chiefly in the south, is treeless. Central Alberta is partly wooded, and
 the north is principally timberland. The province is drained by the
 Athabasca, the Saskatchewan, the Red Deer, and other rivers. The
 population is centered in S and central Alberta, and the principal cities
 are EDMONTON, the capital, and CALGARY. Until recently, agriculture was
 Alberta's basic industry. Grain, especially wheat, is the dominant crop,
 and livestock raising, dairying, lumbering, and manufacturing are also
 important. Since the early 1960s, however, mineral exploitation has been
 the major industry. Alberta is believed to have some of the richest oil
 deposits in the world-notably the tar beds of the Athabasca River-and has
 abundant natural gas. Its coal beds contain about one half of Canada's
 known reserves. Tourists are attracted to the province's outstanding
 national parks-Jasper, Banff, Waterton Lakes, and Wood Buffalo.

 History Alberta was part of the territory granted (1670) to the HUDSON'S
 BAY COMPANY and was dominated by the fur trade. In 1870 the company sold
 the area to the newly created confederation of Canada and in 1872 the
 mounted police established Fort Macleod in S Alberta. In 1882 the region
 became an administrative division, and the Canadian Pacific Railway
 opened the area to settlement. Alberta became a province in 1905. Oil was
 discovered in 1914, but only when a find was made near Edmonton in 1947
 did Alberta's economy begin to change. Politically, Albertans turned to
 William ABERHART and the SOCIAL CREDIT party in 1935. In 1971 the
 Progressive Conservatives gained control of the Provincial Assembly.
 Alberta sends 6 senators (appointed) and 21 representatives (elected) to
 the national parliament.

   Alberti, Leone Battista

 Alberti, Leone Battista, 1404-72, Italian architect, musician, painter,
 and humanist. His treatise De re aedificatoria (c.1450), though dependent
 on the Roman architect Vitruvius, was the first modern work on
 architecture, and influenced the development of RENAISSANCE architectural
 style. Among the notable buildings erected from his designs is the
 Palazzo Rucellai, Florence. Alberti's treatises on painting (1436) and
 sculpture (c.1464) were also influential.

   Albertus Magnus, Saint

 Albertus Magnus, Saint, or Saint Albert the Great,b. 1193 or 1206, d.
 1280, scholastic philosopher, Doctor of the Church, called the Universal
 Doctor. A DOMINICAN, he attempted in his Summa theologiae to reconcile
 Aristotelianism with Christian thought. St. THOMAS AQUINAS was his pupil.
 Albertus was also deeply interested in natural science and was the first
 to produce arsenic in a free form. Feast: Nov. 15. See also ARISTOTLE;
 SCHOLASTICISM.

   Albigenses

 Albigenses, religious sect of S France (12th-13th cent.), whose beliefs
 were similar in many ways to MANICHAEISM. They were Christian heretics
 who believed in the coexistence of good and evil. They held that matter
 was evil and that Jesus only seemed to have a body. Ascetic and
 enthusiastic, they persisted despite papal opposition. The murder of a
 papal legate led INNOCENT III to declare (1208) the Albigensian Crusade,
 which was soon redirected toward political ends. In 1233 the INQUISITION
 was formed to halt Albigensianism, and slowly over 100 years the movement
 died.

   albino

 albino, animal or plant lacking normal pigmentation. The albino body
 covering (skin, hair, and feathers) and eyes lack pigment. In humans and
 other animals albinism is inherited as a recessive trait. Breeding has
 established albino races in some domestic animals.

   Albinus

 Albinus: see ALCUIN.

   albumin

 albumin, member of a class of water-soluble, heat-coagulating PROTEINS.
 Albumins are widely distributed in plant and animal tissues, e.g.,
 ovalbumin of egg, lactalbumin of milk, and leucosin of wheat. Some
 contain carbohydrates. Normally constituting about 55% of the plasma
 proteins, albumins adhere chemically to various substances in the blood,
 e.g., AMINO ACIDS, and thus play a role in their transport. Albumins and
 other blood proteins aid in regulating the distribution of water in the
 body. Albumins are also used in textile printing, the fixation of dyes,
 sugar refining, and other important processes.

   Albuquerque, Afonso de

 Albuquerque, Afonso de, 1453-1515, Portuguese admiral, founder of the
 Portuguese empire in the East. He captured Goa (1510), Malacca (1511),
 and Hormuz (1513), built a series of forts in INDIA, and established
 shipbuilding and other industries. Control of the spice trade and of
 trade routes were nearly accomplished during his tenure.

   Albuquerque

 Albuquerque, city (1986 est. pop. 366,750), seat of Bernalillo co., W
 central N. Mex., on the upper Rio Grande; inc. 1890. It is the largest
 city in the state, and the industrial and commercial center of a timber
 and farm area. Its diverse industries include electronics, and nuclear
 research and weapons development conducted by federal agencies. The
 city's downtown was the site of a 1980s urban renewal project.
 Albuquerque is also noted as a health resort and medical center. The city
 was founded by the Spanish in 1706 and grew with the arrival (1880) of
 the railroad.

   Alcaeus

 Alcaeus, d. c.580 BC, Greek poet, early personal lyric writer.
 Traditionally an associate of SAPPHO, he wrote both light and political
 verse. The Alcaic strophe was admired and adapted by HORACE.

   Alcala Zamora, Niceto

 Alcala Zamora, Niceto, 1877-1949, president of Spain (1931-36). He helped
 to lead the republican revolution of 1931 and became the first president
 of the second Spanish republic. He was deposed (1936) by the CORTES on a
 Socialist motion and went into exile.

   alcalde

 alcalde, Spanish title designating a town mayor who also acts as justice
 of the peace. It originated in the 11th cent. to designate a judge with
 administrative functions. In the Spanish colonies it was used for a
 provincial administrator who presided over the Cabildo or municipal
 council.

   Alcatraz

 Alcatraz, island in San Francisco Bay, W Calif. Discovered (1769) and
 fortified by the Spanish, it was (1859-1933) the site of a U.S. military
 prison and then (1933-63) federal maximum security prison, called "The
 Rock." It became part of the Golden Gate National Recreational Area in
 1972.

   Alcestis

 Alcestis, in Greek mythology, the devoted wife of a Thessalian king,
 Admetus. She willingly died in his place, to ensure his immortality. In
 some myths HERCULES rescued her from the dead; in others PERSEPHONE
 reunited husband and wife. EURIPIDES dramatized the legend in his
 Alcestis.

   alchemy

 alchemy, ancient art or pseudoscience that sought to turn base metals
 into gold or silver through the agency of a secret substance known by
 various names (philosopher's stone, elixir, grand magistry). Emerging in
 China and Egypt by the 3d cent. BC, alchemy was cloaked in mysticism and
 allegory, and in time degenerated into superstition. Revived (8th cent.)
 in Alexandria by the Arabs, it reached W Europe by the Middle Ages. In
 the 15th-17th cent. experimentation again fell into disrepute, but the
 base had been laid for modern CHEMISTRY, which has in fact accomplished
 the transmutation of elements.

   Alcibiades

 Alcibiades, c.450-404 BC, Athenian statesman and general. A leader
 against SPARTA in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR, he was defeated at Mantinea (418
 BC). He promoted the Sicilian campaign (415) but was accused (probably
 falsely) of sacrilege. Called home for trial, he fled to Sparta, where he
 aided Agis I, and then to Persia (413). Recalled to ATHENS, he won a
 brilliant naval victory (410) and recovered Byzantium (408). Blamed
 unjustly for the defeat of the Athenian fleet at Notium (c.406), he was
 sent into exile, and LYSANDER had him murdered.

   Alcindor, Lew

 Alcindor, Lew: see ABDUL-JABBAR, KAREEM.

   alcohol

 alcohol, any of a class of organic compounds with the general formula
 R-OH, where R is an alkyl group made up of carbon and hydrogen and -OH is
 one or more hydroxyl groups, each made up of one atom of oxygen and one
 of hydrogen. Although the term alcohol ordinarily refers to ETHANOL, the
 alcohol in alcoholic beverages, the class of alcohols also includes
 METHANOL and the amyl, butyl, and propyl alcohols, all with one hydroxyl
 group; the glycols, with two hydroxyl groups; and glycerol, with three.
 Many of the characteristic properties and reactions of alcohols are due
 to the polarity, or unequal distribution, of electric charges in the
 C-O-H portion of the molecule.

   Alcoholics Anonymous

 Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), worldwide organization dedicated to the curing
 of alcoholics; est. 1935 by two former alcoholics. The organization,
 which functions through local groups, is based on a philosophy of life
 that has enabled countless numbers of people to recover from alcoholism.
 In 1988 there were 1 million members worldwide. Al-Anon, for spouses,
 relatives, and friends of alcoholics, and Al-Ateen, for their adolescent
 children, function similarly.

   alcoholism

 alcoholism, chronic illness characterized by the habitual consumption of
 alcohol to a degree that interferes with physical or mental health, or
 with normal social or occupational behavior. A widespread health problem,
 it produces both physical and psychological addiction (see DRUG ADDICTION
 AND DRUG ABUSE). Alcohol is a central nervous system DEPRESSANT that
 reduces anxiety, inhibition, and feelings of guilt; lowers alertness;
 impairs perception, judgment, and muscular coordination; and, in high
 doses, can cause unconsciousness and even death. Long-term alcoholism
 damages the brain, liver (see CIRRHOSIS), heart, and other organs.
 Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal can range from a simple hangover to severe
 delirium tremens (a condition characterized by deliriousness, violent
 trembling, hallucinations, and seizures). Treatment includes use of
 disulfiram (Antabuse), a drug that produces discomfort if alcohol is
 consumed; anti-anxiety drugs to suppress withdrawal symptoms;
 psychological counseling; and support from groups such as ALCOHOLICS
 ANONYMOUS.

   Alcott, (Amos) Bronson

 Alcott, (Amos) Bronson, 1799-1888, American educational and social
 reformer; b. near Wolcott, Conn. Despite his meager formal education, he
 became a teacher and founded Temple School in Boston. A leading exponent
 of TRANSCENDENTALISM, he was (1843) one of the founders of a cooperative
 vegetarian community, "Fruitlands," and then, as superintendent, reformed
 the Concord public schools. The poverty that plagued his life was
 eventually alleviated by the writings of his daughter Louisa May ALCOTT.

   Alcott, Louisa May

 Alcott, Louisa May, 1832-88, American writer; b. Germantown, Pa.;
 daughter of Bronson ALCOTT. Educated by her father, she was also
 influenced by her friends EMERSON and THOREAU. Alcott received notice for
 Hospital Sketches (1863), a collection of letters written while she was a
 Civil War nurse. She achieved fame with Little Women (1868-69), a largely
 autobiographical novel for young people that portrays Victorian American
 family life. Its sequels are Little Men (1871) and Jo's Boys (1886).

   Alcuin

 Alcuin or Albinus,735?-804, English churchman and educator. Invited
 (781?) to CHARLEMAGNE'S court at Aachen, he was the moving spirit of the
 CAROLINGIAN renaissance. Alcuin established the study of the seven
 liberal arts, which became the curriculum for medieval Europe, and
 encouraged the preservation of ancient texts. His letters are extant.

   Aldanov, Mark

 Aldanov, Mark, pseud. of Mark Aleksandrovich Landau, 1886-1957, Russian
 novelist. Aldanov emigrated to France in 1919 and to the U.S. in 1941.
 His works include The Thinker (1923-27), about the era from 1793 to 1821
 in France; The Tenth Symphony (1931), set in the Vienna of BEETHOVEN'S
 time; and The Fifth Seal (1939), which portrays the decay of
 revolutionary idealism during the SPANISH CIVIL WAR.

   alder

 alder, deciduous tree or shrub (genus Alnus) of the BIRCH family, widely
 distributed, especially in mountainous, moist areas of the north
 temperate zone and in the Andes. The bark of the black alder (A.
 glutinosa), once used medicinally, is still used for dyes and tanning.
 Red alder (A. rubra) is the most important hardwood on the Pacific coast
 of North America.

   Aldington, Richard

 Aldington, Richard, 1892-1962, English poet and novelist. A leading
 IMAGIST, he was married to Hilda DOOLITTLE. His poetry, e.g., Images
 (1915), is remarkable for verbal precision; his novels, e.g., Death of a
 Hero (1929) are bitter satires.

   Aldrich, Thomas Bailey

 Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 1836-1907, American author; b. Portsmouth, N.H.
 He is most widely known for his autobiographical The Story of a Bad Boy
 (1870). A skillful writer of light verse, he also served (1881-90) as
 editor of the Atlantic Monthly.

   Aldrin, Buzz

 Aldrin, Buzz (Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr.), 1930-, American astronaut; b.
 Montclair, N.J. During the Apollo 11 lunar-landing mission (July 16-24,
 1969), Neil ARMSTRONG (the commander) and Aldrin (the lunar-module pilot)
 became the first and second persons, respectively, to walk on the moon
 (see SPACE EXPLORATION,). Aldrin was pilot of Gemini 12 (Nov. 11-15,
 1966) and, after retiring from NASA, served (1971-72) as commandant of
 the Aerospace Research Pilots' School at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.

   Aldus Manutius

 Aldus Manutius or Aldo Manuzio,1450-1515, Venetian printer. A humanist
 scholar, he printed Greek and Roman classics in editions noted for
 accuracy, e.g., a five-volume set of the works of ARISTOTLE (completed
 1498). To produce small, low-cost books for scholars, he designed the
 first complete font of the Greek alphabet and the first italic TYPE
 (1501). Books produced by him are called Aldine and bear his mark, a
 dolphin and an anchor.

   ale

 ale: see BEER.

   Aleichem, Sholom

 Aleichem, Sholom: see SHOLOM ALEICHEM.

   Aleixandre, Vicente

 Aleixandre, Vicente, 1898-1984, Spanish poet. His verse includes the
 surrealist Destruction of Love (1935) and A Longing for the Light (tr.
 1979). He was awarded the 1977 Nobel Prize in literature.

   Aleman, Mateo

 Aleman, Mateo, 1547-1614?, Spanish novelist. He led a turbulent life and
 was twice jailed for debt; at 60 he settled in Mexico. His fame rests on
 the picaresque novel Guzman de Alfarache (1599-1604).

   Aleman Valdes, Miguel

 Aleman Valdes, Miguel,  1902-, president of MEXICO (1946-52). The first
 civilian president after MADERO, he initiated a vigorous program of
 modernization.

   Alembert, Jean le Rond d'

 Alembert, Jean le Rond d', 1717-83, French mathematician and philosopher,
 a leading figure of the ENLIGHTENMENT. His treatise on DYNAMICS (1743)
 enunciated d'Alembert's principle, which permitted the reduction of a
 problem in dynamics to one in STATICS. He did important work on the
 mechanics of rigid bodies, the motions of fluids and vibrating strings,
 and the three-body problem in CELESTIAL MECHANICS. Diderot made him
 coeditor of the ENCYCLOPEDIE, for which he wrote the "preliminary
 discourse" (1751) and mathematical, philosophical, and literary articles.

   Alepoudelis, Odysseus

 Alepoudelis, Odysseus: see ELYTIS, ODYSSEUS.

   Aleppo

 Aleppo or Alep,city (1981 pop. 976,727), NW Syria. Located in a
 semidesert region where grains, cotton, and fruit are grown, the city
 produces silk, dried fruits, and other goods. It was settled perhaps as
 early as the 6th millennium BC and passed to the Assyrians, Persians, and
 Seleucids. By the 4th cent. AD it was a center of Christianity in the
 Byzantine Empire. The Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and others later held it.
 Aleppo prospered under the Ottoman Turks (from 1517) and the French (from
 1918), and as part of independent Syria (from 1941). Historic structures
 include the Great Mosque (715) and the Byzantine citadel (12th cent.).

   Aleutian Islands

 Aleutian Islands, strategically important chain of rugged, volcanic
 islands, W Alaska, curving westward c.1,200 mi (1,900 km) between the
 Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Unalaska, the most populous island, is
 part of the easternmost group, the Fox Islands. Extending west to a point
 near the USSR are the Andreanof, Rat, Near, and Semichi island groups.
 The Aleutians were discovered in 1741 by Vitus BERING and bought by the
 U.S. from Russia in 1867 as part of the Alaska purchase. Three western
 islands-Attu, Agattu, and Kiska-were occupied (1942-43) by Japan.

   Aleuts

 Aleuts, native inhabitants of the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS and W Alaska. They
 speak an Eskimo-Aleut language (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES) and, like
 the ESKIMO, resemble Siberian peoples. Their skill in hunting sea mammals
 was exploited by Russian fur traders, and wars with mainland tribes
 helped to reduce their numbers from the 20,000-25,000 estimated by Vitus
 BERING to around 1,800 today.

   Alexander III

 Alexander III, d. 1181, pope (1159-81), a Sienese born Orlando
 Bandinelli. His rule was contested by antipopes until 1178. He backed the
 LOMBARD LEAGUE in opposing Holy Roman Emperor FREDERICK I, who exiled him
 to France until 1176. A learned canon lawyer, he issued many rules for
 governing the church. In 1179 he convened the Third Lateran Council.

   Alexander VI

 Alexander VI, 1431?-1503, pope (1492-1503), a Spaniard named Rodrigo de
 Borja (Ital., Borgia). Notorious in later centuries as a corrupt and
 worldly pope, he showered his illegitimate children, Cesare and Lucretia
 BORGIA, with money and favors. Girolamo SAVONAROLA was his outspoken
 critic. Alexander opposed CHARLES VIII of France and proclaimed (1494)
 the line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese colonial
 possessions.

   Alexander

 Alexander, czars of Russia. Alexander I, 1777-1825 (r.1801-25), was the
 son of PAUL I. He began his reign by relaxing political repression to a
 degree. In 1805 he joined the coalition against NAPOLEON I, but after
 Russian defeats he made a tenuous alliance with France by signing the
 Treaty of Tilsit (1807). After the French invasion of Russia (1812) was
 repulsed he created the HOLY ALLIANCE, joining with METTERNICH to
 suppress national and liberal movements. His reactionary domestic
 policies led to opposition, and when his brother NICHOLAS I succeeded him
 in 1825 a revolt took place (see DECEMBRISTS). Alexander II, 1818-81
 (r.1855-81), son of Nicholas I, negotiated an end to the CRIMEAN WAR
 (1853-56; see PARIS, TREATY OF) and adopted important reforms,
 principally the emancipation of the serfs (1861; see EMANCIPATION, EDICT
 OF) and the introduction of limited local self-government. His foreign
 policy included the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863; the
 annexation of Central Asia (1865-76); and the RUSSO-TURKISH WARS
 (1877-78). His domestic reforms were seen as insufficient by the
 intelligentsia, some of whom formed populist groups. Increasing
 repression led to terrorism, and in 1881 Alexander was assassinated.
 Alexander III, 1845-94 (r.1881-94), was the son of Alexander II.
 Surrounded by reactionary advisors, he increased police power and
 censorship; weakened the zemstvos; imposed controls on the peasantry;
 forced Russification on national minorities; and persecuted the Jews. His
 foreign policy culminated in the TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE. His
 son NICHOLAS II succeeded him.

   Alexander

 Alexander, 1893-1920, king (1917-20) of the Hellenes (Greece). He became
 Greek king when his father, CONSTANTINE I, was forced by the Allies to
 abdicate because of his pro-German sympathies. After Alexander's death,
 his father was restored to the throne.

   Alexander III

 Alexander III, king of Macedon: see ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

   Alexander

 Alexander, kings of Scotland. Alexander I, 1078?-1124 (r. 1107-24), was
 the son of MALCOLM III. He opposed English efforts to rule the church in
 Scotland and established abbeys at Inchcolm and Scone. Alexander II,
 1198-1249 (r.1214-49), joined the English barons in their revolt against
 King JOHN but made a tenuous peace with HENRY III. Alexander III, 1241-86
 (r.1249-86), acquired for Scotland the HEBRIDES and also the Isle of MAN,
 already claimed from Norway by his father.

   Alexander

 Alexander, rulers of SERBIA and YUGOSLAVIA. Alexander (Alexander
 Karadjordjevic), 1806-85, prince of Serbia (1842-58), was the son of
 KARAGEORGE. An ineffectual ruler, he was deposed in favor of MILOs
 Obrenovic. Alexander (Alexander Obrenovic), 1876-1903, king of Serbia
 (1889-1903), instituted a conservative regime but, after accepting a
 somewhat liberal constitution, was assassinated by a clique of army
 officers. Alexander, 1888-1934, king of Yugoslavia (1921-34), the son and
 successor of PETER I, became (1918) regent of the kingdom of Serbs,
 Croats, and Slovenes, which he renamed (1929) Yugoslavia. He was
 assassinated by a Yugoslav terrorist.

   Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis

 Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis,
 1891-1969, British field marshal. In WORLD WAR II, he commanded the
 retreats at Dunkirk (1940) and Burma (1942) and the triumphs in N Africa
 and Sicily (1943). Later he was governor general of Canada (1946-52) and
 minister of defense (1952-54) in Winston CHURCHILL'S cabinet.

   Alexander Nevsky

 Alexander Nevsky, 1220-63, Russian hero. As prince of Novgorod (1236-52)
 he earned his surname by his victory (1240) over the Swedes on the Neva
 R. He later defeated the Livonian Knights, invading from Germany (1242),
 and the Lithuanians (1245). When the TATARS occupied Russia he was made
 grand duke of Vladimir-Suzdal (1252).

   Alexander the Great

 Alexander the Great or Alexander III,356-323 BC, king of MACEDON. The son
 of PHILIP II, he was tutored by ARISTOTLE. Upon succeeding to the throne
 in 336 BC he won ascendancy over all of GREECE by putting down uprisings
 in THRACE and ILLYRIA, and by sacking THEBES. As head of an allied Greek
 army, viewing himself as the champion of pan-HELLENISM, he started east
 (334) on what was to be the greatest conquest of ancient times. He
 defeated the Persians at the battles of Granicus (334) and Issus (333).
 Tyre and Gaza fell after a year's struggle, and he entered Egypt (332),
 where he founded ALEXANDRIA. Moving to Mesopotamia, he overthrew the
 Persian Empire of DARIUS III at the battle of Gaugamela (331). Pushing on
 through eastern PERSIA (330-327), he invaded northern INDIA (326), but
 there his men would go no further. The fleet was sent back to the head of
 the Persian Gulf, and Alexander himself led his men through the desert,
 reaching Susa in 324 BC He died of a fever a year later, at age 33. He
 was incontestably one of the greatest generals of all time and one of the
 most powerful personalities of antiquity.

   Alexandra

 Alexandra, 1844-1925, queen consort of EDWARD VII of Great Britain, whom
 she married in 1863. She was the daughter of CHRISTIAN IX of Denmark.

   Alexandra Feodorovna

 Alexandra Feodorovna, 1872-1918, czarina of Russia, consort of NICHOLAS
 II. A granddaughter of Queen VICTORIA and princess of Hesse, she
 encouraged the czar's reactionary policies under the influence of
 RASPUTIN. With her family she was shot by the Bolsheviks (see
 BOLSHEVISM).

   Alexandria

 Alexandria, city (1985 pop. 2,821,000), N Egypt, on the Mediterranean
 Sea, W of the Nile R. delta. The city is Egypt's leading port, a
 commercial and transportation center, and the heart of a major industrial
 area with such manufactures as refined petroleum, textiles, and
 automobiles. Founded in 332 BC by ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Alexandria was
 (304 BC-30 BC) the capital of the PTOLEMIES. The city was the greatest
 center of Hellenistic and Jewish culture. It had a great university and
 two celebrated royal libraries, but their valuable collections have not
 survived. Alexandria became part of the empire of ROME in 30 BC and later
 of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE. The Muslim Arabs took the city in 642 AD After
 Cairo became (969) Egypt's capital, Alexandria declined. It fell to
 NAPOLEON I in 1798 and to the British in 1801. During WORLD WAR II the
 city was the chief Allied naval base in the E Mediterranean. At a 1944
 meeting in Alexandria, plans for the ARAB LEAGUE were drawn up. A few of
 Alexandria's ancient monuments are still visible. The Greco-Roman Museum
 houses a vast collection of Coptic, Roman, and Greek art.

   Alexandria

 Alexandria, city (1986 est. pop. 107,800), N Va., on the Potomac R.; inc.
 1779. A residential suburb of WASHINGTON, D.C., it also has railroad
 yards, varied industries, government buildings, and research firms. It
 was part of the DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA from 1789 to 1847. Nearby is MOUNT
 VERNON; in the city are many sites associated with George Washington.

   alexandrine

 alexandrine, in VERSIFICATION, a line of 12 syllables (or 13 if the last
 is unstressed), probably named after medieval poems in this meter about
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. In French, rhymed alexandrine couplets are the
 classic poetic form. English iambic hexameter is often called
 alexandrine. Alexander POPE'S "Essay on Criticism" contains what is
 probably the most quoted alexandrine in literature:A needless alexandrine
 ends the song
 That like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.

   Alexius

 Alexius, Byzantine emperors. Alexius I (Comnenus), 1048-1118
 (r.1081-1118), nephew of ISAAC I, obtained the crown by overthrowing
 Nicephorus III. He withstood the Normans under ROBERT GUISCARD and
 BOHEMOND I, and defeated the Pechenegs (1091) and CUMANS (1095). During
 the First CRUSADE he persuaded the leaders to pledge to him their
 Byzantine conquests. In 1108 he forced Bohemond, who had seized Antioch,
 to acknowledge his suzerainty. In his last years his daughter, Anna
 Comnena, intrigued against his son, JOHN II. Alexius restored Byzantine
 power but drained the empire's resources. Alexius II (Comnenus), 1168-83
 (r.1180-83), son of MANUEL I, ruled under the regency of his mother, Mary
 of Antioch. His cousin procured the deaths of Mary and Alexius and became
 Andronicus I. Alexius III (Angelus), d. after 1210 (r.1195-1203), deposed
 his brother ISAAC II, but the act served as pretext for the leaders of
 the Fourth Crusade to attack (1203) Constantinople and to restore Isaac,
 with his son Alexius IV, d. 1204, as co-emperor. Alexius V (Ducas
 Mourtzouphlos), d. 1204, son-in-law of Alexius III, overthrew Isaac and
 Alexius IV but was killed soon afterward by the Crusaders, who set up the
 Latin empire of Constantinople.

   alfalfa

 alfalfa or lucern,perennial plant (Medicago sativa) of the PULSE family,
 probably native to Persia and now widely cultivated. It is an important
 pasture and hay plant. Alfalfa is valued for its high yield of protein,
 its effectiveness in weed control, its role in crop rotation and nitrogen
 fixation, and as a source of chlorophyll and carotene.

   Al Fatah

 Al Fatah: see ARAFAT, YASIR; PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION.

   Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte

 Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte, 1749-1803, Italian tragic poet. A Piedmontese,
 he traveled widely and returned to Italy with a desire to revive national
 spirit. He wrote 19 tragedies, among them Philip the Second, Saul, and
 Antigone, all in the French classical tradition; comedies; satire; and an
 autobiography. His collected works, published (1805-15) by his friend the
 countess of Albany, contributed greatly to the rise of Italian
 nationalism.

   Alfonso

 Alfonso,  kings of ARAGON. Alfonso I, d. 1134, king of Aragon and Navarre
 (1104-34), captured many towns from the Moors. Alfonso II, 1152-96, king
 of Aragon (1162-96), inherited Provence and conquered (1171) Teruel.
 Alfonso V (the Magnanimous), 1396-1458, king of Aragon and Sicily
 (1416-58), conquered NAPLES and was recognized by the pope as its king
 (1443-58). He maintained a splendid court there and tried to introduce
 Spanish institutions.

   Alfonso

 Alfonso, kings of Portugal. Alfonso I, 1109?-85, the first king
 (r.1139-85), extended his territories by defeating (1139) the MOORS and,
 with the help of allies, captured (1147) Lisbon. His grandson, Alfonso II
 (the Fat), 1185-1223 (r.1211-23), tried to confiscate Roman Catholic
 Church holdings and was excommunicated (1219). His army won major
 victories (1212, 1217) over the Moors. His son, Alfonso III, 1210-79
 (r.1248-79), completed (1249) the reconquest of Portugal from the Moors,
 instituted many reforms, and encouraged commerce and the development of
 towns. Alfonso IV, 1291-1357 (r.1325-57), warred fruitlessly against
 CASTILE before both kingdoms combined forces to defeat (1340) the Moors.
 He countenanced the murder of Ines de CASTRO. Alfonso V, 1432-81
 (r.1438-81), put down a civil war (1449), invaded Morocco to capture
 Tangier (1471), and lost a war (1476-79) with Castile. Alfonso VI,
 1643-83 (r.1656-83), ousted (1662) his mother as regent and appointed as
 her successor the count of Castelho Melhor, who won the war (1663-65)
 that secured Spain's recognition (1668) of Portugal's independence.

   Alfonso

 Alfonso, Spanish kings. Alfonso I (the Catholic), 693?-757, Spanish king
 of ASTURIAS (739-57), extended its territory with the help of the
 BERBERS' revolt (740-41) against the MOORS. His grandson, Alfonso II (the
 Chaste), 759-842, king of Asturias (791-842), established his capital at
 Oviedo and continued the struggle against the Moors. Alfonso III (the
 Great), 838?-911?, king of Asturias (866-911?) recovered LEON from the
 Moors, but after his forced abdication it was divided among his sons.
 Alfonso V (the Noble), 994?-1027, king of Leon (999-1027), chartered
 (1020) the city of Leon, but he was killed in the siege of Viseu. Alfonso
 VI, 1030-1109, king of Leon (1065-1109) and CASTILE (1072-1109), took
 Galicia (1073) and became the most powerful Christian ruler in Spain. He
 conquered (1085) Toledo and other cities, but was defeated twice (1086,
 1108) by Muslim armies. Alfonso VII (the Emperor), 1104-57, king of
 Castile and Leon (1126-57), gained supremacy over other Christian states
 and had himself crowned emperor (1135). But his conquests of CORDOBA
 (1146) and Almeria (1147) from the Moors were soon lost. Alfonso VIII
 (the Noble), 1155-1214, king of Castile (1158-1214), restored order in
 his kingdom and won a great victory (1212) over the Moors. Alfonso X (the
 Wise), 1221-84, king of Castile and Leon (1252-84), took CADIZ from the
 Moors (1262). His subjection of the nobles led to a revolt, and a civil
 war broke out over the succession during his last years. He was a great
 patron of science and the arts. The Alfonsine Tables of astronomical data
 were published under his aegis. Alfonso XI, 1311-50, king of Castile and
 Leon (1312-50), lost Gibraltar to the Moors (1333) but won the great
 victory of Tarifa (1340) and conquered Algeciras (1344). Alfonso XII,
 1857-85, king of Spain (1874-85), was a popular monarch who consolidated
 the monarchy, suppressed republican agitation, and restored order.
 Alfonso XIII, 1886-1941, king of Spain (1886-1931), supported the
 military dictatorship (1923-30) of Miguel PRIMO DE RIVERA, but social
 unrest and a republican election victory led to his deposition and exile
 (1931).

   Alfred

 Alfred, 849-99, king of WESSEX (871-99), sometimes called Alfred the
 Great. The son of AETHELWULF, he shared his father's piety. When his
 brother AETHELRED took the Wessex throne (865), Alfred aided him in
 battles against the Danes, who threatened to overrun England. Unable to
 establish a clear victory, Alfred rid Wessex of the Danes by paying the
 DANEGELD when he became king in 871. In 878, however, the Danes returned,
 and Alfred's flight to Somerset at that time is the basis for the legend
 about the king and a peasant woman's burned cakes. In May 878, Alfred
 triumphed over the Danes at Edington. This victory produced relative
 security, and Alfred began to institute reforms, including a code of laws
 combining Christian doctrine with a strong, centralized monarchy. His
 greatest achievements were the creation of a navy, the revival of
 learning among the clergy, the education of youths and nobles at court,
 the establishment of Old English literary prose, his own English
 translation of Latin works, and his influence on the extant form of the
 ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE.

   algae

 algae, primitive plants that contain CHLOROPHYLL and carry on
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS but lack true roots, stems, and leaves. They are the chief
 aquatic plant life both in the sea and freshwater; nearly all SEAWEEDS
 are marine algae. Algae occur as microscopic single cells (e.g., DIATOMS)
 and more complex forms of many cells grouped in spherical colonies (e.g.,
 Volvox), in ribbonlike filaments (e.g., Spirogyra), and in giant forms
 (e.g., the marine kelps). The cells of colonies are generally similar,
 but some are specialized for reproduction and other functions. The
 blue-green and green algae include most of the freshwater forms, such as
 pond scum, a green slime found in stagnant water. Brown and red algae are
 more complex-chiefly marine forms whose green chlorophyll is masked by
 the presence of other pigments. Algae are primary food producers in the
 food chain and also provide oxygen for aquatic life.

   algebra

 algebra, branch of MATHEMATICS concerned with operations on sets of
 numbers or other elements that are often represented by symbols. In
 elementary algebra, letters are used to stand for numbers, e.g., in the
 POLYNOMIAL equation ax2+bx+c=0, the letters a, b, and c are called the
 coefficients of the EQUATION and stand for fixed numbers, or constants.
 The letter x stands for an unknown number, or variable, whose value
 depends on the values of a, b, and c and may be determined by solving the
 equation. Much of classical algebra is concerned with finding solutions
 to equations or systems of equations, i.e., finding the ROOTS, or values
 of the unknowns, that upon substitution into the original equation will
 make it a numerical identity. Algebra is a generalization of ARITHMETIC
 and gains much of its power from dealing symbolically with elements and
 operations (chiefly addition and multiplication) and relationships (such
 as equality) connecting the elements. Thus a+a=2a and a+b=b+a no matter
 what numbers a and b represent.

   Alger, Horatio

 Alger, Horatio, 1834-99, American writer of boys' stories; b. Revere,
 Mass. The heroes of his over 100 books, e.g., Ragged Dick (1867), gain
 success by leading exemplary lives and struggling valiantly against
 poverty and adversity.

   Algeria

 Algeria, Arab. Al Djazair, Fr. Algerie, officially Democratic and Popular
 Republic of Algeria, republic (1986 est. pop. 22,600,000), 919,590 sq mi
 (2,381,741 sq km), NW Africa, bordered by Mauritania, Morocco, and
 Western Sahara (W), the Mediterranean Sea (N), Tunisia and Libya (E), and
 Niger and Mali (S). The principal cities are ALGIERS (the capital) and
 ORAN. The ATLAS MTS. divide northern Algeria into a coastal lowland strip
 (the Tell) and a semiarid plateau. In the south is the much larger, but
 arid and sparsely populated, Saharan region; Algeria's highest point, Mt.
 Tahat (9,541 ft/2,908 m), in the Ahaggar Mts., is located here. About
 half of Algeria's work force are farmers, producing cereals, wine, and
 citrus fruits, but mining and manufacturing, developed since the 1960s,
 contribute the bulk of the national income. Petroleum is the leading
 export, and much natural gas is produced, with proven reserves that are
 among the world's largest. The state plays a leading role in planning the
 economy and owns many important industrial concerns. The great majority
 of the population are Sunni Muslim Berbers and Arabs; Europeans, who
 before independence accounted for 10% of the total, now are only 1% of
 the population. Arabic is the official language, but French is widely
 spoken, and a sizable minority (15%) speaks a Berber language.

 History The earliest known inhabitants of the region that is now Algeria
 were Berber-speaking nomads who were settled there by the 2d millennium
 BC As NUMIDIA, it became (9th cent. BC) a province of Carthage and then
 (106 BC) of Rome; during the Christian era, St. AUGUSTINE (354-430) was
 bishop at Hippo (now Annaba). With Rome's decline in the 5th cent. AD,
 Algeria was conquered by the Vandals (430-31), the Byzantine Empire (6th
 cent.), and finally, in the late 7th and early 8th cent., by the Arabs,
 whose introduction of Islam profoundly altered the character of the area.
 Spain captured the coastal cities in the 15th cent. but was expelled
 (mid-16th cent.) with the help of the Ottoman Turks, who assumed control.
 During this period the Algerian coast was a stronghold of pirates and a
 center of the slave trade. France invaded Algeria in 1830 and declared it
 a colony in 1848. Europeans began to arrive in large numbers, dominating
 the government and the economy, and leaving the native Muslim population
 with scant political or economic power. A nationalist movement began to
 develop after World War I, and a war for independence, led by the
 National Liberation Front (FLN), broke out in 1954. After more than seven
 years of bitter fighting, in which at least 100,000 Muslim and 10,000
 French soldiers were killed, Algeria became independent on July 3, 1962.
 Since independence, Algeria has been a prominent nonaligned state and a
 champion of the movements against white minority rule in Africa. It
 supported the protracted struggle of the Polisario Front for the
 independence of WESTERN SAHARA (formerly Spanish Sahara) from Morocco,
 and in 1981 it acted as intermediary between the U.S. and Iran in
 negotiations for the release of American hostages seized in 1979.

   Algiers

 Algiers, city (1983 pop. 1,721,607), capital of Algeria, N Algeria, on
 the Bay of Algiers of the Mediterranean Sea. It is a major North African
 port, a winter resort, and a commercial center. Industries include
 metallurgy, oil refining, and automotive construction. Founded by the
 Phoenicians, the city disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire and
 was reestablished in the late 10th cent. by the Muslims. The French
 captured the port in 1830. During WORLD WAR II Algiers was Allied
 headquarters in North Africa. The city played an important role in the
 Algerian independence struggle (1954-62). Algiers is divided into the
 newer, French-built sector and the original Muslim quarter, with its
 16th-cent. casbah fortress.

   ALGOL

 ALGOL: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Algonquian

 Algonquian, branch of the Algonquian-Wakashan linguistic family of North
 America. See AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES.

   Alhazen

 Alhazen: see IBN AL-HAYTHAM.

   Ali, Muhammad

 Ali, Muhammad, 1942-, American boxer; b. Louisville, Ky., as Cassius
 Marcellus Clay, Jr. He changed (1964) his name when he became a BLACK
 MUSLIM. After winning (1960) an Olympic gold medal, he defeated (1964)
 Sonny Liston for the heavyweight crown, but was stripped of the title in
 1967 when he refused induction into the U.S. armed forces on religious
 grounds. In 1971 the U.S. Supreme Court upheld his draft appeal. Ali
 regained the title in 1974 by defeating George Foreman, lost it to Leon
 Spinks in 1978, but won it a third time (from Spinks) later that year.
 Ali lost to Larry Holmes in 1980.

   Alice Springs

 Alice Springs, town (1986 pop. 22,759), Northern Territory, central
 Australia. It is the center of an area with cattle ranches and aborigine
 reservations. Gold, copper, wolfram, and mica are mined nearby. The town
 was called Stuart until 1933.

   alien

 alien, in law, a resident of a state who is not a national or citizen of
 that state. A country may exclude individuals or groups it deems
 undesirable; most, for example, bar criminals, paupers, and the diseased.
 With some exceptions, e.g., diplomats, aliens are subject to the laws of
 the country in which they reside. Permanent residents may be liable to
 taxation and military conscription. In the U.S., aliens are required to
 register each year; an alien may acquire citizenship by a legal procedure
 known as NATURALIZATION.

   Alien and Sedition Acts

 Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798, four laws passed by the
 Federalist-controlled U.S. Congress in response to the threat of war with
 France (see XYZ AFFAIR). Designed to destroy the Jeffersonian Republicans
 who expressed sympathy for France, the laws lengthened the residency
 requirement for citizenship, empowered the president to expel "dangerous"
 aliens, and proscribed spoken or written criticism of the government. The
 Acts provoked the KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS.

   aliens, illegal

 aliens, illegal, citizens of foreign countries who lack legal status in
 the country in which they are living. In the U.S., most illegal ALIENS
 came from Latin America. A 1986 law to stop the flow and end the
 underground lives of these aliens made it illegal for employers to hire
 them and granted legal status to those who could prove continuous
 residence in the U.S. since before Jan. 1, 1982. Special allowances were
 made for seasonal farm workers. Although an estimated 3.9 million aliens
 were eligible, only about half applied before the May 1988 deadline.

   Ali ibn Abu Talib

 Ali ibn Abu Talib, d. 661, cousin and son-in-law of MUHAMMAD, fourth
 caliph of the Islamic community, and martyred hero and first imam of the
 SHIITE movement in Islam. As a child, he became one of Muhammad's first
 converts. He married Muhammad's youngest daughter, Fatima, and twice
 commanded the Prophet's armies. During the civil war that broke out (656)
 between various factions of the early Muslim community, he was elevated
 to the caliphate. His murder at Kufa, Iraq, inspired the Shiite movement
 (shi'ah="party," i.e., of Ali), which regards Ali as Muhammad's chosen
 successor.

   alimony

 alimony: see DIVORCE.

   Ali Pasha

 Ali Pasha, 1744?-1822, Turkish governor of Yannina (1787-1820), a Greek
 province of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. He ruled as a quasi-independent despot
 over most of Albania and Epirus. He resisted (1820) Turkish military
 efforts to depose him, tying up troops needed against the rebels in the
 Greek War of Independence. He was assassinated.

   alkali

 alkali, HYDROXIDE of an ALKALI METAL. Alkalies are soluble in water and
 form strongly basic solutions. They neutralize acids, forming salts and
 water. Strong alkalies (e.g., those of sodium or potassium) are called
 caustic alkalies. The term alkali is sometimes applied to sodium or
 potassium carbonate or to the hydroxide of an ALKALINE-EARTH METAL.

   alkali metals

 alkali metals, elements in group Ia of the PERIODIC TABLE. In order of
 increasing atomic number, they are LITHIUM, SODIUM, POTASSIUM, RUBIDIUM,
 CESIUM, and FRANCIUM. They are softer than other metals, and have lower
 melting points and densities. All react violently with water, releasing
 hydrogen and forming hydroxides. They tarnish rapidly, even in dry air.
 They never occur uncombined in nature.

   alkaline-earth metals

 alkaline-earth metals, elements in group IIa of the PERIODIC TABLE. In
 order of increasing atomic number, they are BERYLLIUM, MAGNESIUM,
 CALCIUM, STRONTIUM, BARIUM, and RADIUM. They are softer than most other
 metals and react readily with water. Their properties are exceeded by the
 corresponding ALKALI METAL.

   alkaline earths

 alkaline earths, oxides of the ALKALINE-EARTH METALS. They are not
 readily soluble in water and form solutions less basic than those of
 ALKALIES.

   alkaloid

 alkaloid, any of a class of organic compounds composed of carbon,
 hydrogen, nitrogen, and usually oxygen, that are often derived from
 plants. The name means alkalilike, but some alkaloids do not exhibit
 alkaline properties. Many alkaloids, though poisons, have physiological
 effects that render them valuable as medicines. For example, curarine,
 found in the deadly extract CURARE, is a powerful muscle relaxant;
 atropine is used to dilate the pupils of the eye; and physostigmine is a
 specific for certain muscular diseases. Narcotic alkaloids used in
 medicine include MORPHINE and CODEINE for pain relief and COCAINE as a
 local anesthetic. Other common alkaloids include CAFFEINE, LSD, QUININE,
 SEROTONIN, STRYCHNINE, and nicotine.

   alkane, alkene

 alkane, alkene, and alkyne:see HYDROCARBON.

   Allah

 Allah: see ISLAM.

   allegory

 allegory, in literature, symbolic story that serves as a disguised
 representation for meanings other than those indicated on the surface.
 Its characters are often mere embodiments of moral qualities. Allegory is
 closely related to PARABLE and FABLE. EVERYMAN, John BUNYAN'S Pilgrim's
 Progress, and Edmund SPENSER'S Faerie Queen are notable allegories.

   Allen, Ethan

 Allen, Ethan, 1738-89, American Revolutionary hero; b. Litchfield (?),
 Conn. In 1775 he led the GREEN MOUNTAIN BOYS at the capture of Fort
 TICONDEROGA and was captured by the British in an expedition against
 Canada. Exchanged in 1778, he promoted independence and statehood for
 Vermont. His brother, Ira Allen, 1751-1814, was a political leader in
 Vermont.

   Allen, Gracie

 Allen, Gracie: see BURNS, GEORGE.

   Allen, Woody

 Allen, Woody, 1935-, American film director, writer, and actor; b.
 Brooklyn, N.Y., as Allen Stewart Konigsberg. His film comedies, which
 often depict neurotic urban characters preoccupied with sex, death, and
 psychiatry, include Sleeper (1973), Annie Hall (1977; Academy Award),
 Broadway Danny Rose (1984), and Hannah and Her Sisters (1987).

   Allende Gossens, Salvador

 Allende Gossens, Salvador, 1908-73, president of CHILE (1970-73). A
 founder of the Chilean Socialist party (1933), he was elected president
 of Chile by a narrow plurality (1970)-the first freely elected Marxist
 leader in the Americas. His socialist program disrupted the economy and
 led to inflation and widespread strikes. During the army coup that
 overthrew (1973) his regime, he either was murdered or committed suicide.

   Allentown

 Allentown, city (1986 est. pop. 104,360), seat of Lehigh co., E Pa., on
 the Lehigh R.; founded 1762, inc. as a city 1867. It is a commercial and
 industrial center in the agricultural Lehigh Valley. Trucks, chemicals,
 and machinery are manufactured; food products include potatoes, feed
 grains, and beer. The city was settled by members of various German
 religious groups. Muhlenberg is one of several colleges located there.

   allergy

 allergy, adverse physical reaction of some people to substances that are
 not toxic per se and are innocuous to other people. Allergens, or
 allergy-producing substances, cause the release of histamine, an organic
 compound responsible for allergic symptoms. There are various types of
 allergens: airborne (e.g., pollen), which may cause sneezing, as with
 hayfever, or asthma; contactants (e.g., poison ivy and dyes), which often
 cause rashes; food (e.g., chocolate or fish), which may cause a rash,
 such as eczema or hives, or a respiratory reaction; or drugs (e.g., sulfa
 drugs), which in the allergic person can cause a violent reaction.
 Treatment includes desensitization (injections), antihistamine drugs, and
 avoidance of allergens.

   Alleyn, Edward

 Alleyn, Edward, 1566-1626, English actor. The only rival of Richard
 BURBAGE, he played the title roles in Christopher MARLOWE'S Tamburlaine,
 Jew of Malta, and Faustus.

   Alliance for Progress

 Alliance for Progress: see ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES.

   alligator

 alligator, aquatic REPTILE (genus Alligator) in the same order as the
 CROCODILE. The American alligator (A. mississipiensis) is found in swamps
 and streams from North Carolina to Florida and along the Gulf Coast. The
 young are brown or black with yellow bands; adults are solid black. Males
 commonly reach a length of 9 ft (2.7 m) and a weight of 250 lb (110 kg).
 The alligator is protected by law.

   Alliluyeva, Svetlana

 Alliluyeva, Svetlana, 1926-, only daughter of Soviet leader Joseph
 STALIN. In 1966 she defected to the West, becoming a U.S. citizen. She
 has written Twenty Letters to a Friend (1967) and Only One Year (1969).

   allotropy

 allotropy, the occurrence of certain chemical elements in two or more
 forms; the forms are called allotropes. Allotropes generally differ in
 physical properties, such as color and hardness; they may also differ in
 molecular structure or in chemical activity but are usually alike in most
 chemical properties. DIAMOND and GRAPHITE are two allotropes of the
 element CARBON.

   alloy

 alloy, substance with metallic properties consisting of a METAL fused
 with one or more metals or nonmetals. An alloy may be a homogeneous solid
 solution, a heterogeneous mixture of tiny crystals, a true chemical
 compound, or a mixture of these. Alloys generally have properties
 different from those of their constituent elements and are used more
 extensively than pure metals. Alloys of IRON and CARBON are among the
 most widely used and include CAST IRON and STEEL. Brass and BRONZE are
 important alloys of COPPER. Because pure GOLD and SILVER are too soft for
 many uses, they are often alloyed, either with each other or with other
 metals, e.g., copper or PLATINUM. Amalgams are alloys that contain
 MERCURY. Other alloys include BRITANNIA METAL, DURALUMIN, and SOLDER.

   All Saints' Day

 All Saints' Day, Nov. 1, feast of the Roman Catholic and Anglican
 churches, the day God is glorified for all his saints, known and unknown.
 Roman Catholics are obliged to hear Mass on this day. In medieval England
 it was called All Hallows; hence the name Halloween (Hallows' eve) for
 the preceding day (Oct. 31).

   allspice

 allspice: see PIMENTO.

   Allston, Washington

 Allston, Washington, 1779-1843, American painter; b. Georgetown co., S.C.
 Allston traveled to London, where he studied with Benjamin WEST. Many of
 his greatest works, marked by a controlled romanticism, were done in
 England (1810-18). Allston's finest paintings are lyrical landscapes,
 e.g., Moonlit Landscape (1819; Mus. Fine Arts, Boston).

   Almagest

 Almagest: see PTOLEMY (Claudius Ptolemaeus).

   Almagro, Diego de

 Almagro, Diego de, c.1475-1538, Spanish CONQUISTADOR, partner of
 Francisco PIZARRO in the exploration and conquest (after 1532) of the
 INCA civilization in Peru. He was later executed for rebellion by order
 of Hernando Pizarro.

   Al Manamah

 Al Manamah, city (1987 est. pop. 121,986), capital of Bahrain, on the
 PERSIAN GULF. It has oil refineries and light industries and is a free
 port.

   Almeida, Francisco de

 Almeida, Francisco de, c.1450-1510, Portuguese admiral, first viceroy of
 Portuguese India (1505-9). He developed Portugal's trade with India by
 making alliances with Indian rulers and other tactics. He thwarted
 Egypt's commercial challenge by winning a great sea battle.

   Almohads

 Almohads, Berber Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and Spain in the 12th
 and 13th cent. It had its origins in the puritanical sect founded c.1120
 by ibn Tumart. By 1174 the Almohads had completely displaced the ruling
 ALMORAVIDS. The Almohads, in turn, were defeated in Spain by the Spanish
 and Portuguese in 1212, and in Morocco by the Merenid dynasty in 1269.

   almond

 almond, name for a small tree (Prunus amygdalus) of the ROSE family and
 for the nutlike edible seed of its drupe fruit. Almonds are now
 cultivated mainly in the Orient, Italy, Spain, and California. Almond
 fruit is fleshless; otherwise, the tree closely resembles the peach tree.
 Almond oil, pressed from the nut, is used for flavoring and in soaps and
 cosmetics.

   Almoravids

 Almoravids, Berber Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and Muslim Spain in
 the 11th and 12th cent. They founded MARRAKESH as the capital of their
 powerful empire. Called on for help by the Moors in Spain, they defeated
 (1086) ALFONSO VI of Castile and displaced the local Moorish rulers.
 Never entirely stable, the dynasty was overthrown by the ALMOHADS in
 1174.

   Almquist, Carl Jonas Love

 Almquist, Carl Jonas Love, 1793-1866, Swedish author. The Book of the
 Thorn Rose (14 vol., 1832-51) contains most of his novels, stories,
 plays, and poems, which range from a bizarre romanticism to realism. A
 clergyman, teacher, and socialist, he was accused of forgery and
 suspected of murder. He fled to the U.S. and after 1865 lived in Germany
 under an assumed name.

   aloe

 aloe, succulent perennials (genus Aloe) of the LILY family, native
 chiefly to Africa, but cultivated elsewhere. The leaves contain aloin, a
 purgative. Various drug-yielding species are used medicinally, as well as
 for X-ray-burn treatment, insect repellent, and transparent pigment.
 Biblical aloes is unrelated. American and false aloe are agaves of the
 AMARYLLIS family.

   Alonso, Alicia

 Alonso, Alicia (ale'sya alon'so), 1921-, Cuban ballerina and
 choreographer. She danced on Broadway before soloing with several
 companies. She had a huge repertoire that ranged from classical to MODERN
 DANCE. Her own works, e.g., La Tinaja (1942), were created for her Cuban
 company, founded in 1948, which is now the National Ballet.

   Alorese

 Alorese,  inhabitants of the mountainous forest interiors of Alor and
 Panta, two Indonesian-controlled islands in the Lesser Sunda chain. They
 cultivate maize, rice, and root crops and maintain their traditional
 ways, which include polygamy and an animalistic religion. Their
 population is about 100,000.

   alpaca

 alpaca, partially domesticated South American hoofed MAMMAL. The highland
 tribes of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru breed the alpaca for its wool, which
 is shaded from black through brown to white and has been exported since
 1836. Alpacas feed on grasses and require a pure water supply. Like the
 LLAMA, the alpaca belongs to the CAMEL family.

   Alp Arslan

 Alp Arslan, 1029-72, Seljuk sultan of PERSIA (1063-72). He won great
 victories over the Byzantine Christians, especially at Manzikert (1071),
 and conquered Syria. He was murdered by one of his prisoners of war.

   alphabet

 alphabet, system of WRITING, theoretically having a one-for-one relation
 between character (or letter) and phoneme (see PHONETICS AND PHONEMICS).
 Few alphabets have achieved an ideal exactness. A system of writing is
 called a syllabary when one character represents a syllable rather than a
 phoneme, e.g., the kana used in Japanese. The precursors of the alphabet
 were the iconographic and ideographic writing of ancient man, such as
 CUNEIFORM and the HIEROGLYPHIC writing of the Egyptians. The alphabet of
 modern Western Europe is the Roman alphabet. Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian,
 and many languages of the USSR are written in the Cyrillic alphabet, an
 augmented Greek alphabet. Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic all have their own
 alphabets. The most important writing of India is the Devanagari, an
 alphabet with syllabic features. The Roman alphabet is derived from the
 Greeks, who had imitated the Phoenician alphabet. The exact steps are
 unknown, but the Phoenician, Hebrew, Arabic, and Devanagari systems are
 based ultimately on signs of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. Two European
 alphabets of the late Roman era were the RUNES and the ogham. An exotic
 modern system is the Cherokee syllabary of SEQUOYAH.

   alphanumeric

 alphanumeric or alphameric,the alphabetic, numeric, and special
 characters-such as mathematical symbols and punctuation marks-used in
 COMPUTER input and output.

   alpha particle

 alpha particle, a particle emitted in one of the three forms of natural
 RADIOACTIVITY.

   Alps

 Alps, great mountain system of S central Europe, c.500 mi (800 km) long
 and c.100 mi (160 km) wide, curving in a great arc through parts of
 France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. The mountains are known
 for their towering, snowcapped peaks, deep U-shaped glacial valleys,
 modern glaciers, and many fine lakes such as Geneva, Lucerne, Como,
 Garda, and Maggiore. Famous winter sports centers in the Alps include
 Chamonix, SAINT MORITZ, Kitzbuhel, Cortina d'Ampezzo, and INNSBRUCK. The
 principal peaks include MONT BLANC (15,771 ft/4,807 m), the highest; Gran
 Paradiso; MATTERHORN; Jungfrau; and Grossglockner. The Alps are crossed
 by three of the world's longest tunnels-the Simplon, St. Gotthard, and
 Mont Cenis-and by many routes such as the BRENNER PASS and the Great and
 Little St. Bernard passes.

   Alsace-Lorraine

 Alsace-Lorraine, region of NE France, bounded by Belgium, Luxembourg, and
 West Germany (N and E). Alsace lies to the east of Lorraine. Hops are
 grown, and vineyards are numerous. Potassium, iron, and coal deposits are
 exploited, and Lorraine leads France in steel output. STRASBOURG is
 Alsace's leading industrial center. Most of the population speaks French,
 but German is also spoken, especially around Metz. Both Alsace and
 Lorraine were included in the HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. Lorraine emerged as a
 duchy, and Alsace was divided into many fiefs and free cities by the 13th
 cent. France gradually acquired both regions in the 17th and 18th cent.
 As a result of the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870-71) much of the area was
 annexed to Germany and formed the "imperial land" of Alsace-Lorraine.
 After WORLD WAR I Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, but it was
 again annexed (1940-45) to Germany during WORLD WAR II.

   Altaic

 Altaic, subfamily of the URALIC AND ALTAIC family of languages. See
 LANGUAGE.

   Altamira

 Altamira: see PALEOLITHIC ART.

   Altdorfer, Albrecht

 Altdorfer, Albrecht, 1480-1538, German painter and engraver. His romantic
 allegorical and biblical works, e.g., Susannah at the Bath (1526; Alte
 Pinakothek, Munich), vibrate with intense movement. He was perhaps the
 first German to paint pure landscape.

   alternating current

 alternating current: see ELECTRICITY; GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   alternator

 alternator: see GENERATOR.

   Altgeld, John Peter

 Altgeld, John Peter, 1847-1902, American politician, governor (1892-96)
 of Illinois; b. Germany. A Democrat and a staunch defender of human
 rights, he pardoned three men convicted for the HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT of
 1886, and protested the sending of federal troops to end the Pullman
 strike (1894). His liberal actions lost him reelection (1896).

   Althing

 Althing, parliament of ICELAND. The oldest assembly in Europe, first
 convened in 930, it voted Iceland's independence from Denmark in 1944. It
 comprises a lower house (two thirds of members) and an upper house (one
 third). Members are elected by a system of proportional representation.

   altimeter

 altimeter, device for measuring altitude. The most common type, used in
 airplanes and balloons and by mountain climbers, consists of an aneroid
 BAROMETER, calibrated so that the drop in atmospheric pressure indicates
 the linear elevation. The radio altimeter indicates the actual altitude
 over the earth's surface by measuring the time it takes for a radio
 signal to travel to earth and back.

   altiplano

 altiplano, densely populated upland plateau (alt. c.12,000 ft/3,660 m) in
 the ANDES of Bolivia and Peru. It has a cool climate and bleak aspect.
 Potatoes and hardy grains are the chief crops; mining is the principal
 industry. LA PAZ and Oruro, in Bolivia, are the largest cities.

   altitude, in astronomy

 altitude, in astronomy: see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS.

   alto

 alto: see VOICE.

   alumina

 alumina or aluminum oxide, chemical compound (Al2O3) that is widely
 distributed in nature and occurs combined with silica and other minerals
 in clays, feldspars, and micas, and in almost pure form in CORUNDUM. It
 is the major component of BAUXITE and is used in the production of
 ALUMINUM metal. Alumina is also used as an ABRASIVE, in ceramics, in
 pigments, and in the manufacture of chemicals.

   aluminum

 aluminum (Al), metallic element, used in antiquity but first isolated by
 Friedrich WOHLER in 1827; also called aluminium. The silver-white metal
 is ductile and malleable, and conducts heat and electricity. Although
 very reactive chemically, aluminum resists corrosion by forming a
 protective oxide (alumina) coating. The most abundant metal in the
 earth's crust (about 8% by weight), it occurs combined with other
 elements in such minerals as alum, BAUXITE, CORUNDUM, CRYOLITE, FELDSPAR,
 and MICA. Aluminum and its compounds are used in paints, foil, jewelry,
 and welding. Aluminum wire, cheaper and lighter than copper wire, is used
 in high-tension power transmission. The strong, hard alloy DURALUMIN is
 used in aircraft. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   aluminum oxide

 aluminum oxide: see ALUMINA.

   Alvarado, Pedro de

 Alvarado, Pedro de, 1486-1541, Spanish CONQUISTADOR. A chief lieutenant
 of Hernan CORTES during the conquest of MEXICO, Alvarado conquered
 GUATEMALA in 1523 and served as governor until his death. Exercising
 absolute control, he founded many cities and developed the colony while
 searching for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola. He was killed quelling
 an Indian rebellion in W Mexico.

   Alvarez, Luis Walter

 Alvarez, Luis Walter, 1911-88, American physicist; b. San Francisco. He
 was awarded the 1968 Nobel Prize in physics for the development of the
 liquid-hydrogen bubble chamber (see PARTICLE DETECTOR). He also helped
 develop the ground-control approach system for aircraft in the 1940s and
 played an important part in the MANHATTAN PROJECT.

   alyssum

 alyssum, chiefly annual and perennial herb (genus Alyssum) of the MUSTARD
 family, native to the Mediterranean. Some species, with masses of yellow
 or white flowers, are cultivated as rock-garden and border ornamentals.
 The annual sweet alyssum has fragrant white or lilac blossoms. Once
 called madwort or healbite, alyssum was thought to cure rabies.

   Alzheimer's disease

 Alzheimer's disease, degenerative disease of the brain cells producing
 loss of memory and general intellectual impairment. It usually affects
 people in their forties, fifties, and sixties. As the disease progresses,
 a variety of symptoms may become apparent, including confusion,
 irritability, and restlessness, as well as disorientation and impaired
 judgment and concentration. The cause is unknown, and there is no known
 treatment, although tranquilizers are sometimes used to reduce agitation
 and unpredictable behavior.

   Am

 Am, chemical symbol of the element AMERICIUM.

   AM

 AM: see MODULATION.

   Amadeus VIII

 Amadeus VIII, 1383-1451, duke (from 1416) of Savoy and antipope (1439-49)
 with the name Felix V. The last of the antipopes, he was elected at the
 Council of BASEL, but had few supporters. He yielded his claim when
 Nicholas V became pope.

   Amado, Jorge

 Amado, Jorge, 1912-, Brazilian novelist. His vibrant novels of the lives
 of ordinary Brazilians include The Violent Land (1942), Gabriela, Clove
 and Cinnamon (1958), the ebullient Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands (1966),
 and Pen, Sword, Camisole (1985).

   Amalekites

 Amalekites, aboriginal people of CANAAN and the Sinai peninsula. They
 waged war against the Hebrews, until dispersed by SAUL and DAVID. Ex.
 17.8-16; 1 Sam. 30.1-20.

   amalgam

 amalgam: see ALLOY.

   Amalric

 Amalric or Amaury,Latin kings of Jerusalem. Amalric I, c.1137-1174
 (r.1162-74), lost the suzerainty of Egypt to the Turkish sultan Nur
 ad-Din and eventually to SALADIN. Amalric II, c.1155-1205 (r.1197-1205),
 married the daughter of Amalric I. He was also king of Cyprus
 (1194-1205).

   Amalthea

 Amalthea, in astronomy, natural satellite of JUPITER.

   amaranth

 amaranth, common name for the family Amaranthaceae (also called the
 pigweed family), herbs, trees, and vines found mainly in warm regions of
 the Americas and Africa. The genus Amaranthus includes several species
 called amaranth, characterized by a lasting red pigment in the stems and
 leaves; common weeds, e.g., the green amaranth (A. retroflexus); and
 various plants known as TUMBLEWEED and pigweed. Some species have long
 been used as potherbs and cereals in the Old and New World. The globe
 amaranth, or BACHELOR'S BUTTON (genus Gomphrenia), and the cockscomb
 (genus Celosia) are tropical annuals that are dried and used in
 everlasting bouquets.

   Amarillo

 Amarillo, city (1986 est. pop. 165,850), seat of Potter co., N Tex.; inc.
 1899. A plains city, it is the commercial and industrial center of the
 Texas Panhandle. Oil, gas, helium, and zinc are produced, along with
 various manufactures. The city handles grains and livestock raised in the
 area. It grew with the coming (1887) of the railroad and became an
 industrial city after the discovery of gas (1918) and oil (1921).

   amaryllis

 amaryllis, common name for some members of the Amaryllidaceae, a family
 of mostly perennial plants with flat, narrow leaves and lilylike flowers
 borne on separate, leafless stalks. Widely distributed, they are found
 especially in tropical and subtropical lowlands. Ornamentals of the
 family are mistaken for plants of the LILY family, which differ in the
 position of the ovary (see FLOWER). The family includes the
 showy-blossomed true amaryllis, or belladonna lily (Amaryllis
 belladonna); NARCISSUS; and the snowdrops (genus Galanthus), whose small,
 early-blooming flowers are symbolic of consolation and promise. The genus
 Agave, the tropical American counterpart of the African genus ALOE,
 contains the most economically important plants in the family. Different
 agaves provide soap, food, beverages, and fiber (see SISAL HEMP).

   Amaury

 Amaury. For persons thus named, see AMALRIC.

   Amazon

 Amazon, world's second longest river, flowing c.3,900 mi (6,280 km) west
 across N South America to enter the Atlantic Ocean through a wide delta
 in N Brazil. It is formed by the junction in N Peru of the Ucayili and
 Maranon rivers. It has more than 500 tributaries, drains c.40% of the
 continent, and carries more water than any other river in the world. The
 Amazon traverses a sparsely populated and largely undeveloped region that
 contains the world's largest rain forest (selva). There are no waterfalls
 or other obstructions along its course, and ships of 14-ft (4-m) draft
 can travel very nearly its full length (to Iquitos, Peru). Belem and
 Manaus in Brazil are other ports.

   Amazon

 Amazon, in Greek mythology, one of a tribe of warlike women from Asia
 Minor. The Amazons had a matriarchal society, in which women governed and
 fought while men performed the household tasks. Several Greek heroes
 proved their mettle against Amazons, e.g., HERCULES and THESEUS.

   amber

 amber, yellow to brown fossil RESIN exuded by coniferous trees now
 extinct; the best amber is transparent. Highly polished amber is used to
 make small decorative objects, e.g., beads and amulets. When rubbed with
 a cloth, amber becomes charged with static electricity. Bubbles of air,
 leaves, bits of wood, or insects, sometimes of extinct species, are often
 found trapped in amber. The chief source of the world's amber is the
 Baltic coast of Germany.

   ambergris

 ambergris, a waxlike substance that is formed in the intestine of the
 sperm whale. It is found floating on tropical seas or cast up on the
 shore in yellow, gray, black, or variegated masses. Greatly valued from
 earliest times, ambergris is now used as a fixative in perfumes.

   Ambler, Eric

 Ambler, Eric, 1909-, English novelist. He is the author of popular
 suspense stories, usually involving international intrigue, e.g., A
 Coffin for Dimitrios (1939), To Catch a Spy (1964), and The Care of Time
 (1981).

   Amboise, Jacques d'

 Amboise, Jacques d': see D'AMBOISE, JACQUES.

   Ambrose, Saint

 Ambrose, Saint, 340?-397, bishop of MILAN, Doctor of the Church. A
 popular governor in Milan, Ambrose was made (374) bishop by popular
 demand. He opposed ARIANISM and was an adviser to Emperor Gratian, whom
 he persuaded to outlaw (379) heresy in the West. His preaching helped to
 convert St. AUGUSTINE. Ambrose wrote many theological works and is
 associated with the type of PLAINSONG called Ambrosian chant. Feast: Dec.
 7.

   Ambrosian Library

 Ambrosian Library: see LIBRARY.

   ameba

 ameba: see AMOEBA.

   Ameling, Elly

 Ameling, Elly, 1938-, Dutch soprano. Although she has sung opera, she is
 noted for her sensitive interpretations of French and German art songs,
 particularly the LIEDER of Schubert. She made her U.S. debut in New York
 City in 1968.

   Amen

 Amen: see AMON.

   Amenemhet I

 Amenemhet I, d. 1970 BC, king of EGYPT founder of the XII dynasty that
 initiated the Middle Kingdom. He centralized the government in a
 virtually feudal form. The dynasty enabled the arts and science to
 flourish.

   Amenhotep I

 Amenhotep I or Amenophis I, fl. 1570 BC, king of EGYPT of the XVIII
 dynasty. A great military leader, he extended Egypt's power E to the
 Euphrates and S to the second cataract of the NILE. THUTMOSE I succeeded
 him.

   Americana

 Americana, term for material printed in or about the Americas, or written
 by Americans; usually restricted to the formative period in the history
 of the two continents. Thus the COLUMBUS letter (1493) announcing the
 discovery of the Indies is the earliest item. Early American books are
 also important Americana. The New York Public Library (see LIBRARY,) has
 one of several major collections.

   American Association for the Advancement of Science

 American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), est. 1848 to
 foster scientific freedom, improve the effective application of science
 for human needs, and increase public understanding of science.
 Headquartered in Washington, D.C., it has over 133,000 members in all
 fields and 300 affiliated groups. Among its publications is the weekly
 newsmagazine and journal Science.

   American Ballet Theatre

 American Ballet Theatre (ABT), a foremost international dance company of
 the 20th cent. It was founded as the Mordkin Ballet (1937-40) and was
 known (1940-56) as the Ballet Theater. It presents newly staged classics
 and dances with American themes. Choreographers have included George
 BALANCHINE, Agnes DE MILLE, Jerome ROBBINS, and Antony TUDOR; dancers
 have included Alicia ALONSO, Erik BRUHN, Maria Tallchief, and Igor
 YOUSKEVITCH.

   American Bar Association

 American Bar Association (ABA), organization of lawyers admitted to any
 state bar; est. 1878. It promotes professional activities as well as
 uniformity of U.S. laws, high professional standards, and improved
 judicial administration. ABA committees address such topics as legal
 education, professional ethics, and legal aid for the poor. In 1981 the
 organization had more than 270,000 members.

   American Civil Liberties Union

 American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), nonpartisan organization devoted
 to protecting basic rights set forth in the U.S. CONSTITUTION; est. 1920
 by Jane ADDAMS, Roger BALDWIN, Norman THOMAS, and others. Its special
 concerns are expression of opinion, equality before the law, and due
 process. The ACLU has argued or supported nearly every major U.S. civil
 liberties case since its founding. In 1982 the ACLU had 200,000 members.

   American Colonization Society

 American Colonization Society, organized (Dec. 1816-Jan. 1817) to
 transport free blacks from the U.S. and settle them in Africa. Land
 purchases (1821) in Africa by the society led to the foundation of
 LIBERIA, and more than 11,000 blacks were sent there before 1860. The
 colonization movement was attacked by ABOLITIONISTS and was unpopular
 with many blacks; it declined after 1840.

   American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations

 American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations
 (AFL-CIO), a federation of autonomous trade unions in the U.S., Canada,
 Mexico, Panama, and U.S. territories. It was formed in 1955 by the merger
 of the AFL and the CIO. Although it does not participate directly in
 COLLECTIVE BARGAINING, the AFL-CIO serves as the leading voice of
 American trade unionism, actively lobbying on the national and state
 levels and supporting political candidates. From its founding in 1886,
 the AFL emphasized organization of skilled workers on a craft rather than
 an industrial basis. Under the successive leadership of Samuel GOMPERS,
 William GREEN, and George MEANY, the AFL secured higher wages, shorter
 hours, workmen's compensation, child labor laws, and exemption of labor
 from antitrust legislation. In the early 1930s a strong minority faction
 within the AFL advocated the organization of workers in basic industries
 (such as steel, autos, and rubber) on an industry-wide basis. John L.
 LEWIS led this militant group in forming a Committee for Industrial
 Organization, which, after expulsion from the parent body in 1938,
 changed its name to the Congress of Industrial Organizations. The CIO,
 under the presidency of Lewis and later of Philip MURRAY, enjoyed
 considerable success. In 1955, however, at a time of growing labor
 concern over the perceived anti-union policies of the Eisenhower
 administration, the two organizations merged, with Meany as president,
 and adopted the present name. Ultimate authority in the AFL-CIO is vested
 in a biennial convention; the executive council governs between
 conventions. In 1988 the federation had 105 national affiliates, 51
 state-level federations (including Puerto Rico), and 741 city central
 bodies and direct affiliates. Membership totaled about 14,100,000. See
 also UNION, LABOR.

   American foxhound

 American foxhound: see FOXHOUND.

   American Fur Company

 American Fur Company, chartered (1808) by John Jacob ASTOR to rival
 Canadian fur companies. The company gained a virtual monopoly of the
 Great Lakes trade and expanded W into the Missouri valley and Rocky
 Mountain areas.

   American Indian languages

 American Indian languages, languages of the native peoples of the Western
 Hemisphere and their descendants. The classification "American Indian
 languages" is geographical rather than linguistic, since these languages
 do not belong to a single linguistic family, or stock, such as the
 Indo-European language family. The American Indian languages cannot be
 differentiated as a linguistic unit from other languages of the world,
 but are grouped into a number of separate linguistic stocks having
 significantly different phonetics, vocabulary, and grammars. There is no
 part of the world with as many distinctly different native languages as
 the Western Hemisphere.

   American Indian Movement

 American Indian Movement (AIM), activist organization of the American
 Indian civil rights movement, est. 1968. After briefly occupying (Nov.
 1972) the Bureau of INDIAN AFFAIRS to protest programs controlling Indian
 development, in 1973 AIM members led 200 SIOUX in a 71-day takeover of
 WOUNDED KNEE, S.Dak., to demand a review of 300 treaties with the U.S.
 government. AIM also sponsored talks resulting in the 1977 International
 Treaty Conference with the UN in Geneva, Switzerland.

   American Indians

 American Indians: see MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS; NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS;
 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS; and individual tribes. See also AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES; AMERICAN INDIANS, PREHISTORY OF.

   American Indians, prehistory of

 American Indians, prehistory of. It is generally agreed that the first
 humans to inhabit the Americas crossed the BERING STRAIT from NE Asia in
 migration waves beginning before 30,000 BC By 8000 BC, Indians had spread
 throughout the Americas. Major Paleolithic cultures were created c.20,000
 BC by seminomadic big-game hunters of the Great Plains of North America.
 Earliest evidence of human occupation in Middle and South America dates
 from 30,000 BC Between 5000 BC and 1000 BC, agriculture, pottery, and
 complex social systems throughout the Americas marked the end of the
 STONE AGE and the rise of the high Indian civilizations. See MIDDLE
 AMERICAN INDIANS; NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS; SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS; and
 articles on individual tribes.

   American Museum of Natural History

 American Museum of Natural History, New York City, inc. 1869; est. to
 promote the study of natural science and related subjects. Buildings on
 its present site were opened in 1877. The Hayden Planetarium was added in
 1935 and the Roosevelt Memorial building in 1936. The museum's
 explorations and research programs have provided it with specimens and
 data of great value; it maintains exhibitions in all branches of natural
 history.

   American Negro spiritual

 American Negro spiritual: see SPIRITUAL.

   American party

 American party: see KNOW-NOTHING MOVEMENT.

   American Revolution

 American Revolution, 1775-83, struggle by which the THIRTEEN COLONIES
 that were to become the United States won independence from Britain. By
 the middle of the 18th cent., differences in life, thought, and economic
 interests had formed between the colonies and the mother country. The
 British government, favoring a policy of MERCANTILISM, tried to regulate
 colonial commerce in the British interest, and provoked colonial
 opposition. The STAMP ACT passed by Parliament in 1765 roused a violent
 colonial outcry as an act of taxation without representation. The
 TOWNSHEND ACTS (1767) led to such acts of violence as the BOSTON MASSACRE
 (1770), the burning of the H.M.S. Gaspee (1772), and the BOSTON TEA PARTY
 (1773). In 1774 Britain responded with the coercive INTOLERABLE ACTS. The
 colonists convened the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS and petitioned the king for
 redress of their grievances. Fighting erupted on Apr. 19, 1775, at
 LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, and was followed by the capture of Fort
 Ticonderoga from the British, the battle of BUNKER HILL, and the
 unsuccessful colonial assault on Quebec (1775-76). The Continental
 Congress appointed (1775) George WASHINGTON to command the Continental
 army and, on July 4, 1776, adopted the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. Many
 colonists, however, remained pro-British Loyalists. The colonial victory
 in the SARATOGA CAMPAIGN (1777) helped forge a French-American alliance
 (1778), bringing vital aid to the colonists. Following the terrible
 ordeal of Washingon's army at VALLEY FORGE and the indecisive battle of
 MONMOUTH (1778), the war shifted to the South during the Carolina

 close of the YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN ended the fighting, and the Treaty of
 Paris (1783) recognized the U.S. as a nation.

   American Samoa

 American Samoa, unincorporated territory of the U.S. (1987 est. pop.
 38,400), 76 sq mi (197 sq km), comprising the eastern half of the Samoa
 island chain in the South Pacific. The major islands are Tutuila, the
 Manu'a group, Rose and Sand, and Swains. Pago Pago, the capital, is on
 Tutuila. The islands are mountainous and wooded; agriculture, fish
 canning, and some light industry are conducted. The Polynesian natives,
 considered U.S. nationals, elect a governor and legislature, and send a
 nonvoting delegate to Congress. American Samoa, defined by treaty in
 1899, was administered by the U.S. Dept. of the Navy until 1951, when it
 passed to Dept. of the Interior jurisdiction.

   American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

 American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA),
 founded (1866) in the U.S. to shelter homeless animals, assist in
 livestock care, and help to enforce game laws. It is modeled on England's
 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded 1824).

   americium

 americium (Am), synthetic radioactive element, discovered by Glenn
 SEABORG and colleagues in 1944 by neutron bombardment of plutonium. The
 silver-white metal is in the ACTINIDE SERIES. Half-lives of the many
 isotopes range from 1.3 hr to over 7,000 years. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC
 TABLE.

   amethyst

 amethyst, most highly valued variety of QUARTZ, violet to purple in
 color, used as a GEM. Amethyst is found in Brazil, Uruguay, Sri Lanka,
 Siberia, and North America. It has superstitious associations, being
 regarded as a love charm, a sleeping aid, and a guard against thieves and
 drunkenness.

   Amharic

 Amharic, language of ETHIOPIA. It belongs to the Ethiopic group of
 Hamito-Semitic languages. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES.

   Amherst, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron

 Amherst, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron, 1717-97, British army officer. During
 the last of the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS, he commanded British forces at
 the capture of Louisbourg, N.S. (1758), TICONDEROGA (1759), and Montreal
 (1760). Amherst, Mass., and Amherst College are named for him.

   Amiens

 Amiens, city (1982 pop. 136,358), capital of Somme dept., N France. A
 textile and farm-market center, it has been occupied by many invaders;
 after being devastated in both world wars the city was rebuilt. Its
 Cathedral of Notre Dame (begun c.1220) is France's largest Gothic
 cathedral.

   Amiens, Treaty of

 Amiens, Treaty of: see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.

   Amin, Idi

 Amin, Idi, c.1925-, president of UGANDA (1971-79). Seizing control of the
 government from Milton OBOTE in 1971, he instituted a harsh and brutal
 regime and expelled Uganda's Asian population. He was driven into exile
 in 1979.

   amino acid

 amino acid, any of a class of organic compounds having a carboxyl group
 (COOH) and an amino group (NH2). Some 22 amino acids are commonly found
 in animals and more than 100 less common forms are found in nature,
 chiefly in plants. When the carboxyl carbon atom of one amino acid binds
 to the nitrogen of another with the release of a water molecule, a
 linkage called a peptide bond is formed. Chains of amino acids, joined
 head-to-tail in this manner, are synthesized by living systems and are
 called polypeptides (up to about 50 amino acids) and PROTEINS (over 50
 aminoacids). The process of digestion (see DIGESTIVE SYSTEM) releases
 individual amino acids from food protein by cleaving the peptide bonds.

   Amis, Kingsley

 Amis, Kingsley, 1922-, English novelist. He is best known for Lucky Jim
 (1953), a brilliant satire on academic life. Later novels include That
 Certain Feeling (1955), Jake's Thing (1979), and Stanley and the Women
 (1985). Amis also writes espionage novels, poetry, and nonfiction.

   Amman

 Amman, city (1984 est. pop. 777,500), capital of Jordan, N central
 Jordan, on the Jabbok R. Jordan's largest city and industrial and
 commercial heart, Amman is a transportation hub, especially for pilgrims
 en route to MECCA. It is noted for its colored marble; textiles, cement,
 and other manufactures are produced. Amman is the biblical Rabbah, the
 Ammonite capital. It fell to King David, Assyria, Rome, and other
 conquerors. After the Arab conquest (635) it declined, reviving as the
 capital of Trans-Jordan after 1921. Palestinian refugees swelled the
 population after the Arab-Israel Wars of 1948 and 1967. The city's
 historic structures include a Roman amphitheater.

   ammeter

 ammeter, instrument used to measure, in AMPERES, the magnitude of an
 electric current. An ammeter is usually combined with a VOLTMETER and an
 OHMMETER in a multipurpose instrument. Although most ammeters are based
 on the d'Arsonval GALVANOMETER and are of the analog type, digital
 ammeters are becoming increasingly common.

   Ammon

 Ammon: see AMON.

   ammonia

 ammonia, chemical compound (NH3), colorless gas with a characteristic
 pungent, penetrating odor. It is extremely soluble in water. Ammonia
 solutions are used to clean, bleach, and deodorize; to etch aluminum; to
 saponify oils and fats; and in chemical manufacture. Ammonia and ammonia
 vapors are irritating-prolonged exposure and inhalation cause serious
 injury and may be fatal. Water-free ammonia is used in REFRIGERATION. The
 major use of ammonia and its compounds is as FERTILIZERS. Ammonia is
 usually produced by direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen at high
 temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst.

   amnesia

 amnesia, condition characterized by loss of memory for long or short
 intervals. It may be caused by physical injury, SHOCK, senility, or
 severe illness. In other cases, a painful experience and everything
 remindful of it, including the individual's identity, is unconsciously
 repressed (see DEFENSE MECHANISM). Attempts to cure this type of amnesia
 include efforts to establish associations with the past through
 suggestion and HYPNOSIS.

   amnesty

 amnesty, in law, exemption from prosecution for some criminal action. It
 is distinguished from a pardon (see SENTENCE), which is an act of
 forgiveness following conviction. Amnesties are usually extended to
 groups of persons involved in disorders or insurrections; after the Civil
 War the U.S. granted a qualified amnesty to the Confederate forces.

   Amnesty International

 Amnesty International (AI), organization (est. 1961) that campaigns
 against the detention of political prisoners and against other human
 rights violations throughout the world. It was awarded the Nobel Peace
 Prize in 1977 after effecting the release of more than 10,000 prisoners.
 In 1988 the organization had 300,000 members.

   amniocentesis

 amniocentesis, diagnostic procedure in which a sample of the amniotic
 fluid surrounding the fetus is removed from the uterus with a fine needle
 inserted through the abdomen of the pregnant woman (see PREGNANCY). Fetal
 cells in the fluid can be grown in the laboratory and studied to detect
 the presence of certain genetic disorders (e.g., DOWN'S SYNDROME,
 TAY-SACHS DISEASE) or physical abnormalities. Generally recommended when
 there is a family history of genetic disorders or when the woman is over
 age 35, the procedure is usually carried out around the 14th or 15th week
 of pregnancy, when there is sufficient amniotic fluid and ABORTION is
 still an option. See also BIRTH DEFECTS.

   Amnon

 Amnon, DAVID'S eldest son. He raped his half sister Tamar and was killed
 for it by her brother ABSALOM. 2 Sam. 13.

   amoeba

 amoeba or ameba,one-celled organism (class Sarcodina) in the phylum
 PROTOZOA. Amoebas constantly change their body shape as they form
 temporary extensions called pseudopods, or false feet, used for feeding
 and locomotion. Most amoebas range from 5 to 20 microns in diameter. They
 engulf their prey (diatoms, algae, bacteria) with their pseudopods,
 forming vacuoles in which food is digested by ENZYMES. Reproduction is
 usually by binary fission (splitting) to produce two daughter amoebas,
 the nucleus dividing by MITOSIS; some also reproduce sexually. Amoebas
 live in fresh and marine waters and the upper layers of soil. Many are
 PARASITES of aquatic and terrestrial animals, and some cause disease,
 e.g., amoebic dysentery.

   Amon

 Amon, Ammon , or Amen , ancient Egyptian deity. Originally the chief god
 of Thebes, Amon grew increasingly important in Egypt, and eventually, as
 Amon Ra, he was identified with RA as the supreme deity. He was also
 identified with the Greek ZEUS (the Roman JUPITER).

   Amos

 Amos, book of the OLD TESTAMENT, 30th in order in the Authorized Version,
 third of the Minor PROPHETS. The shepherd-prophet preached in the
 northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (r. c.793-753 BC). The book
 falls into three parts: God's judgment on Gentile nations, finally on
 Israel; three sermons on the doom of Israel; five visions of destruction,
 the last promising redemption.

   Amoy

 Amoy: see XIAMEN.

   Ampere, Andre Marie

 Ampere, Andre Marie, 1775-1836, French physicist, mathematician, and
 natural philosopher. He extended the work of Hans OERSTED on the
 relationship of electricity and magnetism, formulated Ampere's law
 describing the contribution of a current element to magnetic induction,
 and invented the astatic needle. The basic unit of electric current, the
 AMPERE, is named for him.

   ampere

 ampere (amp or A), basic unit of electric current and the fundamental
 electrical unit used with the mks system of units of the METRIC SYSTEM.
 The ampere is officially defined as the current in a pair of equally
 long, parallel, straight wires 1 meter apart that produces a force of
 0.0000002 newton between the wires for each meter of their length.

   amphetamine

 amphetamine, any of a class of powerful drugs that act as stimulants (see
 DRUGS) on the central nervous system. Popularly known as "bennies,"
 "speed," or "uppers," amphetamines enhance mental alertness and the
 ability to concentrate; cause wakefulness, talkativeness, and euphoria;
 and temporarily reverse the effects of fatigue. They have been used to
 treat obesity, narcolepsy and minimal brain dysfunction. Amphetamines can
 produce insomnia, hyperactivity, and irritability, as well as such severe
 systemic disorders as cardiac irregularities, elevated blood pressure,
 and gastric disturbances. The drugs are addictive and easily abused;
 addiction can result in psychosis or death from overexhaustion or cardiac
 arrest (see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE).

   amphibian

 amphibian, cold-blooded animal of the class Amphibia, the most primitive
 of terrestrial VERTEBRATES. Unlike REPTILES, the amphibians, which
 include FROGS and TOADS, SALAMANDERS and newts, and the limbless
 CAECILIANS, have moist skins without scales or with small, hidden scales.
 Most amphibians deposit their eggs in water or a moist, protected place.
 The young undergo METAMORPHOSIS from aquatic, water-breathing, limbless
 TADPOLES to terrestrial or partly terrestrial, air-breathing, four-legged
 adults.

   amphibious warfare

 amphibious warfare, use of combined land and sea forces to take a
 military objective, typically through an air-supported assault on an
 enemy coastline. Although the strategy is ancient, e.g., the Athenian
 attack on Sicily in 415 BC, the term came into widespread use during
 WORLD WAR II. Early in the war, coordinated land, sea, and air attacks by
 the Japanese in the SW Pacific met little opposition. By contrast, Allied
 attacks on Europe and the Pacific islands were mounted against heavily
 defended coasts, requiring construction of special vessels (called
 landing craft) that were seaworthy and yet capable of allowing TANKS and
 fully equipped INFANTRY to disembark in shallow water. Such landings were
 preceded and accompanied by continuous air and naval bombardment of
 coastal defenses. By this method the Allies were able to invade such
 Pacific strongholds as Saipan (1944), Iwo Jima (1945), and Okinawa
 (1945), and to launch the most spectacular amphibious invasion in
 history, on the coast of Normandy, France, on June 6, 1944. Amphibious
 landings later occurred in the KOREAN WAR and VIETNAM WAR and in the
 British attack (1982) on the FALKLAND ISLANDS.

   amphitheater

 amphitheater, open structure for the exhibition of gladiatorial contests
 and spectacles, built in cities throughout the Roman Empire, e.g., at
 Rome (see COLOSSEUM), Arles (France), and Cirencester (England). The
 typical amphitheater was elliptical, with seats rising around a central
 arena; quarters for the gladiators and animals were under the arena. The
 word is now used for various quite unrelated structures.

   amphoterism

 amphoterism, in chemistry, the property of certain compounds of acting
 either as acids or as bases (see ACIDS AND BASES), depending on the
 reaction in which they are involved. Many hydroxide compounds and organic
 molecules that contain both acidic (e.g., carboxyl) and basic (e.g.,
 amino) FUNCTIONAL GROUPS are usually amphoteric.

   amplifier

 amplifier, device in which a varying input signal controls a flow of
 energy to produce an output signal that varies in the same way but has a
 larger amplitude; the input signal may be a current, a voltage, a
 mechanical motion, or any other signal, and the output signal is usually
 of the same nature. The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage
 is called the voltage gain. The most common types of amplifiers are
 electronic and have TRANSISTORS as their principal components. In most
 cases today, transistors are incorporated into INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT chips.
 Most amplifiers include more than one transistor. Transistor amplifiers
 are used in RADIO and TELEVISION transmitters and receivers, stereophonic
 RECORD PLAYERS, and intercoms.

   amplitude modulation

 amplitude modulation: see MODULATION.

   Amru al-Kais

 Amru al-Kais, fl. 6th cent., Arabic poet, long esteemed by Arabs as the
 model for erotic poetry. Like much pre-Islamic poetry, his verse is
 subjective and stylistically perfect.

   Amsterdam

 Amsterdam, constitutional capital and largest city (1987 pop. 682,702) of
 the Netherlands, on the Ij and Amstel rivers. It is a major port joined
 with the North Sea and the Rhine by canals. One of Europe's great
 commercial, intellectual, and artistic capitals, it has a major stock
 exchange and is a diamond-cutting center. It is built on piles and is cut
 by some 40 canals crossed by about 400 bridges. Chartered c.1300, it
 joined the HANSEATIC LEAGUE in 1369 and the anti-Spanish Netherland
 provinces in 1578. An influx of refugees contributed to its growth, and
 the city reached its apex in the 17th cent. After French rule (1795-1814)
 it became the Dutch capital. Amsterdam suffered greatly under German
 occupation (1940-45) during WORLD WAR II. Points of interest include the
 city hall (16th cent.); the university (est. 1632); the Rijks Museum,
 with its Rembrandts and other Dutch master paintings; and the municipal
 museum, with its Van Gogh collection.

   Amu Darya

 Amu Darya, river, central Asian USSR, known to the ancient Greeks and
 Persians as the Oxus. It is c.1,600 mi (2,580 km) long and flows
 generally northwest from sources in the snow-capped Pamirs through the
 Kara-Kum desert to a large delta on the ARAL SEA. In the early 1980s the
 Soviet government announced a plan to increase the flow of the river,
 which irrigates parts of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, by diverting to it
 some of the waters of the IRTYSH R.

   Amundsen, Roald

 Amundsen, Roald, 1872-1928, Norwegian explorer. He commanded the first
 single ship to sail through the NORTHWEST PASSAGE (1903-6) and was the
 first man to reach the South Pole (1911). In 1926, with the aviator
 Umberto Nobile and the financier Lincoln ELLSWORTH, Amundsen took part in
 the first airplane flight over the North Pole. When Nobile crashed in the
 Arctic in 1928, Amundsen was killed in the rescue attempt. His works,
 which include The South Pole (1913), have added much to knowledge of the
 polar regions.

   Amur

 Amur, river, c.1,800 mi (2,900 km) long, NE Asia. It flows generally
 southeast, forming for more than 1,000 mi (1,610 km) the border between
 the Soviet Union and China, then northeast through the Far Eastern USSR,
 entering the Tartar Strait opposite SAKHALIN Island. Its chief
 tributaries are the USSURI and SUNGARI. The river is navigable by small
 craft for its entire length during the ice-free season (May-Nov.)

   Amurath

 Amurath. For Ottoman sultans thus named, see MURAD.

   Anabaptists

 Anabaptists, name applied, originally in scorn, to certain Christian
 sects holding that infant baptism is not authorized in Scripture, but
 that baptism should be administered only to believers. Prominent in
 Europe during the 16th cent., they were persecuted everywhere. Their
 chief leaders were Thomas MUNZER and JOHN OF LEIDEN. MENNONITES and
 Hutterites are descended from them.

   Anabasis

 Anabasis: see XENOPHON.

   anaconda

 anaconda: see BOA.

   Anacreon

 Anacreon, fl. c.521 BC, Greek LYRIC poet, celebrator of love and wine.
 The Anacreontics, in his style, were written from Hellenistic to late
 Byzantine times.

   anae-

 anae-. For words beginning thus, see ane-.

   Anaheim

 Anaheim, city (1986 est. pop. 240,730), Orange co., S Calif., SE of LOS
 ANGELES; founded 1857, inc. 1876. A major tourist center, Anaheim
 contains the amusement complex Disneyland (opened 1955); Anaheim Stadium,
 home of the California Angels baseball team; and the Anaheim Convention
 Center. It is also the site of a large electronic equipment industry.

   analgesic

 analgesic, a drug used to relieve pain. Analgesics include nonnarcotics,
 such as ASPIRIN and other salicylates, which also reduce fever and
 inflammation; NARCOTICS, such as MORPHINE and CODEINE; and synthetic
 narcotics with morphinelike action, such as propoxyphene (Darvon) and
 meperidine (Demerol). Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is often given to
 individuals sensitive or allergic to salicylates.

   analog circuit

 analog circuit, ELECTRIC CIRCUIT in which the output voltage and current
 values are considered significant over a continuum. Analog circuits may
 be used for such purposes as amplifying signals corresponding to sound
 waves. See also DIGITAL CIRCUITS.

   analog computer

 analog computer: see COMPUTER.

   analog-to-digital conversion

 analog-to-digital conversion, the process of changing continuously
 varying data into digital quantities that represent the magnitude of the
 data at the moment the conversion is made. The most common use is to
 change analog signals into a form that can be manipulated by digital
 COMPUTER, as in data communications. See also DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG
 CONVERSION.

   analysis

 analysis, branch of MATHEMATICS that uses the concepts and methods of the
 CALCULUS. It includes basic calculus; advanced calculus, in which such
 underlying concepts as that of a LIMIT are subjected to rigorous
 examination; differential and integral equations, in which the unknowns
 are FUNCTIONS rather than numbers; VECTOR and tensor analysis;
 differential geometry; and many other fields.

   analytical chemistry

 analytical chemistry: see CHEMISTRY.

   analytic geometry

 analytic geometry, branch of GEOMETRY in which points are represented
 with respect to a coordinate system, such as CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
 Analytic geometry was introduced by Rene DESCARTES in 1637 and was of
 fundamental importance in the development of the CALCULUS by Sir Isaac
 NEWTON and G.W. LEIBNIZ in the late 17th cent. Its most common
 application-the representation of EQUATIONS involving two or three
 variables as curves in two or three DIMENSIONS or surfaces in three
 dimensions-allows problems in ALGEBRA to be treated geometrically and
 geometric problems to be treated algebraically. The methods of analytic
 geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been
 combined with other branches of geometry.

   anarchism

 anarchism, political philosophy and movement that seeks the abolition of
 government, arguing that people, although naturally good, are corrupted
 by artificial institutions. Anarchism dates from the ancient Greeks, but
 its modern form was outlined (18th and 19th cent.) by William GODWIN,
 P.J. PROUDHON, and others. In Russia, given a violent and collectivist
 tone by Mikhail BAKUNIN, it was outlawed by the Bolsheviks after the
 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION. Only in the Latin countries of Europe, where it was
 linked to SYNDICALISM, did it gain a mass following by the end of the
 19th cent. After the HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT (1886) and the assassination
 of Pres. MCKINLEY, fear of anarchism caused the U.S. in 1901 to forbid
 anarchists from entering the country. Today anarchism remains important
 as a philosophical and political theory, not as an active political
 movement.

   Anatolia

 Anatolia, Asian part of Turkey, usually synonymous with ASIA MINOR.

   Anatolian languages

 Anatolian languages, subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages.
 See LANGUAGE.

   anatomy

 anatomy, branch of biology concerned with the study of the body structure
 of plants and animals. Comparative anatomy considers structural
 similarities and differences of various organisms, forming the basis of
 CLASSIFICATION. Human anatomy emphasizes individual systems composed of
 groups of TISSUES and organs. See also PHYSIOLOGY.

   Anaxagoras

 Anaxagoras, c.500-428 BC, Greek philosopher, thought to have been the
 teacher of SOCRATES. He held that an all-pervading nous (world-mind)
 ordered the physical world by combining particles from the
 undifferentiated mass of the universe.

   Anaximander

 Anaximander, c.611-c.547 BC, pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. His notions
 of the infinite or indefinite (apeiron) and its processes prefigured the
 later concept of the indestructibility of matter, while other views
 anticipated the theory of evolution and certain laws of astronomy.

   ancestor worship

 ancestor worship, ritualized propitiation and invocation of dead kin,
 based on the belief that spirits influence the fate of the living. A
 widespread ancient practice, it reached its most elaborate forms in W
 Africa and China. It also exists in the Japanese SHINTO cult and among
 peoples of Melanesia.

   Anchises

 Anchises, in Greek mythology, Trojan shepherd; father of AENEAS by
 APHRODITE.

   Anchorage

 Anchorage, city (1986 est. pop. 235,000), Anchorage Borough, S central
 Alaska, at the head of Cook Inlet; inc. 1920. Founded (1915) as a
 railroad town, it has grown into the state's largest city as well as the
 administrative and commercial heart of S central and W Alaska. It is one
 of the nation's major defense centers and a transportation hub. Tourism
 is important, and there is a busy international airport. The city's rapid
 growth is due largely to its position as the focus of Alaska's expanding
 coal, oil, and gas industries.

   anchovy

 anchovy: see HERRING.

   Ancren Riwle

 Ancren Riwle or Ancrene Wisse  [Mid. Eng.,=anchoresses' rule], anonymous
 English tract, c.1200, instructing young ladies about to become religious
 recluses. Realistic and humorous, it reveals much about the manners of
 the time.

   Andalusia

 Andalusia, region (33,675 sq mi/87,218 sq km), on the Mediterranean Sea,
 the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's largest and most
 populous region, it occupies all of S Spain. Grapes, olives, citrus, and
 other crops are grown in its subtropical climate. Mineral resources
 include copper, iron, and zinc. It was settled (11th cent. BC) by the
 Phoenicians and later ruled by Carthage (6th cent. BC), Rome (3d cent.
 BC), and the Visigoths (5th cent. AD). In 711 the MOORS conquered
 Andalusia. Christian Spain ended the long reconquest of the region when
 GRANADA fell in 1492. In 1713 Spain ceded GIBRALTAR to Britain.

   Andersen, Hans Christian

 Andersen, Hans Christian, 1805-75, Danish writer of fairy tales.
 Poverty-ridden and a failure as an actor, Andersen won the generous
 patronage of King Frederick VI with his poetry. Though noted for a time
 as a novelist, e.g., The Improvisatore (1835), it was his later fairy
 tales that established him as Denmark's greatest author and a storyteller
 without peer. His sense of fantasy, power of description, and acute
 sensitivity contributed to his mastery of the genre. Among his many
 widely beloved tales are "The Little Match Girl," "The Ugly Duckling,"
 "The Snow Queen," and "The Red Shoes."

   Andersen Nexoo, Martin

 Andersen Nexoo, Martin, 1869-1954, Danish novelist. His famous
 proletarian novels Pelle the Conqueror (1906-10) and Ditte, Daughter of
 Mankind (1917-21) focus attention on conditions of poverty in Denmark.

   Anderson, Carl David

 Anderson, Carl David, 1905-, American physicist; b. N.Y.C. For his
 discovery of the positron in 1932, he shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in
 Physics with V.F. Hess. He is also credited as one of the discoverers of
 the muon (see ELEMENTARY PARTICLES) in 1936.

   Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett

 Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, 1836-1917, English physician. After
 obtaining a private medical education under accredited physicians and in
 London hospitals and becoming licensed (1865) in Scotland, she opened
 (1866) a dispensary, later a small hospital, for women and children in
 London, the first in England to be staffed by women physicians. Largely
 through her efforts, British examining boards opened their examinations
 to women.

   Anderson, Marian

 Anderson, Marian, 1902-, black American contralto; b. Philadelphia. She
 was the first black to be named (1955) a permanent member of the
 METROPOLITAN OPERA COMPANY, and was also the first black to perform in
 the White House. In 1958 she was an alternate delegate to the UN.

   Anderson, Maxwell

 Anderson, Maxwell, 1888-1959, American dramatist; b. Atlantic, Pa. His
 plays, many written in verse, usually concern social and moral problems.
 His dramas include What Price Glory? (1924), Elizabeth the Queen (1930),
 Winterset (1935), Anne of the Thousand Days (1948), and The Bad Seed
 (1954).

   Anderson, Sherwood

 Anderson, Sherwood, 1876-1941, American writer; b. Camden, Ohio. He was a
 strongly American writer, experimental and poetic, whose greatest novel,
 Winesburg, Ohio (1919), explores the loneliness and frustration of
 small-town lives. His other novels include Poor White (1920) and Dark
 Laughter (1925). Some of his finest work is in his compassionate and
 penetrating short stories, e.g., the collections The Triumph of the Egg
 (1921) and Death in the Woods (1933).

   Andersonville

 Andersonville, village (1980 pop. 267), SW Georgia, inc. 1881. It was the
 site of a notorious Confederate prison, now a national historic site,
 where dreadful conditions led to the death of over 12,000 Union soldiers.
 Andersonville National Cemetery, with over 13,000 soldiers' graves, is
 nearby.

   Andersson, Dan

 Andersson, Dan, 1888-1920, Swedish poet and novelist, one of the
 country's foremost writers. His works, treating religious and
 metaphysical themes, include the tales in The Charcoal-Burner's Tales
 (1914) and the novel Three Homeless Ones (1918).

   Andes

 Andes, great mountain system, extending c.4,500 mi (7,200 km) north to
 south in South America, generally parallel to the Pacific coast. The
 mountains reach a high point of 22,835 ft (6,960 m) in ACONCAGUA (highest
 point in the Western Hemisphere) and include many other snow-capped peaks
 over 22,000 ft (6,700 m). The system widens in Bolivia and Peru to form
 multiple ranges and a high, densely populated plateau (ALTIPLANO), where
 the great civilization of the INCAS had its home. Copper, silver, and tin
 are mined, and oil has been found in the northern foothills. The Andes
 are geologically young and still rising. Volcanic eruptions and
 earthquakes are common.

   Ando Hiroshige

 Ando Hiroshige: see HIROSHIGE.

   Andorra

 Andorra, Fr. Andorre, autonomous principality (1984 pop. 42,712), 191 sq
 mi (495 sq km), SW Europe, between France and Spain, comprising several
 high valleys in the E Pyrenees. The capital is Andorra la Vella.
 Sheep-raising, minerals (iron, lead, marble), timber, and a growing
 tourist trade are the principal sources of income for the
 Catalan-speaking, Roman Catholic population. In 1278 Andorra was put
 under the joint suzerainty of a French count, whose rights passed to the
 president of France, and the bishop of Urgel (Spain). In fact it is
 independent, governed by an elected council and syndic.

   Andrassy, Julius, Count

 Andrassy, Julius, Count, 1823-90, Hungarian politician. A leading figure
 in the unsuccessful Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, he lived in exile
 until 1858. He later took part (1867) in the creation of the
 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY. As premier of Hungary (1867-71) Andrassy
 established Magyar supremacy over the Slavs in Hungary. He was foreign
 minister of the Dual Monarchy (1871-79) and signed (1879) the Dual
 Alliance with Germany. His son Julius, Count Andrassy, 1860-1929, also
 foreign minister, tried (1918) to obtain a separate peace for
 Austria-Hungary in WORLD WAR I.

   Andre, Carl

 Andre, Carl, 1935-, American sculptor; b. Quincy, Mass. His classic,
 elemental sculptures reflect the philosophy of MINIMAL ART. Andre is well
 known for his floor pieces, e.g., 144 Pieces of Lead (Mus. of Modern Art,
 N.Y.C.).

   Andre, John

 Andre, John, 1751-80, British spy in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. He was
 captured and hanged after negotiating with Benedict ARNOLD for the
 surrender of WEST POINT to the British.

   Andrea del Sarto

 Andrea del Sarto: see SARTO, ANDREA DEL.

   Andrew, Saint

 Andrew, Saint, one of the Twelve Disciples, brother of Simon PETER. He is
 patron saint of Russia and Scotland.

   Andrew II

 Andrew II, d. 1235, king of HUNGARY (1205-35). He was forced to issue
 (1222) the Golden Bull, the "Magna Carta" of Hungary, which extended
 privileges to the lesser nobles. He took part (1217) in the Fifth
 CRUSADE.

   Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich

 Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich, 1871-1919, Russian writer. His early
 stories, realistic studies of everyday life, were praised by GORKY, but
 when the Bolsheviks took power in 1917 he broke with Gorky politically
 and emigrated to Finland. His popularity declined when he turned to
 mysticism and allegory. His fiction includes The Red Laugh (1905) and The
 Seven That Were Hanged (1908). His best-known play is the expressionistic
 He Who Gets Slapped (1916).

   Andric, Ivo

 Andric, Ivo, 1892-1975, Yugoslav writer. His work includes poetry,
 essays, short stories, and novels, the best known being his Bosnian
 historical trilogy (1945) The Bridge on the Drina, Bosnian Story, and
 Young Miss. In 1961 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.

   Andromache

 Andromache, in Greek myth, wife of HECTOR of Troy; mother of Astyanax.
 After the TROJAN WAR, ACHILLES' son Neoptolemus abducted her; EURIPIDES
 and RACINE dramatized her captivity. Later she married Hector's brother
 Helenus.

   Andromeda

 Andromeda, in Greek myth, princess of Ethiopia; daughter of Cepheus and
 Cassiopeia. POSEIDON, angered by her mother's claim that her beauty
 outshone that of the nereids, sent a sea monster that could be appeased
 only by her sacrifice. She was rescued by PERSEUS, who slew the monster
 and married her. Andromeda and her parents became constellations.

   Andromeda Galaxy

 Andromeda Galaxy, closest spiral GALAXY (2 million LIGHT-YEARS distant)
 to our MILKY WAY galaxy. They are similar in shape and composition. The
 Andromeda galaxy, visible to the naked eye as a faint patch in the
 constellation Andromeda, is about 120,000 light-years in diameter and
 contains at least 200 billion stars.

   Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich

 Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich, 1914-84, Soviet public official, general
 secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1982-). He was head
 of the K.G.B. (1967-82), became (1973) a member of the Politburo, and
 succeeded to the USSR's most powerful office on the death of Leonid
 BREZHNEV. He was an ideological conservative and potential bureaucratic
 reformer.

   Andros, Sir Edmund

 Andros, Sir Edmund, 1637-1714, British colonial governor in America. He
 was bitterly criticized for his high-handedness as governor (1674-81) of
 New York. Named (1686) governor of the Dominion of New England, Andros
 was deposed (1689) by Boston colonists. He was later governor (1692-97)
 of VIRGINIA.

   anemia

 anemia, condition resulting from a reduction in HEMOGLOBIN content or in
 number of red blood cells (erythrocytes). Although the causes of anemia
 vary, because of the blood's reduced capacity to carry oxygen all types
 exhibit similar symptoms-pallor, weakness, dizziness, fatigue, and, in
 severe cases, breathing difficulties and heart abnormalities. Therapy
 includes identifying and treating the underlying cause. See SICKLE-CELL
 ANEMIA.

   anemone

 anemone or windflower,wild or cultivated perennial herb (genus Anemone)
 of the BUTTERCUP family. Anemones, which contain a poisonous compound
 (anemonin), were once used to treat fevers, bruises, and freckles; they
 are often associated with evil and death. The purple- or white-blossomed
 wood anemone A. quinquefolia is also called windflower.

   anesthesia

 anesthesia, loss of sensation, especially that of pain, induced by drugs.
 General anesthesia, first used in surgical procedures in the 1840s,
 induces unconsciousness; halothane and sodium pentothal are two widely
 used general anesthetics. Localized or regional anesthesia is used to
 desensitize the area around the site of application without loss of
 consciousness. Regional anesthetics include spinal anesthetics, primarily
 for lower body surgery; epidural anesthetics for childbirth; and local
 anesthetics (e.g., novocaine and lidocaine) for dental procedures.
 Various anesthetics are often used in combination. See also ACUPUNCTURE.

   angel

 angel, bodiless, immortal spirit, limited in knowledge and power,
 accepted in the traditional belief of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
 The three choirs of angels appear early in the Christian era; the classes
 are, from the highest: seraphim, cherubim, thrones; dominations, virtues,
 powers; principalities, archangels, angels. Angels appear in the Bible,
 often in critical roles, e.g., visiting Abraham and Lot (Gen. 18; 19) and
 announcing the Incarnation to Mary (Luke 1). The cult of guardian angels
 who protect individuals or nations is especially strong in the West. The
 angels of HELL, or devils, led by SATAN, are viewed as initiators of evil
 temptations.

   Angel Falls

 Angel Falls, waterfall, 3,212 ft (979 m) high, on the Churun R., in the
 Guiana Highlands, SE Venezuela. It has the world's highest uninterrupted
 fall (2,648 ft/807 m).

   Angelico, Fra

 Angelico, Fra, c.1400-1455, Florentine painter; b. Guido, or Guidolino,
 di Pietro; also known as Giovanni da Fiesole. First influenced by GENTILE
 DA FABRIANO and then MASACCIO, Fra Angelico developed a style remarkable
 for its purity of line and color. He treated none but religious subjects.
 His works, including the frescoes Annunciation and Noli mi Tangere (both:
 St. Mark's Convent, Florence), show spatial depth and sculptural clarity
 of form-the artistic innovations of his time. Among his paintings in the
 U.S. are the Crucifixion and Nativity (both: Metropolitan Mus.).

   Angel Island

 Angel Island, largest island in San Francisco Bay, Calif. It was
 (1863-1946) a U.S. army base and became a missile and radar site in 1952.
 From 1910 to 1940 it was the entry point for Asian immigrants to the U.S.

   Angell, Sir Norman

 Angell, Sir Norman, 1872?-1967, British internationalist and economist,
 b. Ralph Norman Angell Lane. He gained fame with The Great Illusion
 (1910), in which he proposed that the common economic interests of
 nations make war futile. After World War I he worked for a international
 cooperation and peace. Knighted in 1931, he was awarded the Nobel Peace
 Prize in 1933.

   Angelou, Maya

 Angelou, Maya, 1928-, black American author; b. St. Louis as Marguerite
 Johnson. Although a playwright, poet, and short-story writer, she is best
 known for her four-part autobiography (1970-81).

   Angelus

 Angelus, family name and dynasty of Byzantine emperors (1185-1204) Isaac
 II, ALEXIUS III, and ALEXIUS IV.

   angina pectoris

 angina pectoris: see under CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE.

   angiosperm

 angiosperm, plant in which the ovules, or young seeds, are enclosed
 within an ovary (that part of a FLOWER specialized for seed production),
 in contrast to the GYMNOSPERMS. Also known as the flowering plants,
 angiosperms have LEAVES, ROOTS, and STEMS, and vascular, or conducting
 tissue. Constituting the plant division Magnoliophyta, they are divided
 into dicotyledons (class Magnoliopsida), which have two seed leaves
 (cotyledons) and CAMBIUM tissue in the stems, and monocotyledons (class
 Liliatae), which have one seed leaf and generally lack cambium tissue.
 The most important plant group economically, angiosperms include all
 agricultural crops and cereal GRAINS, all garden flowers, and almost all
 broad-leaved trees and shrubs.

   Angkor

 Angkor, site of several capitals of the KHMER EMPIRE, N of Tonle Sap, NW
 CAMBODIA. The ruins extend over 40 sq mi (104 sq km). The first capital
 was established by Yasovarman I (889-900). A new temple complex, Angkor
 Wat, was built under Suryavarman II (1113-50). This impressive temple,
 surrounded by a vast moat, is approached by a causeway. Its extensive
 sculptural ornament exhibits impeccable craftsmanship. In 1177 Angkor was
 sacked by the Chams and fell into ruins. Jayavarman VII (1181-c.1218)
 established a new capital, Angkor Thom, which was abandoned in 1434. The
 ruins, overgrown by jungle, were discovered by the French in 1861.

   angle

 angle, in mathematics, figure formed by two straight lines meeting at a
 point; the point is known as the vertex of the angle, and the lines are
 its sides. Angles are commonly measured in degrees ( deg) or in radians.
 If the two sides form a single straight line but do not coincide, the
 angle is a straight angle, measuring 180 deg or c radians (see PI). If
 the sides are perpendicular, i.e., if they form half of a straight angle,
 the angle is a right angle, measuring 90 deg or c/2 radians. An acute
 angle is greater than 0 deg but less than 90 deg; an obtuse angle is
 greater than 90 deg but less than 180 deg; and a reflex angle is greater
 than 180 deg. See also TRIGONOMETRY.

   Angles

 Angles: see ANGLO-SAXONS.

   Anglican Communion

 Anglican Communion, the worldwide body of churches that are in communion
 with the Church of England (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF). Composed of regional
 churches, provinces, and separate dioceses, the Communion is bound
 together by mutual loyalty as expressed in the Lambeth Conference of
 1930. Member churches include the Protestant Episcopal Church in America
 (see EPISCOPAL CHURCH, PROTESTANT), the Scottish Episcopal Church, the
 Church in Wales, and the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania.
 Doctrinally all member churches are similar, having a ministry of three
 orders: deacons, priests, and bishops. Worship, though varied in form, is
 liturgical and sacramental, and regulated by the BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER.

   Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, collective name for English monastic chronicles in
 Anglo-Saxon, stemming from a compilation (c.891) of earlier sources
 inspired by King ALFRED. The account, from the beginning of the Christian
 era through 1154, draws on BEDE and adds much original material. Mostly
 prose, it includes such poems as The Battle of Brunanburh.

   Anglo-Saxon literature

 Anglo-Saxon literature, writings in Old English, c.650-1150. Old English
 poetry is heroic, drawing on Germanic myth and custom, or Christian.
 Nearly all of it survives in only four manuscripts, and it is the
 literature closest to Germanic oral sources. Widsith (7th cent.) is an
 early example. The epic Beowulf, based on oral sagas, survives in an
 8th-cent. Christian version. The elegiac undercurrent in Beowulf is
 central to such poems as Deor, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer, which
 contrast a happy past with a desolate present. Heroic battles are the
 theme of The Battle of Maldon and The Battle of Brunanburh. Of the
 Christian poets, CAEDMON and CYNEWULF are known by reputation. The Dream
 of the Rood is the earliest dream vision poem in English. Old English
 verse is alliterative and unrhymed. Prose was written in Latin before
 King ALFRED, who had many works translated. The ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE,
 begun in his time, continued for three centuries. Two preeminent prose
 writers were AElfric and Wulfstan, authors of homiletic sermons.

   Anglo-Saxons

 Anglo-Saxons, name given to the Germanic-speaking peoples who settled in
 England at the decline of Roman rule there. The Angles probably came from
 Schleswig late in the 5th cent. and formed foundations for the later
 kingdoms of EAST ANGLIA, MERCIA, and NORTHUMBRIA. The Saxons, a Germanic
 tribe, settled in England at the same time; the kingdoms of SUSSEX,
 WESSEX, and ESSEX were outgrowths of their settlements. The Jutes, a
 tribe probably from the area at the mouth of the Rhine, settled in Kent
 and on the Isle of Wight. The term "Anglo-Saxons," denoting non-Celtic
 settlers of England, dates from the 16th cent. It is now used more
 loosely to denote any people (or their descendants) of the British Isles.

   Angola

 Angola, officially People's Republic of Angola, republic (1986 est. pop.
 8,960,000), 481,351 sq mi (1,246,700 sq km), SW Africa, formerly also
 Portuguese West Africa, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (W), Zaire (N),
 Zambia (E), and Namibia, South West Africa (S). It includes the province
 of CABINDA, on the Atlantic coast, from which it is separated by a strip
 of land belonging to Zaire. Major cities include LUANDA (the capital) and
 LOBITO. Nearly all of the land is desert or savanna, except for the
 densely forested valleys of the northeast and a narrow coastal strip in
 the west. The most prominent physical feature is the Bie Plateau (average
 altitude, 6,000 ft/1,830 m), which rises abruptly from the coastal
 lowland and slopes eastward to the CONGO and ZAMBEZI river basins.
 Formerly dependent on agriculture, Angola today receives over two thirds
 of its export earnings from oil production, chiefly from reserves
 offshore of Cabinda. Diamonds and iron ore are also important. Principal
 crops include coffee (the second largest export), sugarcane, corn, and
 wheat. Among the leading industries are food processing (notably cereals,
 fish, palm oil, and meat) and the manufacture of jute, cotton textiles,
 and paper. The population is overwhelmingly black African, and most of
 the people speak a Bantu language; the Mbundu are the largest ethnic
 group. (The great majority of the estimated 500,000 European residents
 left Angola after independence was achieved.) Traditional religious
 beliefs prevail, but there is a large minority of Roman Catholics and
 other Christians.

 History The first Portuguese colony in Angola was established in Luanda
 in 1575, and, except for a short Dutch occupation (1641-48), Angola
 remained under Portuguese control until its independence in 1975. (The
 Mbundu kingdom in central Angola was not subjugated by the Portuguese
 until 1902). For the Portuguese, Angola was a source of slaves for their
 colony in Brazil. Modern industrial development began after World War II,
 and Angola was upgraded from its colonial status to an overseas province
 in 1951. Repression of the African population continued, and in 1961 a
 revolt began. When this failed, guerrilla warfare was undertaken from
 neighboring countries, intensifying in the early 1970s, when more than
 50,000 Portuguese troops were engaged against the rebels. In 1972 Angola
 was made an "autonomous state," and in 1973 elections were held for a
 legislative assembly. Independence was proclaimed in Nov. 1975, touching
 off a power struggle among rival nationalist groups. Civil war ensued,
 and by early 1976 the Popular Liberation Movement of Angola (MPLA),
 supported by the USSR and aided by Cuban troops, defeated the
 U.S.-supported factions and proclaimed a people's republic. Openly
 sympathetic to black nationalist movements, since 1979 Angola has been
 the object of military raids by South African troops in NAMIBIA (South
 West Africa), ostensibly striking at bases of a guerrilla organization
 seeking Namibian independence. In 1988 Cuba, S. Africa, and Angola agreed
 in principle to the removal of Cuban troops from Angola and S. African
 troops from Namibia.

   Angstrom, Anders Jons

 Angstrom, Anders Jons, 1814-74, Swedish physicist. Noted for his study of
 light, especially SPECTRUM analysis, he mapped the sun's spectrum,
 discovered hydrogen in the solar atmosphere, and was the first to examine
 the spectrum of the AURORA borealis. The length unit ANGSTROM is named
 for him.

   angstrom

 angstrom, unit of length equal to 10-10 m. It is used to measure the
 wavelengths of light and of other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
 Scientists now prefer to use the nanometer (nm); 1 nm=10 A.

   Anguilla

 Anguilla, island (1984 est. pop. 7,000), 35 sq mi (91 sq km), West
 Indies, one of the Leeward Islands. Fishing, stock-raising, and salt
 production are the principal activities. Formerly part of the associated
 state of St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, the island seceded in 1967 and
 returned to British rule in 1971.

   animal

 animal, any member of the animal kingdom (Animalia) as distinguished from
 the plant kingdom (Plantae). The major difference between animals and
 plants is their method of obtaining nourishment-animals must secure food
 as already organized organic substances, while plants manufacture their
 own food from inorganic sources (usually by PHOTOSYNTHESIS). Most animals
 have nervous systems, sense organs, and specialized modes of locomotion,
 and are adapted for securing, ingesting, and digesting food. Animals and
 plants are interdependent: green plants use carbon dioxide and provide
 oxygen (a by-product of photosynthesis) and food; animals (and plants)
 provide carbon dioxide (through respiration and the decomposition of
 their dead bodies). The scientific study of animals is called ZOOLOGY.

   animism

 animism, belief that a spirit or force residing in every animate and
 inanimate object, every dream and idea, gives individuality to each. The
 related Polynesian concept of mana holds that the spirit in all things is
 responsible for the good and evil in the universe. See FETISH; SHAMAN;
 TOTEM.

   anion

 anion: see ION.

   anise

 anise, annual plant (Pimpinella anisum) of the CARROT family, native to
 the Mediterranean but widely cultivated for its aromatic and medicinal
 qualities. The seedlike fruits (aniseed) are used as flavoring and
 provide anise oil, which is used in medicinals, perfumes, beverages, and
 dentifrices. Biblical anise is DILL.

   Anjou

 Anjou, region and former province, W France. Angers, the historic
 capital, and Saumur are the chief towns in this fertile lowland traversed
 by several rivers. Its vineyards produce renowned wines. Occupied by the
 Andecavi, a Gallic people, Anjou was conquered by the Romans and later
 (5th cent.) by the FRANKS. By the 10th cent. it was held by the counts of
 the first Angevin dynasty; it came under English rule when its ruler
 became (1154) king of England as HENRY II. PHILIP II of France seized
 (1204) Anjou from the English, and in 1246 LOUIS IX of France gave it to
 his brother, later CHARLES I of Naples. In 1360 Anjou became a duchy and
 in 1487 it was definitively annexed to France.

   Ankara

 Ankara, city (1985 pop. 2,251,533), capital of Turkey, W central Turkey.
 The second largest city in Turkey, it is an administrative, commercial,
 and cultural center. Manufactures include processed food and farm
 equipment. Grains, vegetables, and fruits are grown nearby. A Hittite
 trade center (18th cent. BC), it became (1st cent. AD) the capital of a
 Roman province; in the ruins of a temple in Ankara have been found
 tablets valuable as a record of AUGUSTUS' reign. The city fell to the
 Ottoman Turks in the 14th cent. It declined in the 19th and 20th cent.,
 until Kemal ATATURK made it the capital of Turkey in 1923. Ataturk's
 massive limestone tomb can be seen from most of the city.

   Anna

 Anna, 1693-1740, czarina of Russia (1730-40); daughter of Ivan V and
 niece of PETER I. She succeeded her cousin Peter II. Allied with Holy
 Roman Emperor CHARLES VI, she intervened in the War of the POLISH
 SUCCESSION (1733-35) and attacked Turkey (1736). Her grandnephew, Ivan
 VI, succeeded her.

   Annam

 Annam, historic region (c.58,000 sq mi/150,200 sq km) and former state,
 central Vietnam. The region extended nearly 800 mi (1,290 km) along the
 South China Sea between Tonkin (N) and Cochin China (S). The capital was
 HUE. After more than 2,000 years of contact with the Chinese the peoples
 of the Red R. valley came under Chinese rule in 111 BC The Annamese drove
 out the Chinese in AD 939 and maintained their independence until the
 French conquest in the 19th cent. Conflict between ruling dynasties
 dominated this long period, ending with the establishment (1802) of the
 empire of VIETNAM by Nguyen-Anh, who had procured French military aid by
 ceding the port of DA NANG and the Con Son islands. His authority as
 emperor was recognized by the Chinese in 1803. Mistreatment of French
 nationals and Vietnamese Christians by his successor provided an excuse
 for French military operations, which began in 1858 and resulted in the
 establishment of the French colony of COCHIN CHINA and the protectorates
 of TONKIN and Annam. The three territories were occupied by the Japanese
 during WORLD WAR II. After an independence struggle against the French,
 most of Annam became part of South Vietnam in 1954; the rest went to
 North Vietnam. Annam was incorporated into united Vietnam after the
 VIETNAM WAR.

   Annapolis

 Annapolis, city (1986 est. pop. 33,360), state capital and seat of Anne
 Arundel co., central Md., on the Severn R. It is a port of entry and a
 farm-produce shipping center with seafood and boat-building industries.
 Settled in 1649, it has a rich history, including a period (1783-84) as
 the capital of the U.S.; it has been Maryland's capital since 1694. The
 city has many 18th-cent. buildings and is the site of the U.S. Naval
 Academy and St. John's College.

   Annapolis Convention

 Annapolis Convention, 1786, interstate convention to discuss U.S.
 commerce, held at Annapolis, Md. Its call for a meeting to discuss
 changes in the Articles of CONFEDERATION brought about the FEDERAL
 CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION.

   Annapolis Royal

 Annapolis Royal, town (1986 pop. 631), W Nova Scotia, E Canada, on the
 Annapolis R. One of Canada's oldest settlements, it was founded as Port
 Royal by the French in 1605, destroyed (1613) by the British, and rebuilt
 to become the chief town of French ACADIA. Often fought over in the 1600s
 by the English and the French, it was finally taken (1710) by colonists
 from New England and renamed in honor of Queen Anne. The ruins of its
 fort are in Fort Anne Historic National Park.

   Ann Arbor

 Ann Arbor, city (1986 est. pop. 107,810), seat of Washtenaw co., S Mich.,
 on the Huron R.; settled 1824, inc. 1851. It is a research and
 educational center, with government and industrial research firms and the
 huge Univ. of Michigan. Products include lasers, computers, and precision
 machinery. The city is also a medical center with several hospitals.

   Anne

 Anne, 1665-1714, queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1702-7), later
 queen of Great Britain and Ireland (1707-14); daughter of JAMES II;
 successor to WILLIAM III. The last STUART ruler and a devout Protestant,
 in 1683 she married Prince George of Denmark. Her reign was one of
 transition to parliamentary government, but intrigue and the queen's
 favor could still make and unmake cabinets. The dominant event was the
 War of the SPANISH SUCCESSION (1702-13). Despite victories won by the
 duke of MARLBOROUGH (whose wife was long a favorite of the queen), the
 war's high cost caused political friction. None of Anne's children
 survived her, and by the Act of SETTLEMENT (1701) GEORGE I succeeded her.
 Despite her personal mediocrity, Anne's reign was marked by intellectual
 awakening, the popularization of Palladian architecture, and the growth
 of parliamentary government.

   Anne

 Anne, 1950-, British princess; daughter of ELIZABETH II. In 1973 she
 married a British army officer, Mark Phillips. They have two children.

   annealing

 annealing, process in which glass, metals, and other materials are
 treated to render them less brittle and more workable. The material is
 heated and then cooled very slowly and uniformly, with the time and
 temperature set according to the properties desired. Annealing increases
 ductility and relieves internal strains that lead to failures in service.

   Anne Boleyn, queen of England

 Anne Boleyn, queen of England: see  BOLEYN, ANNE.

   annelid worm

 annelid worm, member of the phylum Annelida, which includes the
 EARTHWORMS, LEECHES, and marine worms. Also called segmented worms; they
 are soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical, and segmented. Distributed
 worldwide, they live in protected habitats, often in tubes manufactured
 by their own secretions. Reproduction is sexual or asexual; some species
 are HERMAPHRODITES. They range from 1/32 in. (0.5 mm) to 10 ft (3 m) in
 length.

   Anne of Austria

 Anne of Austria, 1601-66, queen consort of France. The daughter of PHILIP
 III of Spain, she married (1615) the French king LOUIS XIII and gained
 the enmity of Cardinal RICHELIEU, Louis's chief minister. As regent
 (1643-51) for her son LOUIS XIV, she entrusted the government to Cardinal
 MAZARIN.

   Anne of Brittany

 Anne of Brittany, 1477-1514, queen of France, consort of CHARLES VIII
 (1491-98) and LOUIS XII (1499-1514). As duchess of Brittany from 1488,
 she tried to preserve independence from France by marrying by proxy
 (1490) Maximilian of Austria (later Holy Roman Emperor MAXIMILIAN I).
 Besieged (1491) by the French, she was forced to annul her marriage and
 to wed Charles VIII. Widowed in 1498, she then married Louis XII, and
 Brittany was eventually incorporated (1532) by France.

   Anne of Cleves

 Anne of Cleves, 1515-57, fourth queen consort of HENRY VIII of England.
 She was the daughter of a powerful German Protestant prince, and Henry
 married her in 1540 for political reasons. Finding her dull and
 unattractive, he divorced her that same year.

   Anne of Denmark

 Anne of Denmark, 1574-1619, queen consort of JAMES I of England.

   annexation

 annexation, in international law, formal act by which a state asserts its
 sovereignty over a territory previously outside its jurisdiction. It also
 describes the process by which municipalities in the U.S. extend their
 legal control over surrounding areas. Under the UN charter,
 self-determination by inhabitants of a territory is the only basis for
 transfer of sovereignty.

   annual

 annual, plant that propagates itself by seed and undergoes its entire
 life cycle within one growing season, as distinguished from a BIENNIAL or
 PERENNIAL. Some cultivated annuals will blossom during a season only if
 started under glass and set out as young plants; others bloom where sown.

   annual rings

 annual rings, growth layers of WOOD produced yearly in the stems and
 roots of trees and shrubs. When well-marked alteration of seasons occurs
 (e.g., either cold and warm or wet and dry), a sharp contrast exists
 between the early- and late-season growth-the wood cells are larger
 earlier when growing conditions are better. In uniform climates, there is
 little visible difference between annual rings. The number of annual
 rings reflects the age of a tree; the thickness of each ring reflects
 environmental and climatic conditions.

   Annunzio, Gabriele D'

 Annunzio, Gabriele D': see D'ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE.

   anode

 anode: see ELECTRODE.

   anointing of the sick

 anointing of the sick, SACRAMENT of the ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH and the
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH; formerly known as extreme unction. In it a person
 who is in danger of death is anointed on the eyes, ears, nostrils, lips,
 hands, and feet by a priest while he recites absolutions for sins. In the
 Eastern churches it is normally given by three priests and maybe
 administered to the healthy to prevent sickness.

   anomie

 anomie, a social condition characterized by instability, the breakdown of
 social norms, institutional disorganization, and a divorce between
 socially valid goals and available means for achieving them. Introduced
 into sociology by Emile DURKHEIM in his study Suicide (1897), anomie also
 refers to the psychological condition-of rootlessness, futility, anxiety,
 and amorality-afflicting individuals who live under such conditions. The
 importance of anomie as a cause of deviant behavior received further
 elaboration by Robert K. MERTON.

   anorexia nervosa

 anorexia nervosa: see EATING DISORDERS.

   Anouilh, Jean

 Anouilh, Jean, 1910-87, French dramatist. His works contrast romantic
 dreams with harsh reality. Among his dramas are Antigone (1944), The
 Waltz of the Toreadors (1952), and Becket (1959).

   Anselm, Saint

 Anselm, Saint, 1033?-1109, Italian prelate, archbishop of Canterbury,
 Doctor of the Church. He succeeded (1093) his friend LANFRANC as
 archbishop of Canterbury. In England, he quarreled with WILLIAM II and
 HENRY I over lay INVESTITURE and was exiled twice. An influential
 theologian, he was a founder of SCHOLASTICISM. His famous ontological
 proof deduces God's existence from man's notion of a perfect being in
 whom nothing is lacking. Feast: Apr. 21.

   Anshan

 Anshan, city (1986 est. pop. 1,280,000) central Liaoning prov., NE China,
 on the South Manchurian RR. Its huge integrated iron and steel complex is
 one of the largest in China. Other manufactures include machinery,
 chemicals, and construction materials.

   Ansky, Shloime

 Ansky, Shloime, pseud. of Solomon Seinwil Rapoport, 1863-1920, Russian
 Yiddish author. He incorporated folk elements into his stories of
 peasants and HASIDIM, e.g., The Dybbuk (1916), a tale of demonic
 possession.

   ant

 ant, INSECT (family Formicidae) belonging to the same order as the BEE
 and WASP. Ants have a narrow stalk joining the abdomen and thorax, and
 biting mouthparts (sometimes used for defense). Some ants have stings,
 and some can spray poison from the end of the abdomen. All ants show some
 degree of social organization; many nest in a system of tunnels in the
 soil, in constructed mounds, or in wood. Ant colonies usually include
 three castes: winged, fertile females; wingless, infertile females, or
 workers; and winged males. In some species workers may become soldiers or
 other specialized types. Army ants travel in columns, overrunning and
 devouring any animals in their path; fire ants are stinging ants that are
 serious pests in parts of the S U.S.

   Antakya

 Antakya: see ANTIOCH.

   Antananarivo

 Antananarivo or Tananarive,city (1985 est. pop. 662,585), capital of
 Madagascar. The country's largest city and economic and communications
 center, it is a productive agricultural region whose main crop is rice. A
 railroad connects the city with Tamatave, the chief port. Manufactures
 include meat products and cigarettes. Founded c.1625, it became (1797)
 the residence of the Merina rulers. It was taken by the French in 1895.
 Today it is a modern city, built on a ridge; at its top stands the old
 royal residence.

   Antarctica

 Antarctica, 5th largest continent, c.5,500,000 sq mi (14,245,000 sq km),
 asymmetrically centered on the SOUTH POLE and located almost entirely S
 of the ANTARCTIC CIRCLE (66 deg 30'S). It consists of two major regions:
 W Antarctica, including the mountainous Antarctic Peninsula, which is
 structurally related to the ANDES of South America and connected to them
 by way of the Scotia Arc (South Georgia, South Orkney, and South Sandwich
 islands); and E Antarctica, a continental shield area (see PLATE
 TECTONICS) with a rock surface near sea level. These two regions are
 joined into a single continental mass by an ice cap up to 13,000 ft
 (4,000 m) thick that covers more than 95% of Antarctica. Vinson Massif
 (16,066 ft/4,897 m) is the continent's highest peak. Great ice shelves up
 to 4,000 ft (1,220 m) thick block the ROSS and WEDDELL seas, and a belt
 of nearly continuous pack ice surrounds the rest of the continent. Summer
 temperatures (Jan.) are unlikely to be warmer than 0 degF (-18 degC);
 winter mean temperatures are -70 degF (-57 degC). Roald AMUNDSEN was the
 first explorer to reach the South Pole on Dec. 14, 1911, followed by R.F.
 SCOTT on Jan. 18, 1912. The first to fly over the pole was Richard E.
 BYRD, on Nov. 29, 1929. The success of international scientific
 cooperation in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY)
 of 1957-58 led to the signing (1959) of the Antarctic Treaty, which
 prohibits military operations, nuclear explosions, and the disposal of
 radioactive wastes south of latitude 60 degS, exclusive of the high seas.
 See map in separate section. In 1985, 32 nations signed an agreement
 limiting human access to research zones in Antarctica.

   Antarctic Circle

 Antarctic Circle, imaginary circle on the earth's surface at 66 deg 30'S
 lat., marking the southernmost point at which the sun can be seen at the
 summer SOLSTICE (about June 22) and the northernmost point of the
 southern polar regions at which the midnight sun is visible.

   Antarctic peninsula

 Antarctic peninsula, glaciated mountain region of W ANTARCTICA, extending
 c.1,200 mi (1,930 km) north toward South America. It was originally named
 Palmer Land for Nathaniel Palmer, a U.S. captain who explored the region
 in 1820. The British claimed the peninsula in 1832 and it was later
 claimed by Argentina (1940) and by Chile (1942). In 1964, by
 international agreement it was named the Antarctic Peninsula.

   anteater

 anteater, toothless MAMMAL of three genera of the order Edentata found in
 tropical Central and South America. It feeds on ants, termites, and other
 insects. The great anteater, or ant bear (Myrmecophaga), has an elongated
 snout, a coarse-haired body about 4 ft (1.2 m) long, and a long, broad
 tail; the arboreal collared, or lesser, anteater (Tamandua) is less than
 half the size of the great anteater; and the arboreal two-toed anteater
 (Cyclopes) is about the size of a squirrel.

   antelope

 antelope, any of various hoofed ruminant MAMMALS of the CATTLE family.
 True antelopes are found only in Africa and Asia. Antelopes usually stand
 3-4 ft (90-120 cm) at the shoulder, but range from the 12-in. (30-cm)
 pygmy antelope to the 6-ft (180-cm) giant eland. Antelope horns, unlike
 DEER horns, are unbranched and are not shed. Species of antelope include
 the bushbuck, with its spiral horns and oxlike body; the addax, a large
 desert antelope of N Africa; the horselike oryx, found in Africa and
 Arabia; the GNU and its close relative the hartebeest, a swift, horselike
 animal with U-shaped horns; and the GAZELLE.

   antenna

 antenna or aerial,system of wires or other conductors used to transmit or
 receive radio or other electromagnetic waves (see RADIO; TELEVISION). In
 a transmitting antenna, the signal from an ELECTRIC CIRCUIT causes
 electrons in the antenna to oscillate; these moving electric charges
 generate ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, which is then transmitted through
 space. The distribution pattern of the transmitted wave depends on the
 design of the antenna; radio broadcast-station antennas are frequently
 designed to emit waves in all directions, whereas those used for RADAR
 and for certain communication systems focus the waves in a single
 direction. In a receiving antenna, electromagnetic waves cause the
 electrons in the antenna to oscillate, inducing a signal that can be
 detected by an electric circuit. In general, a longer antenna is used to
 transmit or receive signals of longer wavelengths. Theoretically, the
 same antenna can be used both for sending and for receiving signals, but
 in practice, transmitting antennas are constructed to handle higher power
 loads than receiving antennas.

   Antheil, George

 Antheil, George, 1900-1959, American composer; b. Trenton, N.J. His early
 work reveals the influence of JAZZ. In 1927 a performance of his Ballet
 mecanique, scored for player piano, car horns, airplane propellers, etc.,
 caused a furor in New York City. Other works include the opera
 Transatlantic (1930), symphonies, and film scores.

   anthem

 anthem, short nonliturgical choral composition used in Protestant
 services, usually accompanied and with an English text. Early anthems,
 which arose in the Anglican Church, included those by Thomas Tallis and
 William BYRD. In the 17th cent. Henry PURCELL and John Blow wrote anthems
 including solo parts (verse anthems); G.F. HANDEL composed full anthems,
 for voice only. The term anthem also means "national anthem," e.g., The
 STAR-SPANGLED BANNER.

   Anthony, Saint

 Anthony, Saint, 251?-c.350, Egyptian hermit. Living in seclusion, he
 resisted the many temptations of the devil. A colony of hermits grew up
 about him, and he ruled them as a community before going away to the
 desert. He was the father of Christian MONASTICISM. Feast: Jan. 17.

   Anthony, Marc

 Anthony, Marc: see ANTONY.

   Anthony, Susan B(rownell)

 Anthony, Susan B(rownell), 1820-1906, American leader of the WOMAN
 SUFFRAGE movement; b. Adams, Mass. She organized the first women's
 temperance association, the Daughters of Temperance, and with Elizabeth
 Cady STANTON secured the first laws in New York guaranteeing women rights
 over their children and control of property and wages. In 1863 she was
 coorganizer of the Women's Loyal League to support Lincoln's government,
 but after the Civil War she opposed granting suffrage to freedmen without
 also giving it to women. She was president (1892-1900) of the National
 American Woman Suffrage Association and helped compile vols. 1-3 of The
 History of Woman Suffrage (1881-86).

   anthrax

 anthrax, infectious disease of animals that can be transmitted from
 animals to humans through contact or the inhalation of spores. Primarily
 affecting sheep, horses, hogs, cattle, and goats, anthrax is usually
 restricted to people who handle hides of animals (e.g., farmers,
 butchers, and veterinarians) or sort wool. The disease, usually fatal to
 animals but not humans, is caused by Bacillus anthracis, discovered by
 Robert KOCH in 1876. Louis PASTEUR developed a method of vaccinating
 sheep and cattle against anthrax, and the disease is now relatively rare
 in the U.S.

   anthropological linguistics

 anthropological linguistics, study of the relationship between language
 and CULTURE, often focusing on cultures with no written language, e.g.,
 American Indians. The precise relationship of language to culture is,
 however, a subject of controversy. See also ANTHROPOLOGY; LINGUISTICS.

   anthropology

 anthropology, study of the origin, development, and varieties of human
 beings and their societies. Emerging as an independent science in the
 late 18th cent., it developed two divisions: physical anthropology, which
 focuses on human EVOLUTION and variation (see RACE), using methods of
 PHYSIOLOGY, anthropometry, GENETICS, and ECOLOGY; and cultural
 anthropology (see CULTURE), which includes ARCHAEOLOGY, ethnology, social
 anthropology, and LINGUISTICS.

   antianxiety drug

 antianxiety drug, drug administered for the relief of ANXIETY; in larger
 doses, antianxiety drugs produce sleep, sedation, and anesthesia. Those
 frequently prescribed in the U.S. include diazepam (Valium),
 chlordiazepoxide (Librium), and meprobamate (Miltown). Side effects
 include drowsiness and, with prolonged use, possible dependence.

   antibiotic

 antibiotic, any of a variety of substances, usually obtained from
 microorganisms, that inhibit the growth of or destroy certain other
 microorganisms. The foundation for the development and understanding of
 antibiotics was laid during the 19th cent. when Louis PASTEUR proved that
 one species of microorganism can kill another and Paul EHRLICH developed
 the idea of selective toxicity: that a specific substance can be toxic to
 some organisms, e.g., infectious bacteria, but harmless to others, e.g.,
 human hosts. Further pioneering work in the 20th cent. by Alexander
 FLEMING, Rene DUBOS, and Selman WAKSMAN led to the discovery of
 PENICILLIN (1939) and streptomycin (1944). Mass production of antibiotic
 drugs began during World War II with streptomycin and penicillin. Today
 antibiotics are produced by various methods, including staged
 fermentation in huge tanks of nutrient media, synthesis in the
 laboratory, and chemical modification of natural substances. Antibiotics
 can be classified according to chemical structure, microbial origin, mode
 of action, or effective range. The tetracyclines are broad-spectrum
 drugs, effective against a wide range of bacteria (both gram-positive and
 gram-negative; see GRAM'S STAIN), rickettsias, and the psittacosis VIRUS.
 The antibiotics bacitracin, penicillin, the erythromycins, and the
 cephalosporins work primarily against Gram-positive organisms. Polymyxins
 and other narrow-range antibiotics are effective against only a few
 species. Antibiotic drugs may be injected, given orally, or applied to
 the skin. Some, like penicillin, are allergenic and can cause rashes or
 shock. Others, like the tetracylines, can alter the intestinal
 environment, encouraging superinfection by fungi or other microorganisms.
 Many antibiotics are less effective than formerly because resistant
 strains of microorganisms have evolved. Antibiotics have been used to
 enhance the growth of animals used as food, but some authorities question
 the practice because it encourages the development of resistant strains
 of bacteria infecting animals, and because continuous low exposure to
 antibiotics can sensitize human beings, making them unable to take such
 drugs later to treat infection.

   antibody

 antibody: see IMMUNITY.

   Antichrist

 Antichrist, in Christian belief, a person who will lead the forces of
 evil on earth against the forces of Christ. He will be destroyed by
 Christ at the Second Coming (1 John 2.18-22; 4.3; 2 John 7; and Rev. 13).

   anticline

 anticline: see FOLD.

   anticoagulant

 anticoagulant, substance, such as heparin or derivatives of coumarin,
 that inhibits blood clotting. Anticoagulants are used to treat blood
 clots in leg and pelvic veins, in order to reduce the risk of the clots
 traveling and obstructing blood flow to vital organs (e.g., the heart and
 lungs) and causing THROMBOSIS or STROKE.

   Anti-Corn-Law League

 Anti-Corn-Law League, organization formed in 1839 to work for repeal of
 the English CORN LAWS. Its leading figures were Richard COBDEN and John
 BRIGHT. The laws were repealed in 1846.

   antidepressant

 antidepressant, drug used to treat psychic depression. Antidepressants,
 such as imipramine, are given to elevate mood, counter suicidal thoughts,
 and increase the effectiveness of psychotherapy, although the exact
 mechanisms of their action are unknown. Side effects include dry mouth,
 dizziness, and fatigue. See also LITHIUM.

   Antietam campaign

 Antietam campaign, Sept. 1862, in the U.S. CIVIL WAR. Attempting to
 invade Maryland and Pennsylvania, R.E. LEE sent Stonewall JACKSON to
 capture Harpers Ferry, which fell on Sept. 15. Lee's own advance was
 halted by MCCLELLAN, who attacked him at Antietam Creek, Md., on Sept.
 17, the bloodiest day of the war. It was a Union victory only in that
 Lee's advance was stopped.

   Anti-Federalists

 Anti-Federalists, in U.S. history, the opponents to the adoption of the
 Federal CONSTITUTION. Leading Anti-Federalists included George Mason,
 Elbridge Gerry, Patrick Henry, and George Clinton, and later, supporters
 of states' rights. Under Pres. Washington, many opposed the policies of
 the FEDERALIST PARTY and Alexander Hamilton. Under Thomas Jefferson's
 leadership, they formed the core of the opposition party, known as the
 Democratic-Republican Party, subsequently the DEMOCRATIC PARTY.

   antifreeze

 antifreeze, substance added to a solvent to lower its freezing point.
 Antifreeze is typically added to water in the cooling system of internal
 combustion engines so that it may be cooled below the freezing point of
 pure water (32 deg F or 0 deg C) without freezing. Automotive antifreezes
 include ethylene glycol (the most widely used), methanol, ethanol,
 isopropyl alcohol, and propylene glycol.

   antigen

 antigen: see IMMUNITY.

   Antigone

 Antigone, in Greek legend, daughter of OEDIPUS. When her brothers
 Eteocles and Polynices killed each other, Creon, king of THEBES, forbade
 the rebel Polynices' burial. Antigone disobeyed him, performed the rites,
 and was condemned to death. SOPHOCLES tells her story in Antigone.

   Antigua

 Antigua or Antigua Guatemala,town (1983 est. pop. 26,631), S central
 Guatemala. Now a trading center in a coffee-growing area, it was once the
 capital of Spanish Guatemala and, in the 16th cent., one of the richest
 cities in the New World. Antigua was founded in 1542, after a flood and
 earthquake destroyed the earlier capital, Ciudad Vieja, but was itself
 leveled by earthquakes in 1773. The capital was then moved to GUATEMALA
 City. Today Antigua is a major tourist center with fine Spanish
 buildings.

   Antigua and Barbuda

 Antigua and Barbuda, island nation (1986 est. pop. 81,500), 171 sq mi
 (442 sq km), West Indies, in the Leeward Islands. It consists of Antigua
 (108 sq mi/280 sq km) and two smaller islands, sparsely populated Barbuda
 and uninhabited Redonda. The capital is St. John's. Antigua is a hilly
 island with farms that grow mainly sugarcane and cotton. The population
 is predominantly of black African origin. The island was discovered by
 Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493. Following brief periods under the Spanish
 and French, it was successfully settled in 1632 by the British, who
 introduced sugar planting; the industry declined with the abolition of
 slavery in 1834. Antigua, with Barbuda and Redonda as dependencies,
 became an associated state of the Commonwealth in 1967 and achieved full
 independence in 1981. The U.S. maintains two military bases there.

   antihistamine

 antihistamine: see ALLERGY; HISTAMINE.

   Antilles

 Antilles: see WEST INDIES.

   Anti-Masonic party

 Anti-Masonic party, American political party founded to counter the
 supposed political influence of FREEMASONRY. It arose in W New York state
 after the disappearance (1826) of William Morgan, a former Mason who had
 written a book purporting to reveal Masonic secrets. Freemasons were
 said, without proof, to have murdered him. At Baltimore, in 1831,
 Anti-Masons held the first national nominating convention of any party,
 and issued the first written party platform. In 1834 they helped form the
 WHIG PARTY.

   antimatter

 antimatter, material composed of antiparticles, which correspond to
 ordinary protons, electrons, and neutrons but have the opposite
 electrical charge and magnetic moment. When matter and antimatter
 collide, both may be annihilated, and other ELEMENTARY PARTICLES, such as
 photons and pions, are produced. In 1932 Carl D. Anderson, while studying
 cosmic rays, discovered the positron, or antielectron, the first known
 antiparticle. Any antimatter in our part of the universe is necessarily
 very short-lived because of the overwhelming preponderance of ordinary
 matter, by which the antimatter is quickly annihilated.

   antimony

 antimony (Sb), semimetallic element, first described by Nicolas Lemery in
 1707. Silvery blue-white, brittle, and easily powdered, it conducts heat
 and electricity poorly. Chief uses are as alloys and compounds in storage
 batteries, cable sheathing, and paint pigments. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC
 TABLE.

   antinuclear movement

 antinuclear movement, coalition of those opposed to the production of
 nuclear weapons and, to a lesser extent, nuclear power plants. With
 origins in the Ban the Bomb campaign of the late 1950s and the
 environmental movement of the late 1960s, the current movement emerged
 after the THREE MILE ISLAND Nuclear Station accident (1979) and U.S.
 planned deployment of new medium-range missiles in Western Europe (1981).
 Major demonstrations occurred in Europe and the U.S. An antinuclear peace
 rally (N.Y.C.; 1982) drew nearly 1 million people. In 1985, the
 International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War was awarded
 the Nobel Peace Prize. Related organizations include SANE: A Citizens'
 Organization for a Sane World, Physicians for Social Responsibility, and
 the Union of Concerned Scientists. See also DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR.

   Antioch

 Antioch or Antakya,city (1980 pop. 94,942), S Turkey, on the Orontes R.,
 near the Mediterranean Sea. It is a trade center for a farm area where
 grains, cotton, and vegetables are grown. Founded (c.300 BC) by SELEUCUS
 I, king of ancient Syria, it was a military, commercial, and cultural
 center under Rome and an early center of Christianity. It fell (AD 637)
 to the Arabs but was retaken (1098) by the Crusaders and became a
 powerful principality under BOHEMOND I. It later became (1516) part of
 the OTTOMAN EMPIRE, was incorporated into the French mandate of Syria
 after World War I, and was restored to Turkey in 1939. Many important
 archaeological finds have been made in or near the city.

   Antiochus I

 Antiochus I, 324-261 BC, Seleucid emperor. The son of ALEXANDER'S general
 SELEUCUS, he acceded to the throne in 281. He made peace with Macedonia,
 but lost territories in Asia Minor to Egypt in wars (274-71; 263-61). He
 led (273) a successful campaign against Gallic invaders in Asia Minor.

   Antiochus III

 Antiochus III, c.242-187 BC, Seleucid emperor, known as Antiochus the
 Great. Succeeding (223) his father, Seleucus II, he conquered Parthia,
 Bactria, Syria, and Palestine, entered into an alliance with PHILIP V of
 Macedonia, and invaded Thrace. He also gave refuge to HANNIBAL and
 aroused the enmity of Rome, which checked his western expansion in
 battles at Thermopylae and Magnesia.

   Antiochus IV

 Antiochus IV, c.215-163 BC, known as Antiochus Epiphanes. Son of
 Antiochus II, he became king in 175. He is remembered for his infamous
 attempt to impose Hellenic culture on Judea, which instigated the
 Maccabean (see MACCABEES) Revolt (167). His preemptive war against
 Ptolemaic Egypt in 169-68 was lost by the intervention of Rome.

   antiparticle

 antiparticle: see ANTIMATTER.

   Antipas

 Antipas, in the Bible: see HEROD.

   Antipater

 Antipater, d. 319 BC, Macedonian general under ALEXANDER THE GREAT;
 regent of MACEDON (334-323 BC). After Alexander's death he defeated
 Perdiccas in a struggle for the regency (321). He held the kingdom
 together; his death was followed by the wars of the DIADOCHI.

   Antipater

 Antipater, in the Bible: see HEROD.

   antipope

 antipope, person elected pope whose election was later declared
 uncanonical and in opposition to a canonically chosen legitimate pontiff
 (see PAPACY).

   antique

 antique, term formerly applied only to objects of preclassical and
 classical cultures of the ancient world, but now applied in common usage
 to artifacts of historic, aesthetic, and monetary value that are more
 than 100 years old. Antique collecting began with the preservation of
 religious objects in antiquity, but today includes a vast range of
 decorative objects and memorabilia.

   Anti-Saloon League

 Anti-Saloon League, U.S. organization working for the prohibition of the
 sale of alcoholic beverages. Founded in 1893, it helped to secure the
 18th amendment to the CONSTITUTION, establishing PROHIBITION (1919-33).
 In 1950 it merged with the National Temperance League.

   anti-Semitism

 anti-Semitism, prejudice against JEWS. Before the 19th cent.
 anti-Semitism was largely religious, based on the belief that Jews were
 responsible for Christ's crucifixion. It was expressed in the later
 Middle Ages by sporadic persecutions and expulsions (e.g., the expulsion
 of Jews from Spain in 1492), economic restrictions (e.g., the restriction
 of Jews to unpopular or taboo occupations), and personal restrictions
 (see GHETTO). After the Jews' emancipation during the ENLIGHTENMENT,
 religious and economic anti-Semitism was slowly replaced in the 19th
 cent. by racial prejudice, stemming from the idea of Jews as a distinct
 race. The cultural isolation of Orthodox Jews, rising NATIONALISM,
 pseudoscientific theories of Aryan racial superiority, and spurious
 charges of Jewish domination encouraged anti-Semitism (see POGROM). These
 beliefs, incorporated into Adolf Hitler's NATIONAL SOCIALISM, contributed
 to the extermination of 6 million Jews in the HOLOCAUST of World War II.
 Anti-Semitism still exists in the USSR, the Middle East, and elsewhere.

   antislavery movement

 antislavery movement: see ABOLITIONISTS; SLAVERY.

   antitoxin

 antitoxin: see TOXIN.

   antitrust laws

 antitrust laws, legislation under which the U.S. government has acted to
 break up any large business combination alleged to be acting
 monopolistically to suppress competition (see TRUST, corporate;
 MONOPOLY). The first of these laws, which were based on the
 constitutional power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce, was the
 Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). It declared illegal every contract,
 combination, or conspiracy in restraint of interstate and foreign trade.
 It was supplemented (1914) by the Clayton Antitrust Act, which prohibited
 exclusive sales contracts, intercorporate stock holdings, and unfair
 price cutting to freeze out competitors. The last provision was
 strengthened under the terms of the Robinson-Patman Act of 1936.
 Corporate trusts grew rapidly in the U.S. from 1880 to 1905, by which
 time Pres. Theodore ROOSEVELT had launched his famous "trust-busting"
 campaigns. An early federal success came with the Supreme Court decision
 of 1911 that forced the giant Standard Oil Co. to split up into
 independent entities. Antitrust action declined in the 1920s, but was
 vigorously resumed in the 1930s under Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT. In recent
 years enforcement of antitrust legislation has been complicated by the
 growth of huge CONGLOMERATES that control many companies in various,
 sometimes interrelated, industries.

   Antoine, Andre

 Antoine, Andre, 1858-1943, French theater director, manager, and critic.
 In 1887 he founded the Theatre Libre (see THEATER,) to present works of
 NATURALISM. His work became a model for experimental theaters.

   Antonello da Messina

 Antonello da Messina, c.1430 1479, Italian painter. His handling of oils
 shows strong Flemish influence. Messina's works include Ecce Homo
 (Metropolitan Mus.) and Pieta (Venice). He was also an excellent
 portraitist.

   Antonescu, Ion

 Antonescu, Ion, 1882-1946, Rumanian marshal and dictator. King CAROL II
 named him premier in 1940, and he promptly forced the king's abdication
 in favor of Carol's son, MICHAEL. In WORLD WAR II Antonescu led the
 nation into the AXIS camp and gave HITLER virtual control of the country.
 He was executed at the end of the war.

   Antonioni, Michelangelo

 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 1912-, Italian film director. In such films as
 L'Avventura (1959), Red Desert (1964), Blow-Up (1966), and The Passenger
 (1975) he depicted modern alienation, subordinating dialogue to visual
 images.

   Antony

 Antony or Marc Antony,Lat. Marcus Antonius, c.83 BC-30 BC, Roman
 politician and soldier. He was of a distinguished family related to
 Julius CAESAR, who made him a protege. In 49 BC Antony became tribune. He
 and Quintus Cassius Longinus (see CASSIUS, family), another tribune,
 vetoed the bill to deprive Caesar of his army. Caesar then crossed the
 Rubicon, and the civil war began. After Caesar's assassination (44 BC),
 Antony, then consul, aroused the mob against the conspirators. Octavian
 (later AUGUSTUS) joined forces with him, but they soon fell out. However,
 Octavian arranged the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Marcus Aemilius
 Lepidus (see LEPIDUS, family). At Philippi, in 42 BC, Antony and Octavian
 crushed the republicans, and the triumvirate ruled the empire for five
 years. Antony met CLEOPATRA in 42 BC, and their love affair began. When
 Antony's wife, Fulvia, died (40 BC), he married Octavian's sister,
 OCTAVIA. In 37 BC, Antony settled in Alexandria as the acknowledged lover
 of Cleopatra. In 32 BC the senate deprived Antony of his powers, thus
 making civil war inevitable. In the following year Octavian's forces
 defeated Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle at Actium, and Antony
 returned to Egypt. When Octavian came there (30 BC), Antony committed
 suicide, and Cleopatra killed herself soon afterward. Of the many dramas
 on the tragedy, the best known by far is SHAKESPEARE'S Antony and
 Cleopatra.

   Antwerp

 Antwerp, city (1987 pop. 479,748, including Berchem, Borgerhout, Deurne,
 Hoboken, Merksem, and Wilrijk), Flemish N Belgium, on the Scheldt R. It
 is one of the busiest European ports and a major center of finance,
 industry, and the diamond trade. Europe's chief commercial city by the
 mid-16th cent., it declined after its sacking (1576) by the Spanish and
 the closing (1648) of the Scheldt to navigation. Its modern expansion
 dates from 1863. In the 20th cent. it was twice occupied and heavily
 damaged by the Germans. Antwerp has many notable buildings, e.g., its
 Gothic cathedral (14th-16th cent.), and houses many important paintings,
 e.g., by RUBENS, MASSYS, VAN DYCK.

   anxiety

 anxiety, anticipatory tension or vague dread persisting in the absence of
 a specific threat. It is characterized by increased pulse rate and blood
 pressure, quickened breathing, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. It
 has been defined as the tension resulting from a sense of failure in
 interpersonal relations or as a reaction to unresolved conflicts that
 threaten the personality.

   Anza, Juan Bautista de

 Anza, Juan Bautista de, 1735-88, Spanish explorer; b. Mexico. Accompanied
 by a small expedition, he blazed (1774) a route from Sonora to
 California. In 1776 he founded SAN FRANCISCO. He later served (1777-88)
 as governor of New Mexico.

   Apache Indians

 Apache Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Southwest, six culturally
 related groups; most spoke dialects of the ATHABASCAN branch of the
 Nadene linguistic stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Their ancestors
 entered the area c.1100. The NAVAHO INDIANS were once joined to the
 Apaches. Historically the Apaches subsisted on wild game, seed and fruit
 gathering, livestock, and some horticulture. Men lived with and worked
 for their wives' families. The Apaches, known as fierce fighters,
 resisted the Spanish advance but increasingly fought the COMANCHES and
 other tribes with captured Spanish horses and arms. After the mid-19th
 cent. COCHISE, GERONIMO, MANGAS COLORADAS, and others led them in strong
 but futile efforts to stop white expansion westward. Today they live on
 reservations totaling over 3 million acres in Arizona and New Mexico and
 retain many tribal customs. Cattle, timber, tourism, and the development
 of mineral resources provide income. In 1982 the Apaches won a major
 Supreme Court test of their right to tax resources extracted from their
 lands.

   apartheid

 apartheid [Afrik.,=apartness], system of racial segregation and white
 supremacy peculiar to the Republic of SOUTH AFRICA. First formalized in
 the 1948 Afrikaner Nationalist party platform, apartheid separates whites
 from nonwhites, non whites-Coloureds (mulattoes), Asiatics (mainly of
 Indian ancestry), and Africans (called Bantu)-from each other, and one
 group of Bantu from another. Under Prime Min. Hendrik VERWOERD a policy
 of "separate development" established nine BANTUSTANS, or homelands,
 totaling about 14% of the country's land, most of it too poor in quality
 to support the designated population (roughly 70% of all South Africans).
 On the reservations Bantu can exercise certain rights; elsewhere their
 activities are strictly curtailed. They cannot vote, own land, travel, or
 work without permits, and spouses are often forbidden to accompany
 workers to urban areas. The policy, which is destructive of African
 family life, has generated international and domestic protest. In 1961
 South Africa withdrew from the British Commonwealth in dispute over
 apartheid. Economic and political pressure has since led to some
 improvements for Africans, but many feel that apartheid will end only by
 force-from within or without.

   apatite

 apatite, phosphate mineral (Ca,Pb)5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH), transparent to opaque
 in shades of green, brown, yellow, white, red, and purple. Apatite, a
 minor constituent of many types of rock, is mined in Florida, Tennessee,
 Montana, N Africa, Europe, and the USSR. Large deposits are mined for use
 in making phosphatic fertilizers, and two varieties are used to a limited
 extent in jewelry.

   ape

 ape, PRIMATE of the family Pongidae, or Simiidae, closely related to
 human beings. The small apes, the GIBBON and siamang, and the smallest of
 the great apes, the ORANGUTAN, are found in SE Asia; the other great
 apes, the GORILLA and the CHIMPANZEE, are found in Africa. They vary in
 size from the 3-ft (1.8-m), 15-lb (6.8-kg) gibbon to the 6-ft (1.8-m),
 500-lb (227-kg) gorilla. All are forest dwellers and spend at least some
 time in trees; unlike MONKEYS, they can swing hand-over-hand. Their
 brains, similar in structure to the human brain, are capable of fairly
 advanced reasoning.

   Apelles

 Apelles, fl. 330 BC, Greek painter, the most famous in antiquity, now
 known only through descriptions. Perhaps his most famous work was a
 painting of Aphrodite rising from the sea. BOTTICELLI painted Apelles'
 Calumny (Uffizi) from ALBERTI'S description.

   Apennines

 Apennines, mountain system c.840 mi (1,350 km) long and up to c.80 mi
 (130 km) wide, extending the entire length of the Italian Peninsula and
 continuing into Sicily. The earth-quake-prone mountains, long since
 denuded of their original forest cover, reach a high point of 9,560 ft
 (2,914 m) in Mt. Corno.

   aphasia

 aphasia, language disturbance caused by a lesion of the brain, causing
 partial or total impairment in the individual's ability to speak, write,
 or comprehend the meaning of spoken or written words. Treatment consists
 of reeducation; the methods used include those employed in education of
 the deaf.

   aphelion

 aphelion: see APSIS.

   aphid

 aphid or plant louse,tiny, usually green, pear-shaped INSECT injurious to
 vegetation. Aphids feed by sucking plant juices through their beaks. Most
 species live in large colonies; some species live symbiotically with
 ants. Many inhabit swellings of plant tissues (galls) that they form with
 their secretions.

   Aphrodite

 Aphrodite, in Greek mythology, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility.
 She was either the daughter of ZEUS and Dione, or she emerged from the
 sea foam. Married to HEPHAESTUS, she loved and had children by other gods
 and mortals, e.g., Harmonia was fathered by ARES, and AENEAS was the son
 of Anchises. Aphrodite was awarded the apple of discord by PARIS, leading
 to the TROJAN WAR. Probably of Eastern origin, she was similar in
 attributes to the goddesses ASTARTE and ISHTAR. The Romans identified her
 with VENUS.

   Apia

 Apia, city (1981 est. pop. 33,170), capital and chief port of WESTERN
 SAMOA.

   APL

 APL: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Apocrypha

 Apocrypha, appendix to the Authorized (King James) Version of the Old
 Testament, containing the following books or parts of books: First and
 Second ESDRAS; TOBIT; JUDITH; ESTHER 10.4-16.24; WISDOM; ECCLESIASTICUS
 ; BARUCH; DANIEL3.24-90, 13, 14; Prayer of Manasses (see under MANASSEH);
 and First and Second MACCABEES. All except the Prayer of Manasses and
 First and Second Esdras are included in the Western canon. Protestants
 follow the Jewish tradition in treating these books as uncanonical.
 Jewish and Christian works resembling biblical books but not in the
 Western or Hebrew canon are called pseudepigrapha.

   apogee

 apogee: see APSIS.

   Apollinaire, Guillaume

 Apollinaire, Guillaume, 1880-1918, French poet and critic; b. Wilhelm
 Apollinaris de Kostrowitzky. He was an influential innovator, whose lyric
 poems, e.g., Alcools (1913) and Calligrammes (1918), blend modern and
 traditional verse techniques. He is credited with introducing CUBISM to
 literature. The Breasts of Tiresias (1918), a play, is an early example
 of SURREALISM.

   Apollo

 Apollo, in Greek mythology, one of the most important OLYMPIAN gods; son
 of ZEUS and Leto, twin brother of ARTEMIS. He was concerned with
 prophecy, medicine (he was the father of ASCLEPIUS), music and poetry (he
 was also the father of ORPHEUS and the patron of the MUSES), and the
 pastoral arts. A moral god of high civilization, he was associated with
 law, philosophy, and the arts. He was widely known as a god of light,
 Phoebus Apollo; after the 5th cent. BC he was often identified with the
 sun god HELIOS. Apollo's oracles had great authority; his chief shrine
 was at DELPHI, where he was primarily a god of purification. In art he
 was portrayed as the perfection of youth and beauty. The most celebrated
 statue of him is the Apollo Belvedere, a marble copy of the original
 Greek bronze, now in the Vatican in Rome.

   Apollo, Project

 Apollo, Project: see SPACE EXPLORATION.

   Apollo asteroid

 Apollo asteroid: see ASTEROID.

   Apollonius Rhodius

 Apollonius Rhodius, fl. 3d cent. BC, epic poet of ALEXANDRIA and RHODES;
 librarian at Alexandria. His Argonautica is a four-book Homeric imitation
 on the Argonaut theme (see GOLDEN FLEECE; JASON).

   Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: see SPACE EXPLORATION.

   apostle

 apostle [Gr.,=envoy], one of the prime missionaries of Christianity. The
 disciples of JESUS who were chosen to be his Twelve Apostles were PETER,
 ANDREW, JAMES (the Greater), JOHN, THOMAS, JAMES (the Less), JUDE
  (or Thaddaeus), PHILIP, BARTHOLOMEW, MATTHEW, SIMON, and JUDAS ISCARIOT
 , who was later replaced by MATTHIAS. St. PAUL and sometimes a few others,
 e.g., St. BARNABAS, are also classed as apostles.

   apostrophe

 apostrophe: see PUNCTUATION.

   apothecaries' weights

 apothecaries' weights: see ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT; WEIGHTS AND
 MEASURES.

   Appalachian Mountains

 Appalachian Mountains, major North American mountain system extending
 c.1,600 mi (2,570 km) SW from Canada's Quebec prov. to Alabama, with Mt.
 Mitchell (6,684 ft/2,037 m), in North Carolina, the highest point. Their
 rugged hills and valleys, the much-eroded remnants of a very old mountain
 mass, posed a major barrier to westward expansion in the early years of

 APPALACHIAN TRAIL; BLUE RIDGE; Shenandoah and Great Smoky mountains under
 NATIONAL PARKS,.

   Appalachian Trail

 Appalachian Trail, world's longest continuous hiking trail, in the
 Appalachian Mts., extending 2,050 mi (3,299 km) from Mt. Katahdin (Me.)
 to Springer Mt. (Ga.) and passing through 14 states. It was completed in
 1937.

   appeal

 appeal, legal procedure by which a superior court reviews and, if it
 thinks fit, alters, a lower court decision. Ordinarily, only errors in
 applying legal rules, not factual findings, maybe reviewed. The reviewing
 court may affirm, modify, or reverse the lower court's decision, or may
 dismiss the case. If an error is found, a retrial may ensue.

   appendix

 appendix, small, worm-shaped blind tube projecting from the large
 intestine into the lower right abdominal cavity. It has no function and
 is considered a remnant of a previous digestive organ. Appendicitis can
 occur if accumulated and hardened waste matter becomes infected; rupture
 of such an appendix can spread infection to the peritoneum (abdominal
 membrane), causing peritonitis.

   Appia, Adolphe

 Appia, Adolphe, 1862-1928, Swiss theorist of stage lighting and decor.
 His employment of light and shade when staging WAGNER'S operas
 revolutionized modern scene design and stage lighting.

   Appian Way

 Appian Way, most famous of the ROMAN ROADS, built (312 BC) under Appius
 Claudius Caecus (see CLAUDIUS, Roman gens). It connected Rome with Capua
 and was later extended to Brundisium (Brindisi). It was the chief highway
 to Greece and the East.

   Appius Claudius

 Appius Claudius: see CLAUDIUS, Roman gens.

   apple

 apple, any tree (and its fruit) of the genus Malus of the ROSE family.
 The common apple (M. sylvestris) is the best-known and commercially most
 important temperate fruit. It is native to W Asia, but has been widely
 cultivated from prehistoric times. Thousands of varieties exist, e.g.,
 Golden Delicious, Winesap, Jonathan, and McIntosh. The fruit is consumed
 fresh or cooked, or is used for juice. Partial fermentation of apple
 juice (sweet cider) produces hard cider (from which applejack liquor is
 made); fully fermented juice yields vinegar. The hardwood is used in
 cabinetmaking and as fuel. The fruit of crab apple trees (which are
 cultivated as ornamentals) is used for preserves and jellies.

   Appleseed, Johnny

 Appleseed, Johnny: see CHAPMAN, JOHN.

   Appomattox

 Appomattox, town (1980 pop. 1,345), seat of Appomattox co., central Va.;
 inc. 1925. Confederate Gen. Robert E. LEE surrendered to Union Gen. U.S.
 GRANT at nearby Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865, virtually ending
 the CIVIL WAR. The surrender site has been made a national historical
 park.

   apprenticeship

 apprenticeship, system of learning a craft or trade from a practitioner
 and paying for the instruction by working a given number of years. The
 practice was known in ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, modern
 Europe and, to some extent, the U.S. In medieval Europe, the GUILDS
 supervised the relation of master and apprentice. Although the INDUSTRIAL
 REVOLUTION put an end to most guilds, apprenticeship continues in highly
 skilled trades, at times competing with technical schools. The terms of
 apprenticeship are regulated by trade unions and by law.

   apricot

 apricot, tree (Prunus armeniaca) of the ROSE family and its fruit, native
 to Asia. In the U.S., it is cultivated chiefly in California. The fruit
 is used raw, canned, preserved, and dried, and in making a cordial and a
 brandy.

   April

 April: see MONTH.

   apse

 apse, the termination at the sanctuary end of a church, generally
 semicircular, sometimes square or polygonal. In Roman TEMPLES and
 BASILICAS, it was a recess holding the statue of the deity. Early
 Christian churches placed the altar in the apse, at the eastern end.
 Because of its function, the apse became the architectural climax of the
 interior, and was often highly decorated. Chapels sometimes radiated from
 it.

   apsis

 apsis, point in the ORBIT of a smaller body where it is at its greatest
 or least distance from a larger body to which it is attracted. In an
 elliptical orbit these points are called the apocenter and pericenter;
 corresponding terms for elliptical orbits around the sun, the earth, and
 a star are, respectively, aphelion and perihelion, apogee and perigee,
 and apastron and periastron. The line of apsides, an imaginary
 straightline connecting the two apsides of an elliptical orbit, may shift
 because of gravitational influences of other bodies or relativistic
 effects (see RELATIVITY).

   Apuleius, Lucius

 Apuleius, Lucius, fl. 2d cent., Latin writer. His romance The Golden Ass
 or Metamorphoses is the only entire Latin novel surviving. The story of a
 man transformed into an ass, it influenced the development of the NOVEL.

   Aqaba, Gulf of

 Aqaba, Gulf of, northern arm of the RED SEA, 118 mi (190 km) long and
 c.10 mi (16 km) wide, between ARABIA and Egypt's SINAI peninsula. The
 gulf, which gives Israel direct access to the INDIAN OCEAN, is entered
 through the Straits of Tiran. It was declared an international waterway
 by the UN in 1958 after Arab states opposed to Israel blockaded it
 (1949-56). It was blockaded again in the ARAB-ISRAELI WAR of 1967.

   aquamarine

 aquamarine, transparent blue to bluish-green variety of the mineral
 BERYL, used as a GEM. Sources include Brazil, the USSR, Madagascar, and
 parts of the U.S. Oriental aquamarine is a transparent bluish variety of
 CORUNDUM.

   aqua regia

 aqua regia [Lat.,=royal water], corrosive, fuming yellow liquid prepared
 by mixing one volume of concentrated NITRIC ACID with three to four
 volumes of concentrated HYDROCHLORIC ACID. It was so named by the
 alchemists because it dissolves gold and platinum, the "royal" metals,
 which do not dissolve in nitric and hydrochloric acid alone.

   aquarium

 aquarium, name for any supervised exhibit of living aquatic animals and
 plants. Aquariums are known to have been built in ancient Rome, Egypt,
 and the Orient. Large, modern public aquariums were made possible by the
 development of glass exhibit tanks capable of holding over 100,000 gal
 (378,500 liters) of water. Aquarium maintenance requires careful
 regulation of temperature, light, food, oxygen, and water flow; removal
 of injurious waste and debris; and attention to the special requirements
 of the individual species. Freshwater and saltwater aquariums are often
 maintained for research and breeding purposes by universities, marine
 stations, and wildlife commissions.

   aquatint

 aquatint, ETCHING technique. A metal plate is coated with resin through
 which acid bites an evenly pocked surface. When printed, it produces
 tonal effects that resemble wash drawings. Said to have been invented in
 the 1760s by J.B. Le Prince, aquatint is often combined with other types
 of etchings, as in GOYA'S series of mixed aquatint etchings.

   aqueduct

 aqueduct, conduit for conveying water, built chiefly to bring fresh
 drinking water into cities. Aqueduct types include tunnels cut through
 rock, pipelines, and the conduits that top the arched, bridgelike
 structures that stand in many parts of Europe and are legacies of the
 ancient Roman water supply system. Modern aqueducts utilize gravity,
 pumps, and the propulsive force of very high pressures in underground
 tunnels to move water over great distances.

   aquifer

 aquifer: see ARTESIAN WELL.

   Aquino, Corazon

 Aquino, Corazon, 1933-, Philippine politician. Her husband, Benigno
 Aquino, was an outspoken opponent of Pres. Ferdinand MARCOS, whose agents
 assassinated (1983) Aquino. When the accused agents were acquitted,
 Corazon Aquino declared her candidacy for the presidency. After the
 election (1986), both sides claimed victory. When Marcos refused to step
 down, Aquino organized strikes and boycotts. With the nation on the brink
 of civil war, Marcos accepted asylum in the U.S. and Aquino assumed the
 presidency.

   Aquitaine

 Aquitaine, former duchy and kingdom in SW France. Conquered (56 BC) by
 the Romans, it fell to the VISIGOTHS in the 5th cent. In 507 Aquitaine
 was added to the Frankish kingdom by CLOVIS I, but later regained some
 independence. CHARLEMAGNE made (781) Aquitaine into a kingdom that was
 ruled by his son Louis (later Emperor LOUIS I). Late in the 9th cent. it
 became a duchy enfeoffed to the French crown. ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE'S
 marriage (1152) to the future HENRY II of England gave Henry and his
 heirs control of the duchy as vassals of the French crown. France
 completed the recapture of Aquitaine from the English during the HUNDRED
 YEARS WAR.

   Ar

 Ar, chemical symbol of the element ARGON.

   Arabia

 Arabia, peninsula, c.1,000,000 sq mi (2,590,000 sq km), SW Asia,
 containing the world's largest known reserves of oil and natural gas. It
 is politically divided between SAUDI ARABIA (the largest and most
 populous nation), YEMEN, Southern Yemen (see YEMEN, SOUTHERN), OMAN, the
 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES, QATAR, BAHRAIN, KUWAIT, and several neutral zones.
 JORDAN and IRAQ are to the north, the RED SEA to the west, and the
 PERSIAN GULF to the east. Rugged mountains rising to c.12,000 ft (3,700
 m) in the southwest catch what little moisture is available, making the
 basin-shaped interior of the peninsula one of the world's driest deserts,
 with less than 4 in. (10 cm) of precipitation annually.

   Arabian art and architecture

 Arabian art and architecture: see ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE.

   Arabian music

 Arabian music, the music of the Islamic peoples in Arabia, N Africa, and
 Persia. The chief characteristics are modal homophony, florid
 ornamentation, and modal RHYTHM, based primarily on the vocal meters of
 poetry. The principal form is the nauba, a "suite" of vocal pieces with
 instrumental preludes. The principal instrument was the lute. A
 specifically Arabian musical culture, first influenced by Persian and
 Syrian elements, developed from the 7th cent. but declined from the 11th
 cent. under Turkistan influence. With the destruction of Baghdad in 1258
 it came to an end.

   Arabian Nights

 Arabian Nights: see THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS.

   Arabian Sea

 Arabian Sea, ancient Mare Erythraeum, northwestern marginal sea of the
 INDIAN OCEAN, between Arabia and India. Its principal arms include the
 Gulf of ADEN, extended by the RED SEA, and the Gulf of Oman, extended by
 the PERSIAN GULF. ADEN, KARACHI, and BOMBAY are the chief ports.

   Arabic languages

 Arabic languages, members of the Semitic subdivision of the
 Hamito-Semitic family of languages. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES.

   Arabic literature

 Arabic literature, literature written in Arabic by Egyptians, Turks,
 Persians, Syrians, Africans, and Jews, as well as Arabs. The first
 significant Arabic literature was the lyric poetry of the 4th to 7th
 cent., strongly personal qasida (odes) that treat tribal life and the
 themes of love, combat, and the chase. The Prophet MUHAMMAD was not
 interested in poetry, so with the rise of ISLAM, Arabic poetry declined,
 replaced by the study of the KORAN. Literature again flourished in the
 Arabic-Persian culture of BAGHDAD in the 8th and 9th cent. A group of
 young poets, including ABU NUWAS, established a new, sophisticated court
 poetry; typical is the precise, formal, yet exaggerated work of Mutanabbi
 (d. 965). In the work of later poets, such as HARIRI (11th cent.), the
 style approached preciosity, and eventually the prose romance became the
 principal literary form. The THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS is the greatest
 example of this genre. During the Middle Ages Masudi and IBN KHALDUN
 produced great works on history and geography, Al Ghazali on theology and
 philosophy, and AVICENNA on medicine. The Arabic culture of Spain also
 produced fine poets and scholars, but they were dwarfed by the great
 philosophers AVERROES and Ibn Tufayl. After 1300 Arabic literature again
 declined. In the late 1800s growing Western influences stimulated a
 nationalistic vernacular literature in Syria and Egypt. Since then, the
 novel and drama have been adopted and developed, in spite of a reaction
 against Western models in modern Arabic literature. Notable 20th-cent.
 writers include the novelist Nagib MAHFUZ, the playwrights Ahmad Shawqi
 and Tawfiq al-Hakim, and the poets Hafiz Ibrahim and Nazik al-Malaikah.

   Arabic numeral

 Arabic numeral: see NUMERAL.

   Arab-Israeli Wars

 Arab-Israeli Wars, conflicts in 1948-49, 1956, 1967, 1973-74, and 1982
 between Israel and the Arabs.1The 1948-49 war reflected the opposition of
 the Arab states to the formation of a Jewish state in what they
 considered Arab territories. Newly created Israel was invaded by forces
 from Egypt, Syria, Transjordan (later Jordan), Lebanon, and Iraq. A
 UN-sponsored truce was arranged, but fighting has broken out periodically
 since then over the basic issue of the existence of Israel.2In 1956
 Israel, joined by France and Great Britain, attacked Egypt after that
 country had nationalized the Suez Canal. Intervention by the UN,
 supported by the United States and the Soviet Union, forced a
 cease-fire.3In 1967, in the Six-Day War, Israel responded to Egyptian
 provocation with air attacks and ground victories. The result was a
 humiliating defeat for Egypt. 4 In the Yom Kippur War of 1973-74, Egypt,
 Syria, and Iraq attacked Israel on the Jewish holy Day of Atonement,
 catching the Israelis off guard. Israel recouped quickly and forced the
 Arab troops back from their initial gains, but at great cost to both
 sides. Again, a cease-fire stopped the fighting. 5 In 1978 Palestinian
 guerrillas, from their base in LEBANON, launched an air raid on Israel;
 in retaliation, Israel sent troops into S Lebanon to occupy a 16-mi
 (10-km) strip and thus protect Israel's border. Eventually a UN
 peace-keeping force was set up there, but occasional fighting continued.
 In 1982 Israel launched a massive attack to destroy all military bases of
 the PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION in S Lebanon and, after a 10-week
 siege of the Muslim sector of West BEIRUT, a PLO stronghold, forced the
 Palestinians to accept a U.S.-sponsored plan whereby the PLO guerrillas
 would evacuate Beirut and go to several Arab countries that had agreed to
 accept them.

   Arab League

 Arab League, association of states formed (1945) to give common
 expression to the political interests of Arab nations. Its members
 include nearly all of the Arab states, and the PALESTINE LIBERATION
 ORGANIZATION. Opposed to the formation of a Jewish state in Palestine,
 league members jointly attacked Israel in 1948 (see ARAB-ISRAELI WARS).
 In 1979 Egypt was suspended after its peace agreement with Israel.
 Attempts to coordinate Arab economic life are among the league's chief
 activities; the Arab Common Market was set up in 1965.

   Arabs

 Arabs, name originally applied to the Semitic peoples of the Arabian
 peninsula (see SEMITE); now used also for populations of countries whose
 primary language is Arabic, e.g., Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon,
 Libya, Morocco, Syria, and Yemen. Socially, Arabs are divided into the
 settled fellahin (villagers) and the nomadic BEDOUIN. The invasions of
 Muslims from Arabia in the 6th and 7th cent. diffused the Arabic language
 and ISLAM, the Arabic religion. At its peak the Arab empire extended from
 the Atlantic Ocean across North Africa and the Middle East to central
 Asia. A great Arab civilization emerged in which education, literature,
 philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and science were highly developed. In
 Europe the Arab conquests were particularly important in Sicily, from the
 9th to late 11th cent., and in Spain, in the civilization of the MOORS.
 In the 20th cent., Arab leaders have attempted to unite the Arab-speaking
 world into an Arab nation. Since 1945 most Arab countries have joined the
 ARAB LEAGUE. In 1982 member nations had a total population estimated at
 43 million. Several of these countries control two thirds of the world's
 oil reserves and are members of OPEC (see ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM
 EXPORTING COUNTRIES). Since 1948 disputes with the state of ISRAEL have
 resulted in ARAB-ISRAELI WARS.

   arachnid

 arachnid, mainly terrestrial ARTHROPOD of the class Arachnida, including
 the SPIDER, SCORPION, MITE, tick, and DADDY LONGLEGS. The arachnid's body
 is divided into a cephalothorax with six pairs of appendages and an
 abdomen. Most are carnivorous, and some use the first two pairs of
 appendages to crush and kill prey; the others are for walking. Arachnids
 have simple eyes and sensory bristles; they have no antennae. Respiration
 is through air tubes or primitive structures called book lungs.

   Arafat, Yasir

 Arafat, Yasir, 1929-, Palestine commando leader; b. Jerusalem. Head of
 the guerrilla group Al Fatah, he became (1969) leader of the PALESTINE
 LIBERATION ORGANIZATION. (PLO). The PLO was weakened when Arafat and his
 guerrillas were forced to leave their stronghold in West BEIRUT, Lebanon,
 after the 1982 Israeli siege (see ARAB-ISRAELI WARS). In recent years,
 Arafat has been more conciliatory toward the West and has made tentative
 peace overtures to the Israelis.

   Aragon, Louis

 Aragon, Louis, 1897-1982, French writer. A founder of SURREALISM, he
 later turned to realistic social and political fiction after becoming a
 Communist. His works include the surrealist novel Nightwalker (1926), the
 war poems in Heartbreak (1941), and the series of love poems (1953, 1959,
 1963) to his wife, the novelist Elsa Triolet.

   Aragon

 Aragon, region (18,382 sq mi/47,609 sq km) and former kingdom, NE Spain,
 bordered in the north by France. Much of Aragon is sparsely populated and
 desertlike. Grains, sugar beets, and other crops are grown in oases and
 irrigated areas. Sugar refining is the only important industry. The
 kingdom was founded (1035) on land won from the MOORS, and in the 12th
 cent. ZARAGOZA became its capital. Aragon annexed NAVARRE in 1076 and was
 united with CATALONIA in 1137. Its rulers (see ARAGON, HOUSE OF) pursued
 (13th-15th cent.) an expansionist policy in the Mediterranean. The
 marriage (1479) of Ferdinand of Aragon (later Spanish King FERDINAND V)
 to ISABELLA I of Castile led to the union of Aragon and Castile.

   Aragon, house of

 Aragon, house of, ruling family of ARAGON and other territories in the
 Middle Ages. Founded (1035) by Ramiro I, the house during the 12th cent.
 conquered much territory from the MOORS in Spain and also in S France. In
 the 13th to 15th cent. it acquired SICILY, SARDINIA, and the kingdom of
 NAPLES. These possessions were usually held by various branches of the
 house and were seldom united under one ruler as they were under ALFONSO V
 in 1443-58. The union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile took place in
 1479, after the Spanish king FERDINAND V married ISABELLA I of Castile.

   Arakcheev, Aleksey Andreiyvich

 Arakcheev, Aleksey Andreiyvich, 1769-1834, Russian soldier and statesman.
 He reorganized the army in the 1790s, and as minister of war (1808-10)
 under ALEXANDER I was responsible for the attack that led to the
 annexation of Finland from Sweden (1809). He later came to dominate
 Russia's internal affairs.

   Aral Sea

 Aral Sea, inland sea, the world's fourth largest lake, c.26,000 sq mi
 (67,300 sq km), in the central Asian USSR. The sea, which is fed by the
 AMU DARYA and SYR DARYA rivers, is generally less than 220 ft (70 m) deep
 and is only slightly saline. It was known to medieval Arab geographers as
 the Khorezm or Khwarazm Sea and to early Russian explorers, who reached
 it in the 17th cent., as the Sine (Blue) Sea.

   Aramaic

 Aramaic, Hamito-Semitic language that flourished in SYRIA and the FERTILE
 CRESCENT around the time of Christ. See LANGUAGE.

   Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio

 Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio, 1903-70, president of Argentina (1955-58). An
 army general, he participated in the overthrow of Juan PERON. As
 president, he ruled by decree, removed Peronists from important posts,
 and returned the country to constitutional democracy. He was kidnapped
 and murdered by Peronist guerrillas in 1970.

   Arapaho Indians

 Arapaho Indians, NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Plains, who speak an
 Algonquian-Wakashan language (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Sometimes
 called "dog eaters" by other tribes, they are divided into the Northern
 Arapaho (considered the parent group), the Southern Arapaho, and the GROS
 VENTRE INDIANS. They stressed age-graded societies, the SUN DANCE, and
 later the GHOST DANCE. Today the Arapaho lead an agricultural life, and
 obtain income from leasing land for oil and gas development.

   Ararat

 Ararat, mountain, E Turkey, with two peaks, Little Ararat (12,877
 ft/3,925 m) and Great Ararat (16,945 ft/5,165 m). According to tradition,
 it was the landing place of Noah's ark. The kingdom of Ararat (fl.
 c.9th-7th cent. BC), called in Assyrian Urartu, was located near Lake Van
 in present-day E Turkey.

   Araucanian Indians

 Araucanian Indians, many tribes of South American agricultural people
 (see SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS) occupying most of S central Chile before the
 Spanish conquest (1540) and speaking languages of the Araucanian group
 (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). The INCA invaded them (c.1448-82) but
 were never a strong influence. The Araucanians stoutly resisted the
 Spanish, rebelling periodically until 1881. Some Araucanians, especially
 in the 18th cent., had fled to Argentina, where with captured wild horses
 they became plains wanderers. The Araucanians in Chile today number over
 200,000; they are divided between assimilated urban dwellers and those
 who retain many of their traditional ways.

   arbitration, industrial

 arbitration, industrial: see under COLLECTIVE BARGAINING.

   Arblay, Madame d'

 Arblay, Madame d': see BURNEY, FANNY.

   arboretum

 arboretum: see BOTANICAL GARDEN.

   arborvitae

 arborvitae, aromatic evergreen tree (genus Thuja) of the CYPRESS family,
 native to Asia and North America. Arborvitaes have tiny cones and
 flattened branchlets with scalelike leaves. The white cedar (T.
 occidentalis), popular for hedges, and the red cedar (T. plicata),
 important for lumber, both have decay-resistant wood.

   Arbuthnot, John

 Arbuthnot, John, 1667-1735, Scottish author, scientist, and physician. He
 is best remembered for his five "John Bull" pamphlets (1712), satires on
 Whig policy that introduced the character John Bull, the typical
 Englishman. A member of the SCRIBLERUS CLUB, he also wrote medical works.

   arbutus, trailing

 arbutus, trailing: see TRAILING ARBUTUS.

   arc

 arc, in mathematics, any part of a CURVE that does not intersect itself;
 in particular, a portion of the circumference of a CIRCLE.

   Arcadia

 Arcadia, region of ancient GREECE, in the central PELOPONNESUS. Its
 inhabitants, the Arcadians, lived a pastoral life. The largest city was
 Megalopolis.

   Arcadius

 Arcadius, c.377-408, Roman emperor of the East (395-408); son of
 THEODOSIUS I. His brother HONORIUS inherited the West, which began the
 division of the empire. During Arcadius's weak reign ALARIC I invaded
 Greece (395-97).

   Arcagnolo

 Arcagnolo: see ORCAGNA.

   Arcaro, Eddie

 Arcaro, Eddie, 1916-, American jockey; b. Cincinnati. During his career
 (1931-62) he won 4,779 races (third-best record in the U.S.), and his
 mounts won $30,039,543 in purses. He rode five Kentucky Derby winners
 between 1938 and 1952.

   Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile

 Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile, triumphal arch in Paris, in the center of
 the Place de l'Etoile, which is formed by the intersection of 12 avenues,
 one of them the Champs Elysees. It was built (1806-36) to commemorate
 NAPOLEON I'S victories, from designs of J.F. Chalgrin. In 1920 the body
 of an unknown French soldier was buried there.

   arch

 arch, the spanning of a wall opening by means of separate units (e.g.,
 bricks or blocks) assembled into an upward curve that maintains stability
 through the mutual pressure of a load and the separate pieces. The weight
 of the load is converted into downward pressures (thrusts) received by
 the piers (abutments) flanking the opening. The blocks forming the arch
 are usually wedge-shaped. The arch was used by the Egyptians,
 Babylonians, and Greeks, chiefly for drains, and by the Assyrians in
 vaulted and domed chambers. The oldest known arch in Europe is a Roman
 drain, the Cloaca Maxima (c.578 BC). The Roman semicircular arch, drawn
 from Etruscan structures, was continued in early Christian, Byzantine,
 and Romanesque architecture. The pointed arch (used by the Assyrians)
 came into general use in the 13th cent. Possibly rediscovered
 independently in Europe, it became essential to the Gothic system of
 design. The round arch regained dominance in the RENAISSANCE. The
 19th-cent. invention of steel beams for wide spans relegated the arch to
 a decorative function.

   archaeology

 archaeology, scientific study of material remains of human cultures to
 derive knowledge about prehistoric times and to supplement documentary
 evidence of historic times. Research into the life and culture of the
 past began in 15th-cent. Italy with the excavation of ancient Greek
 sculpture. It was advanced in the 18th cent. by excavations at
 HERCULANEUM and POMPEII. In the 19th cent. public interest was stimulated
 by the acquisition of the ELGIN MARBLES and by the excavations of
 Heinrich SCHLIEMANN at Troy and in Greece and those of Arthur EVANS at
 Crete; Egyptology was born with the recovery of the ROSETTA stone.
 Stratigraphic excavation of such sites as BARROWS, mounds, and kitchen
 middens unearthed levels of material culture of the past. Scientific
 analysis of these material remains led Danish archaeologist Christian
 Thomsen to classify cultures according to the principal materials used
 for weapons and tools: STONE AGE, BRONZE AGE, IRON AGE. Realizing that an
 exact equation of technical tradition with cultural development was too
 rigid, later interpreters emphasized ECOLOGY and food production.
 Improved field techniques, new DATING methods, and the study of existing
 aboriginal groups have enhanced the knowledge of prehistory. Important
 archaeological work is currently being done in Africa (see LEAKEY
 family), China, and the Americas. See also MAN, PREHISTORIC; BIBLICAL
 ARCHAEOLOGY.

   archery

 archery, sport of shooting with bow and arrow. The four main types are
 target, field, flight, and crossbow shooting. In target shooting, the
 object is to score the most points with arrows aimed at the
 "bull's-eye"-the innermost of five to ten concentric circles. Once an
 important military and hunting skill, archery was revived as a sport in
 Europe in the 17th cent. and became popular in the U.S. in the late
 1800s.

   Arches National Park

 Arches National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS.

   Archimedes

 Archimedes, c.287 BC-212 BC, Greek mathematician, physicist, and
 inventor. His reputation in antiquity was based on several mechanical
 contrivances, e.g., ARCHIMEDES' SCREW; which he is alleged to have
 invented. One legend states that during the Second PUNIC WAR he protected
 his native Syracuse from the besieging armies of Marcus Claudius
 MARCELLUS for three years by inventing machines of war, e.g., various
 ballistic instruments and mirrors that set Roman ships on fire by
 focusing the sun's rays on them. In modern times, however, he is best
 known for his work in mathematics, mechanics, and hydrostatics. In
 mathematics, he calculated that the value of c (see PI) is between 310/71
 and 31/7; devised a mathematical exponential system to express extremely
 large numbers; proved that the volume of a sphere is two thirds the
 volume of a circumscribed cylinder; and, in calculating the areas and
 volumes of various geometrical figures, carried the method of exhaustion
 invented by EUDOXUS OF CNIDUS far enough in some cases to anticipate the
 invention (17th cent.) of the CALCULUS. One of the first to apply
 geometry to mechanics and hydrostatics, he proved the law of the lever
 entirely by geometry and established ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE. In another
 legendary story, the ruler Hiero II requested him to find a method for
 determining whether a crown was pure gold or alloyed with silver.
 Archimedes realized, as he stepped into a bath, that a given weight of
 gold would displace less water than an equal weight of silver (which is
 less dense than gold); and he is said, in his excitement at his
 discovery, to have run home naked, shouting "Eureka! Eureka!" ("I have
 found it! I have found it!"). He was killed by a Roman soldier,
 supposedly while absorbed in mathematics.

   Archimedes' principle

 Archimedes' principle, principle that states that a body immersed in a
 fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
 The principle applies to both floating and submerged bodies, and to all
 fluids. It explains not only the buoyancy of ships but also the rise of a
 helium-filled balloon and the apparent loss of weight of objects
 underwater.

   Archimedes' screw

 Archimedes' screw, a simple mechanical device used to lift water and such
 light materials as grain or sand, and believed to have been invented by
 ARCHIMEDES in the 3d cent. BC It consists of a large continuous screw
 inside a cylindrical chamber. To lift water-for example, from a river to
 its bank-the lower end is placed in the river, and water rises up the
 spiral threads of the screw as it is revolved.

   Archipenko, Alexander

 Archipenko, Alexander, 1887-1964, Ukrainian-American sculptor. He
 recognized the aesthetic value of negative form (the void), as in the
 hollowed-out masses of his marble Madonna (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.). He
 taught cubist sculpture (see CUBISM) in Paris, Berlin, and New York City.

   Arctic, the

 Arctic, the, northernmost area of the earth, centered on the NORTH POLE.
 It can be defined as embracing all lands located N of the ARCTIC CIRCLE
 (lat. 66 deg31'N) or all lands located N of the 50 degF (10 degC) July
 isotherm, which is roughly equivalent to the tree line. It therefore
 generally includes the ARCTIC OCEAN; the northern reaches of Canada,
 Alaska, the USSR, and Norway; and most of Greenland, Iceland, and
 Svalbard. Ice sheets and permanent snow cover regions where average
 monthly temperatures remain below 32 degF (0 degC) all year; TUNDRA,
 which flourishes during the short summer season, covers areas where
 temperatures are between 32 degF and 50 degF (0 deg-10 degC) for at least
 one month. The Arctic is of great strategic value as the shortest route
 between the U.S. and USSR. Its rich oil and natural gas deposits have
 been discovered since the International Geophysical Year (1957-58) on
 Alaska's North Slope (see PRUDHOE BAY), Canada's Ellesmere Island (1972),
 and the northern areas of Siberia, in the USSR. Traditionally, Robert E.
 PEARY was credited with being the first explorer to reach (1909) the
 North Pole, but recent evidence suggests he may have missed by 20 miles.

   Arctic Circle

 Arctic Circle, imaginary circle on the earth's surface at 66 deg33'N
 lat., marking the northernmost point at which the sun can be seen at the
 winter SOLSTICE (about Dec. 22) and the southernmost point of the
 northern polar regions at which the midnight sun is visible.

   Arctic Ocean

 Arctic Ocean, the world's smallest ocean, c.5,400,000 sq mi (13,986,000
 sq km), centering on the NORTH POLE and connecting with the Pacific
 through the Bering Strait and with the Atlantic through the Greenland
 Sea. It is covered with ice up to 14 ft (4 m) thick all year, except in
 fringe areas.

   Ardashir I

 Ardashir I, d. 240, king of PERSIA (226?-240), founder of the Sassanid
 dynasty. He reunited Persia and established ZOROASTRIANISM as the state
 religion. His costly victory (232) over Roman Emperor Alexander Severus
 consolidated Persian power.

   Ardennes

 Ardennes, wooded plateau, from 1,600 to 2,300 ft (488 to 701 m) high, in
 SE Belgium, N Luxembourg, and N France. A traditional battleground, the
 Ardennes saw heavy fighting in both world wars, especially in the Battle
 of the Bulge (1944-45).

   Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory

 Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory, radio-astronomy facility (completed
 1963) located at Arecibo, Puerto Rico; it is operated by Cornell Univ.
 under contract with the U.S. National Science Foundation. Its fixed
 antenna of spherical section, 1,000 ft (305 m) in diameter, is the
 largest radio-telescope antenna in the world.

   Arendt, Hannah

 Arendt, Hannah, 1906-75, German-American political theorist; b. Germany.
 Fleeing the Nazis in 1941, she came to the U.S. and taught at leading
 universities. In The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), which established
 her as a major political thinker, Arendt traced Nazism and Communism to
 19th cent. IMPERIALISM and ANTI-SEMITISM. Other works include The Human
 Condition (1958), Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963), and The Life of the Mind
 (1977).

   Arensky, Anton Stepanovich

 Arensky, Anton Stepanovich, 1861-1906, Russian composer. A pupil of
 RIMSKY-KORSAKOV, he taught at the Moscow Conservatory and became (1895)
 conductor of the Imperial Chapel Choir. He wrote operas, symphonic music,
 songs, and piano works.

   Arequipa

 Arequipa, city (1981 pop. 447,431), capital of Arequipa dept., S Peru.
 The commercial center of S Peru and N Bolivia, it produces leather goods,
 alpaca wool, textiles, and foodstuffs. Founded in 1540 on an INCA site,
 it was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1868 but has been restored.
 It is called "the white city" because of the light-colored stone, sillar,
 used as a building material.

   Ares

 Ares, in Greek mythology, OLYMPIAN god of war; son of ZEUS and HERA. The
 Romans identified him with MARS.

   Argentina

 Argentina, officially Argentine Republic, republic (1986 est. pop.
 31,060,000), 1,072,157 sq mi (2,776,889 sq km), S South America, bordered
 by Chile (W); Bolivia (N); Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay (NE); and the
 Atlantic Ocean (SE). The second largest nation of South America, it
 stretches c.2,300 mi (3,700 km) from the subtropics south to TIERRA DEL
 FUEGO. Major cities include BUENOS AIRES (the capital), CORDOBA, and
 ROSARIO. Argentina consists of six geographical regions: (1) the Parana
 Plateau in the northeast, a wet, forested area; (2) the GRAN CHACO, a
 flat alluvial plain; (3) the Pampa (see under PAMPAS), a vast grassland
 between the Atlantic and the Andean foothills; (4) the Monte, an arid
 region dotted with oases; (5) PATAGONIA, in the south, a bleak plateau
 that is the chief oil-producing region; and (6) the ANDES Mts., extending
 the length of the western border and including ACONCAGUA (22,835 ft/6,960
 m), the highest point of South America. Most important of these is the
 Pampa, the chief agricultural and industrial area and site of most of the
 main cities. Argentina's economy is a mix of agriculture and industry.
 Grains and livestock are the basis of the nation's wealth; wheat corn,
 flax, oats, beef, mutton, hides, and wool are the major exports. Domestic
 oil and gas production makes the nation self-sufficient in energy. The
 industrial base is highly developed, providing nearly all of its consumer
 goods. Food processing (meat packing, flour milling, canning) is the
 principal industry; leather goods and textiles are also important. The
 population is overwhelmingly of European descent (especially Spanish and
 Italian), and about 90% are Roman Catholic. Spanish is the official
 language.

 History The first European explorers, notably Juan Diaz de Solis,
 Ferdinand MAGELLAN, and Sebastian Cabot (see under CABOT, JOHN), arrived
 in the early 16th cent. Buenos Aires was founded in 1536, abandoned after
 Indian attacks, and refounded in 1580. The city was made the capital of a
 Spanish viceroyalty in 1776. The successful struggle for independence
 (1810-16) was led by generals Manuel BELGRANO, J.M. de Pueyrredon, and
 Jose de SAN MARTIN. A protracted period of civil war ensued, lasting
 until the dictatorship of J.M. de ROSAS (1829-52). A new constitution was
 adopted in 1853 and, with major amendments, remained in effect until
 1949, but Argentina continued to suffer political instability and
 military coups. It belatedly entered (1945) WORLD WAR II on the Allied
 side after four years of pro-Axis "neutrality." Juan PERON, an army
 colonel who, with a group of colonels, seized power in 1944, won the
 elections of 1946 and established a popular dictatorship with the support
 of the army, nationalists, and the Roman Catholic Church. His second
 wife, the popular Eva Duarte de Peron (see under PERON, JUAN) won the
 backing of trade unions; her popularity among the industrial working
 class was the major pillar of support for the Peron regime. Her death in
 1952, followed by an economic downturn, led to Peron's ouster (1955) by
 the military. Government during the next 18 years had to contend with the
 continuing popularity of the Peronist movement. In 1973, Peron returned
 from exile and won election as president. His third wife, Isabel Martinez
 de Peron, was elected vice president; she succeeded him upon his death in
 1974. During her presidency terrorism by the left and right grew, and
 inflation worsened; in 1976 she was overthrown in a military coup that
 established a repressive military junta. In 1982, with Gen. Leopoldo
 GALTIERI as president, Argentina occupied the FALKLAND ISLANDS, which it
 had long disputed with Britain. The Argentine defeat in the ensuing war
 with Britain led to Galtieri's resignation and to strong public criticism
 of the military government. In the late 1980s, the government was unable
 to curb an annual inflation rate of more than 1000%, and in 1989, a
 Peronist, Carlos Raul Menem, was elected president.

   argon

 argon (Ar), gaseous element, discovered in 1894 by Sir William RAMSAY and
 Lord RAYLEIGH. An odorless, tasteless, and colorless INERT GAS, it makes
 up 0.93% of the atmosphere by volume. Argon is used in light bulbs and
 neon signs, in refining reactive elements, and for protection in arc
 welding. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Argonauts

 Argonauts: see GOLDEN FLEECE; JASON.

   Argus

 Argus or Argos,in Greek mythology.1Many-eyed monster who guarded IO after
 she was changed into a heifer.2Builder of the ship on which JASON and the
 Argonauts sailed in quest of the GOLDEN FLEECE.

   Arhus

 Arhus, city (1987 pop. 255,932), central Denmark, on Arhus Bay. Founded
 by the 10th cent., it is a prosperous cultural center and a commercial
 and shipping center, manufacturing beer, textiles, and machinery. Among
 its landmarks are its theater and the 12th-cent. Cathedral of St.
 Clemens.

   aria

 aria, elaborate and often lengthy solo SONG with instrumental
 accompaniment, especially in an OPERA, ORATORIO, or CANTATA. The
 three-part aria da capo was developed in the 17th and 18th cent. by A.
 SCARLATTI, J.S. BACH, and others. The arias of W.A. MOZART often combined
 dramatic and lyrical elements. Later composers fused aria and RECITATIVE.

   Ariadne

 Ariadne, in Greek mythology, Cretan princess; daughter of MINOS and
 Pasiphae. With her help THESEUS killed the MINOTAUR and escaped from the
 Labyrinth. He left with her but deserted her at Naxos. There she married
 DIONYSUS, who is said to have set her bridal crown among the stars.

   Arianism

 Arianism, Christian heresy arising from the teaching of the Alexandrian
 priest Arius, c.256-336. To Arius, Jesus was a supernatural being, not
 quite human, not quite divine, who was created by God. Arianism spread
 and was condemned by the First Council of NICAEA (325). The conflict went
 on, however, and several bishops and emperors sided with Arius. The
 Catholic tenets of Rome and ATHANASIUS finally triumphed, and the First
 Council of CONSTANTINOPLE (381) upheld the decrees of Nicaea.

   Arias de Avila, Pedro

 Arias de Avila, Pedro, known as Pedrarias c.1440-1531, Spanish colonial
 administrator. He succeeded (1514) BALBOA as governor of Darien (now in
 PANAMA), quarreled with him, and ordered (1517) his execution. He founded
 (1519) Panama City and extended Spanish dominions.

   Arias Sanchez, Oscar

 Arias Sanchez, Oscar, 1941-, Costa Rican politician. He was financial
 adviser to the president (1970-72), minister of national planning
 (1972-77), a congressman (1978-82), and president (1986-). Because of his
 concern for regional peace, he refused to allow U.S.-backed Nicaraguan
 contras to operate from Costa Rica and negotiated an accord (1987) with
 other Latin American leaders calling for a cease-fire and government
 talks with opposition groups. In 1987 he was awarded the Nobel Peace
 Prize.

   Ariel

 Ariel, in astronomy, natural satellite of URANUS.

   Arion

 Arion, Greek poet, fl. 7th cent.? BC, inventor of the DITHYRAMB. His
 rescue from drowning by a dolphin charmed by his music is told by
 HERODOTUS.

   Ariosto, Ludovico

 Ariosto, Ludovico, 1474-1533, Italian epic and lyric poet, in the service
 of the Duke of Ferrara. His Orlando Furioso (1532), an epic treatment of
 the ROLAND story intended to glorify the ESTE family, greatly influenced
 SHAKESPEARE, MILTON, and BYRON.

   Aristarchus of Samos

 Aristarchus of Samos, fl.c.310-c.230 BC, Greek astronomer. He is said to
 have been the first to propose a heliocentric theory of the universe,
 anticipating Copernicus by 18 centuries (see COPERNICAN SYSTEM). His only
 surviving work, On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon, is
 celebrated for its geometric argument, even though crude observation data
 led to faulty estimates.

   Aristogiton

 Aristogiton: see HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON.

   Aristophanes

 Aristophanes , b. c.448 BC, d. after 388 BC, Athenian comic poet, the
 greatest ancient writer of COMEDY. His plays mix political, social, and
 literary SATIRE. Invective, burlesque, and direct attack on persons made
 them suitable for the festival of DIONYSUS. Typically, his characters act
 naturally in preposterous circumstances; his language is economical and
 beautiful. Eleven surviving plays include The Clouds, The Wasps,
 Lysistrata, and The Frogs.

   Aristotle

 Aristotle, 384-322 BC, Greek philosopher. He studied (367-347 BC) under
 PLATO and later (342-339 BC) tutored ALEXANDER THE GREAT at the
 Macedonian court. In 335 BC he opened a school in the Athenian Lyceum.
 During the anti-Macedonian agitation after Alexander's death Aristotle
 fled (323 BC) to Chalcis, where he died. His extant writings, largely in
 the form of lecture notes made by his students, include the Organum
 (treatises on logic); Physics; Metaphysics; De Anima [on the soul];
 Nicomachean Ethics and Eudemian Ethics; Politics; De Poetica; Rhetoric;
 and works on biology and physics. Aristotle held philosophy to be the
 discerning, through the use of systematic LOGIC as expressed in
 SYLLOGISMS, of the self-evident, changeless first principles that form
 the basis of all knowledge. He taught that knowledge of a thing requires
 an inquiry into causality and that the "final cause"-the purpose or
 function of the thing-is primary. The highest good for the individual is
 the complete exercise of the specifically human function of rationality.
 In contrast to the Platonic belief that a concrete reality partakes of a
 form but does not embody it, the Aristotelian system holds that, with the
 exception of the Prime Mover (God), form has no separate existence but is
 immanent in matter. Aristotle's work was lost following the decline of
 Rome but was reintroduced to the West through the work of Arab and Jewish
 scholars, becoming the basis of medieval SCHOLASTICISM.

   arithmetic

 arithmetic, branch of mathematics (and the part of ALGEBRA) concerned
 with the fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
 and division of numbers. Conventionally, the term arithmetic covers
 simple numerical skills used for practical purposes, e.g., computation of
 areas or costs. The study of arithmetic also deals abstractly with the
 laws and properties (e.g., the ASSOCIATIVE LAW, the COMMUTATIVE LAW, and
 the DISTRIBUTIVE LAW) governing the various operations.

   arithmetic progression

 arithmetic progression: see PROGRESSION.

   Arizona

 Arizona, state in the SW U.S.; bordered by Utah (N), New Mexico (E),
 Mexico (S), and, across the Colorado R., Nevada and California (W).

 Area, 113,909 sq mi (295,024 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 3,317,000, a 22.1%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Phoenix. Statehood, Feb. 14, 1912 (48th
 state). Highest pt., Humphreys Peak, 12,633 ft (3,853 m); lowest pt.,
 Colorado R., 70 ft (21 m). Nickname, Grand Canyon State. Motto, Ditat
 Deus God Enriches. State bird, cactus wren. State flower, blossom of the
 saguaro cactus. State tree, paloverde. Abbr., Ariz.; AZ.

 Land and People  Most of northern and eastern Arizona lies within the
 arid COLORADO PLATEAU region, and most of the south and west in the flat
 desert basins (many now irrigated) and jagged mountain ranges of the
 Basin and Range region. Major rivers are the COLORADO, Gila, and Salt. A
 total of 20,036,000 acres (8,108,000 hectares), or 38% of all U.S. Indian
 tribal lands, are in Arizona; the largest are the NAVAHO, HOPI, Fort
 APACHE, and PAPAGO Indian reservations. PHOENIX, TUCSON, and TEMPE are
 the principal cities. In 1984 Arizona was 91% white, 9% native American
 and others.

 Economy Manufacturing is the leading economic activity, with machinery,
 electronic and aeronautical products, and electrical and transportation
 equipment the major manufactures. Cotton is the chief irrigated crop, and
 some lettuce, hay, oranges, and grapefruit are also grown in the
 subtropical south. Large cattle and sheep ranges produce livestock and
 dairy products. Arizona is a leading U.S. producer of copper (at Morenci
 and Bisbee), and there is a small lumber industry near Flagstaff. The
 state is also known for its Indian handicrafts. The hot, dry climate,
 spectacular scenic attractions such as the GRAND CANYON and the Petrified
 Forest (see NATIONAL PARKS,), and many Indian reservations attract large
 numbers of tourists.

 Government The constitution provides for a governor and for a state
 legislature of 30 senators and 60 representatives elected for two-year
 terms. Arizona elects two senators and five representatives to the U.S.
 Congress and has seven electoral votes.

 History Early Spanish explorers included CABEZA DE VACA (1536), Marcos de
 Niza (1539), and Francisco Vasquez de CORONADO (1540), and several
 Spanish missions were founded in the late 17th cent. The region came
 under Mexican control after 1821, and lands north of the Gila R. passed
 to the U.S. territory of New Mexico at the end of the MEXICAN WAR
 (1846-48). Lands between the Gila R. and today's southern boundary were
 added through the GADSDEN PURCHASE (1853). Arizona became a separate
 territory in 1863, and settlement accelerated after the surrender (1866)
 of GERONIMO ended 25 years of Apache Indian wars. Rapid development of
 irrigated agriculture, spurred by construction of the Roosevelt dam
 (1911), and industrial and urban expansion beginning during World War II
 strained limited water resources. A 1963 U.S. Supreme Court decision to
 increase Arizona's allocation of water from the Colorado R. was followed
 in 1968 by congressional authorization of the huge Central Arizona
 project, to divert water from the Colorado at Parker Dam and carry it
 across Arizona for use in the Phoenix-Tucson area.

   ark

 ark, in the BIBLE. 1 Boat built by NOAH at God's command to save his
 family and certain animals from the Flood. Gen. 6-9. 2 Ark of the
 Covenant, the sacred, gold-covered, wooden chest, identified by the
 Hebrews with God. Touching it meant death. It was carried into battle, as
 its presence implied victory, and was once captured by the Philistines.
 Restored many years later, it was placed in SOLOMON'S temple. Ex.
 25.10-21; 1 Sam. 4-7; 1 Chron. 13; 15; 16; 2 Chron. 5.

   Arkansas

 Arkansas, state in the S central U.S.; bordered by Tennessee and
 Mississippi, across the Mississippi R. (E), Louisiana (S), Texas and
 Oklahoma (W), and Missouri (N).

 Area, 53,104 sq mi (137,539 sq km). Pop. (1986 est.) 2,372,000, an 3.8%
 increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Little Rock. Statehood, June 15, 1836
 (25th state). Highest pt., Magazine Mt., 2,753 ft (840 m); lowest pt.,
 Ouachita R., 55 ft (17 m). Nickname, Land of Opportunity. Motto, Regnat
 Populus The People Rule. State bird, mockingbird. State flower, apple
 blossom. State tree, pine. Abbr., Ark.; AR.

 Land and People The higher terrain of the Ozark Plateau (see OZARKS) and
 Ouachita Mts., in the west, give way to lowlands in the east, drained
 mostly by the ARKANSAS and Ouachita rivers. There are many lakes, and the
 mineral waters of Hot Springs are preserved in the NATIONAL PARK there,
 contributing to the state's well-developed tourist industry. Arkansas has
 long, hot summers and mild winters. About 38% of the population lives in
 metropolitan areas. LITTLE ROCK is the leading city; other important
 cities are FORT SMITH and PINE BLUFF. In 1984 the population was 82%
 white, 18% black and other.

 Economy Manufacturing, the leading contributor to the state's income,
 includes processed foods (especially beef and poultry), electronic
 equipment, and paper and wood products utilizing state-grown lumber.
 Leading agricultural commodities are soybeans, rice, cotton, poultry, and
 cattle. Although it boasts the country's only active diamond mine,
 Arkansas's most valuable mineral resources are oil, bromine, natural gas,
 and bauxite.

 Government According to the constitution of 1874, the government is
 headed by a governor elected to a two-year term. The legislature consists
 of 35 senators serving four-year terms and 100 representatives elected to
 two-year terms. Arkansas sends two senators and four representatives to
 the U.S. Congress and has six electoral votes.

 History The Quapaw, OSAGE, and Caddo Indians inhabited the region when it
 was visited by Spanish explorers, including Hernando DE SOTO (1541-42).
 The French explorer Robert Cavelier, sieur de LA SALLE, founded (1682)
 the first permanent white settlement, Arkansas Post. In 1803 the area
 passed from France to the U.S. through the LOUISIANA PURCHASE, and many
 new settlers established cotton plantations. Arkansas soon became a
 separate territory (1819) and a state (1836). The state seceded from the
 Union in 1861 and joined the CONFEDERACY. It was readmitted to the Union
 in 1868 and experienced a turbulent RECONSTRUCTION era. Around the turn
 of the century its population grew substantially. The discovery of oil in
 1921 resulted in new prosperity for Arkansas, but farmers were severely
 affected by the GREAT DEPRESSION of the 1930s. In 1957 Gov. Orval Faubus
 became the focus of world attention when he resisted the federal
 desegregation of Little Rock's public schools. The enrollment of black
 students was subsequently enforced by the federal government. In 1981
 Arkansas passed a controversial law mandating the equal teaching of
 CREATIONISM and EVOLUTION in the public schools. The law was overturned
 in federal court the following year.

   Arkansas

 Arkansas, river, flowing SE c.1,450 mi (2,330 km) from the Rocky Mts. of
 Colorado to the Mississippi R. in SE Arkansas. Controlled by more than 25
 dams, it is navigable to Tulsa, Okla.

   Arkhangelsk

 Arkhangelsk or Archangel, city (1987 est. pop. 416,000), NW European
 USSR, on the Northern Dvina near its mouth on the White Sea. It is a
 leading port; though icebound much of the year, it can be made usable by
 icebreakers. Major exports are timber and wood products; other industries
 are fishing and shipbuilding. Founded as Novo-Kholmogory (1584), it was
 renamed (1613) for the monastery of the Archangel Michael. An Allied
 supply port in World Wars I and II, it was occupied (1918-20) by Allied
 and anti-Bolshevik forces.

   Arkwright, Sir Richard

 Arkwright, Sir Richard, 1732-92, English inventor. His construction
 (1769) of a SPINNING machine, the water frame, was an early step in the
 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. Arkwright's spinning machine led to the
 establishment of huge cotton mills and to the beginnings of the factory
 system.

   Arles, kingdom of

 Arles, kingdom of, was formed in 933, when Rudolf II united his kingdom
 of Transjurane BURGUNDY with Provence or Cisjurane Burgundy. Holy Roman
 Emperor CONRAD II annexed the kingdom to the empire in 1034, but its
 component parts gradually broke away. In 1378 Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES
 IV ceded the realm to the French dauphin (later CHARLES VI), and the
 kingdom for all practical purposes ceased to exist.

   Arlington

 Arlington, county (1986 est. pop. 158,700), N Va., across the POTOMAC R.
 from WASHINGTON, D.C. A residential suburb of Washington, the county is
 governed as a single unit without subdivisions. Within its boundaries are
 Arlington National Cemetery, the PENTAGON, Marymount Univ., and
 Washington National Airport. Arlington was part of the DISTRICT OF
 COLUMBIA from 1790 to 1847.

   Arlington

 Arlington, city (1986 est. pop. 249,770), Tarrant co., N Tex., midway
 between DALLAS and FORT WORTH; inc. 1884. Located in a rapidly growing
 industrial area, it produces automobile parts, containers, rubber
 products, and other manufactures. Arlington is the home of Six Flags over
 Texas, a huge historical amusement park, and the Texas Rangers baseball
 team. The city has a branch of the Univ. of Texas.

   Armada, Spanish

 Armada, Spanish, 1588, fleet launched by PHILIP II of Spain for the
 invasion of England. Commanded by the duque de Medina Sidonia and
 consisting of 130 ships and about 30,000 men, the Armada was delayed by
 storms and finally set sail from Lisbon in May. The English fleet, under
 Charles Howard, sailed from Plymouth and inflicted long-range damage on
 the Armada but did not break its formation. Anchoring off Calais, Medina
 Sidonia intended to pick up Alessandro FARNESE'S army in Flanders and
 convey it to England. But on Aug. 7 the English sent fire ships into the
 anchorage to scatter the Armada and then attacked the fleeing ships at
 close range off Gravelines. The battered Armada escaped northward, sailed
 around Scotland and Ireland while buffeted by storms, and returned to
 Spain after losing about half its ships.

   armadillo

 armadillo, armored MAMMAL (order Edentata) found in the S U.S. and Latin
 America. The head and body are almost entirely covered by an armor of
 bony, horny plates. Armadillos are usually nocturnal and, although
 omnivorous, eat mostly insects. The largest species, the giant armadillo
 (Priodontes giganteus), is about 4 ft (120 cm) long; the smallest, the
 fairy armadillo (Chlamyphorus truncatus), about 6 in. (15 cm) long. The
 only U.S. species is the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus),
 about 30 in. (76 cm) long and weighing about 15 lb (6.4 kg).

   armature

 armature: see GENERATOR; MOTOR, ELECTRIC.

   Armenia

 Armenia, region and former kingdom of Asia Minor. It includes NE TURKEY,
 the ARMENIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC, and parts of Iranian Azerbaijan.
 Under Persian rule from the 6th to the 4th cent. BC, it was conquered in
 330 by ALEXANDER THE GREAT but after his death fell to Syria. Armenia was
 independent from 189 BC to 67 BC, when it became tributary to Rome.
 Christianity was adopted in the 3d cent. AD; under Persian rule later in
 that century many Christians were martyred. Persia and Rome partitioned
 the kingdom in 387; it achieved autonomy in 886 but was invaded in the
 mid-11th cent. by the Byzantines, Seljuk Turks, and Mongols. Pushed
 westward, one group founded Little Armenia, in CILICIA. In 1386-94 the
 Mongols, under TAMERLANE, seized Greater Armenia and massacred much of
 the population. The Ottoman Turks invaded in 1405 and by the 16th cent.
 held all of Armenia. Though most Armenians experienced religious
 persecution, Armenian merchants played an important role in the economy
 of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. Eastern Armenia was long disputed by Turkey and
 Persia; in 1828 Persia ceded to Russia the present Armenian SSR. From
 1894 on, a plan for Armenian extermination was pursued under Sultan ABD
 AL-HAMID II, culminating in the massacre of 1915. In 1918 Russian Armenia
 became independent under German auspices (see BREST-LITOVSK, TREATY OF),
 but in 1920 an autonomous Greater Armenia was created from the Turkish
 and Soviet Russian areas. In that year, however, Russian Armenia fell to
 the Communists and was made a Soviet republic; the 1921 Russo-Turkish
 Treaty established the present boundaries, ending Armenian independence.

   Armenian language

 Armenian language, member of the Thraco-Phrygian sub-family of the
 Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic

 Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, constituent republic (1987 est. pop.
 3,400,000), 11,500 sq mi (29,785 sq km), SE European USSR, in the S
 Caucasus. The smallest Soviet republic, it is a mountainous region
 bounded by Turkey (W); the Azerbaijan Republic (E); Iran (S); and the
 Georgian Republic (N). YEREVAN is the capital. Major bodies of water are
 Lake SEVAN and the Araks and Razdan rivers. Industries include fishing,
 mining, and wine-making. Grapes, cotton, and tobacco are important
 agricultural products. In addition to the Armenian majority there are
 Azerbaijani, Russian, and Kurdish minorities. For history, see ARMENIA.
 In 1988 Armenian discontent with the Azerbaijan Republic's policies with
 respect to the Armenian minority in the Nagorno-Karabakh region
 intensified. Later that year a devastating earthquake killed almost
 35,000 people.

   armor

 armor, protective covering for persons, steeds, or vehicles. Early body
 armor of leather, shells, wood, or basketwork was replaced by metal in
 the ancient Middle East; by the Middle Ages the metal helmet, cuirass,
 and greaves of the Greeks and Romans had evolved into full body armor of
 chain mail or plate. Heavy and cumbersome, it disappeared after warfare
 became more mobile and firearms more effective. Steel helmets and
 protective clothing (e.g., bullet-proof vests) were reintroduced in the
 20th cent., and armor is still used extensively on ships, TANKS, and
 aircraft.

   Armory Show

 Armory Show, art exhibition held in 1913 at the 69th-regiment armory in
 New York City. Including works of the European avant-garde, e.g.,
 DUCHAMP'S Nude Descending a Staircase, it was a sensational introduction
 of modern art into the U.S. One of the most important art shows ever held
 in the country, it helped to change the direction of American painting.

   arms, coats of

 arms, coats of: see BLAZONRY; HERALDRY.

   Armstrong, (Daniel) Louis "Satchmo"

 Armstrong, (Daniel) Louis "Satchmo", 1900-1971, black American JAZZ
 trumpeter, singer, and bandleader; b. New Orleans. He became known for
 improvisational genius and strongly influenced the melodic development of
 jazz. Armstrong was in large part responsible for the rise of the soloist
 in jazz.

   Armstrong, Neil Alden

 Armstrong, Neil Alden, 1930-, American astronaut; b. Wapakoneta, Ohio. He
 was the command pilot for Gemini 8 (Mar. 16, 1966) and deputy associate
 administrator for aeronautics (1970-71) at NASA. During the Apollo 11
 mission (July 16-24, 1969), which he commanded, he and Buzz ALDRIN (the
 lunar-module pilot) became the first and second persons, respectively, to
 walk on the moon (see SPACE EXPLORATION,). He taught aeronautical
 engineering (1971-79) at the Univ. of Cincinnati and was appointed (1985)
 to the National Commission on Space by Pres. Reagan (1985).

   Armstrong, Samuel Chapman

 Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, 1839-93, American educator and philanthropist;
 b. Hawaiian Islands. Appointed an agent of the Freedmen's Bureau after
 the Civil War, he realized the need for vocational training of
 emancipated slaves and helped found (1868) the Hampton Inst., which he
 headed until 1893, to advance that purpose.

   army

 army, armed land force under regular military organization, as
 distinguished from the horde, or armed mass of all ablebodied men in a
 tribe. The earliest known professional army was that of Egypt, followed
 by those of Assyria and Persia. Military service became obligatory for
 citizens of Greece. The Roman army evolved from a citizen soldiery into a
 professional standing army increasingly composed of barbarian
 mercenaries. In the Middle Ages, the armed KNIGHT and YEOMAN owed a set
 number of days of military service each year to a great lord; but with
 the decline of FEUDALISM and the advent of firearms, this system also
 gave way to the service of mercenaries. In the 17th cent. Louis XIV of
 France organized a national standing army that set the pattern for all of
 Europe: a highly disciplined, professional body set apart from civilian
 life. The concept reached a harsh perfection under Frederick II of
 Prussia. It was the introduction of CONSCRIPTION during the French
 Revolutionary Wars that set in motion the development of modern mass
 armies built around a professional nucleus and organized into specialized
 units for combat and support. Although conscription was used in the U.S.
 CIVIL WAR and WORLD WAR I, the U.S., until 1940, traditionally relied in
 emergencies on its citizen militia, the NATIONAL GUARD, and on voluntary
 enlistment in the armed forces; the peacetime draft was again lifted in
 1973. The term army generally applies to all armed land forces of a
 nation (e.g., the French army); it can also designate a self-contained
 fighting force in a given area (e.g., the Army of the Potomac in the U.S.
 Civil War) or a unit of c.100,000 men composed of two or more corps. A
 corps in turn is composed of two or more divisions (usually about 15,000
 men). Traditionally, an army was made up of major INFANTRY, CAVALRY, and
 ARTILLERY commands, but these gave way to more complex forms of
 organization. Today, each division typically includes infantry, airborne,
 mechanized, and other specialized battalions or brigades. See also
 MILITARY SCIENCE.

   Arnim, Achim

 Arnim, Achimor Joachim von, 1781-1831, German writer of the romantic
 school. He is best remembered for his work with his brother-in-law,
 Clemens BRENTANO, on the folk-song collection The Boy's Magic Horn
 (1806-8) and for his historical novels, notably Isabella of Egypt (1812).
 His wife, Bettina von Arnim, 1785-1859, b. Elisabeth Brentano, was also a
 writer. She corresponded with BEETHOVEN and GOETHE; her publication of
 Goethe's Correspondence with a Child (1835) reflects her own poetic
 imagination.

   Arnold, Benedict

 Arnold, Benedict, 1741-1801, American Revolutionary general and traitor;
 b. Norwich, Conn. After excellent service in the colonial assault on
 Quebec (1775-76) and the SARATOGA CAMPAIGN, he felt slighted regarding
 promotion. His plot with John ANDRE to betray (1780) the American post at
 WEST POINT was discovered, but Arnold escaped and later fought for the
 British.

   Arnold, Matthew

 Arnold, Matthew, 1822-88, English poet and critic; son of Thomas Arnold.
 He was an inspector of schools (1851-86) and professor of poetry at
 Oxford (1857-67). Arnold wrote superb poetry, usually dealing with the
 themes of loneliness and pessimism. Among his best-known verses are
 "Isolation: To Marguerite" (1852), "The Scholar Gypsy" (1853), and "Dover
 Beach" (1867). His books of literary criticism include On Translating
 Homer (1861) and Essays in Criticism (1865; Ser. 2, 1888). Culture and
 Anarchy (1869) is a volume of social criticism. Arnold stressed the
 necessity for objectivity and advocated a culture based on the best that
 has been thought and said in the world.

   aromatic compound

 aromatic compound, any of a large class of organic compounds including
 BENZENE and compounds that resemble benzene in chemical properties.
 Aromatic compounds contain unusually stable ring structures, often made
 up of six carbon atoms arranged hexagonally. Some of the compounds,
 however, have rings with more or fewer atoms, not necessarily all carbon.
 Furan, for example, has a ring with four atoms of carbon and one of
 oxygen. Also, two or more rings can be fused, as in naphthalene. The
 characteristic properties of the class, notably the stability of the
 compounds, derive from the fact that aromatic rings permit the sharing of
 some electrons by all the atoms of the ring, which increases the strength
 of the bonds.

   Aroostook War

 Aroostook War, brief conflict, 1838-39, between the U.S. and Canada
 concerning the Maine-New Brunswick border. An agreement (March 1839)
 averted full-scale war. The boundary was settled (1842) by the
 WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY.

   Arp, Jean

 Arp, Jean or Hans,1887-1966, French sculptor and painter. A member of
 avant-garde groups in Europe, Arp created abstract, organic, witty works
 in various media. A monumental wood relief (1950) is at Harvard Univ.

   Arrhenius, Svante August

 Arrhenius, Svante August, 1859-1927, Swedish chemist. For his theory of
 electrolytic dissociation, or ionization (see ACIDS AND BASES), he won
 the 1903 Nobel Prize in chemistry. He also investigated osmosis and
 toxins and antitoxins. He became (1905) director of the Nobel Institute
 for Physical Chemistry, Stockholm.

   arrowroot

 arrowroot, plant (genus Maranta) of the family Marantaceae, found mainly
 in warm, swampy forests of the Americas. The term arrowroot also applies
 to the easily digested starch obtained from the true, or West Indian,
 arrowroot (M. arundinacea). Plants from other families produce similar
 starches, e.g., East Indian arrowroot (GINGER family); Queensland
 arrowroot (Canna family); Brazilian arrowroot, or tapioca (SPURGE
 family); and Florida arrowroot, or sago.

   arrowworm

 arrowworm, common name for Chaetognatha, a phylum of slender-bodied,
 transparent marine invertebrate animals widely distributed, but
 preferring warm, shallow seas. Most are less than 1 in. (2.5 cm) long.
 The head is well-developed, with eyes and other sensory organs, grasping
 spines, teeth, and a protective hood. Arrowworms reproduce sexually.

   Arsaces

 Arsaces, fl. 250 BC, founder of the Parthian dynasty of the Arsacids,
 which ruled Persia from c.250 BC to AD 226.

   arsenic

 arsenic (As), semimetallic element, first described by ALBERTUS MAGNUS in
 the 13th cent. Arsenic has several allotropic forms (see ALLOTROPY); the
 most stable is a silver-gray, brittle, crystalline solid that tarnishes
 in air. Arsenic ores include realgar and arsenopyrite. Combined with
 other elements, arsenic forms strong poisons; organic compounds of
 arsenic were widely used medically to treat syphilis and yaws. The metal
 is used in the manufacture of lead shot and transistorized circuits. See
 ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   Artaxerxes

 Artaxerxes, name of several ancient Persian kings. Artaxerxes I, d. 425
 BC (r.464-425 BC), was a member of the ACHAEMENID dynasty. Artaxerxes is
 the Greek form of the name Ardashir the Persian. He succeeded his father,
 Xerxes I, in whose assassination he had no part. The later weakness of
 the Persian empire is commonly traced to his reign. Artaxerxes II, d. 358
 BC (r.404-358 BC), was the son and successor of DARIUS II. CYRUS THE
 YOUNGER attempted to assassinate him but was crushed (401 BC). During his
 reign the provinces of the empire became restless. His son, Artaxerxes
 III, d. 338 BC (r.358-338 BC), gained the throne by a general massacre of
 his brother's family. Throughout his reign he continued a policy of
 terror, and he was finally poisoned by one of his ministers.

   art deco

 art deco, design style popular during the 1920s and 30s, characterized by
 slender forms, straight lines, and a sleekness expressive of "modern"
 technology. The style regained popularity in the 1970s and 80s.

   Artemis

 Artemis, in Greek mythology, goddess of the hunt. She was the daughter of
 ZEUS and Leto and the twin sister of APOLLO. Artemis is associated with
 chastity, marriage, children, wildlife, and, as a complement to the sun
 god Apollo, with the moon. The Romans identified her with DIANA.

   arteriosclerosis

 arteriosclerosis, general term for a condition characterized by
 thickening, hardening, and loss of elasticity of the walls of the
 arteries. In its most common form, atherosclerosis, fatty deposits, e.g.,
 CHOLESTEROL, build up on the inner artery walls; in some cases calcium
 deposits also form. The blood vessels narrow, and blood flow decreases;
 THROMBOSIS, HEART DISEASE, and STROKE may result. Surgical treatment is
 sometimes effective, but there is no specific cure. A low-cholesterol
 diet and control of predisposing factors, such as HYPERTENSION, smoking,
 DIABETES, and obesity, are usually recommended.

   artesian well

 artesian well, deep well drilled into an inclined aquifer (layer of
 water-bearing porous rock or sediment), where water is trapped under
 pressure between impervious rock layers. When a well is drilled into the
 aquifer through the overlying impervious rock, pressure forces water to
 rise in the well. Artesian water is usually desirable for drinking. In
 North America, artesian systems supply water to the Great Plains and many
 East Coast cities. The largest artesian system is in Australia.

   Artevelde, Jacob van

 Artevelde, Jacob van, c.1290-1345, Flemish statesman. A conflict between
 the count of Flanders and EDWARD III of England cut off English wool
 imports, ruining the Flemish weavers and merchants. Ghent rebelled, and
 Artevelde, as head of its government, signed a commercial treaty with
 England (1338). In 1340 he had the Flemish towns recognize Edward as king
 of France and thus suzerain of Flanders. He was killed in a riot. His
 son, Philip van Artevelde, 1340-82, led a weavers' revolt against the
 count of Flanders (1381), taking Bruges and most of Flanders before being
 killed by the French.

   art history

 art history, the study of works of art and architecture. It was raised to
 an academic discipline in the mid-19th cent. by Jacob BURCKHARDT, who
 related art to its cultural environment, and by idealists such as
 Heinrich Wolfflin, who explored art in terms of formal analysis. Both
 approaches remain important in contemporary art history. Major 20th-cent.
 art historians include Bernard BERENSON, Henri Focillon, Ernst Gombrich,
 Emile Male, and Erwin PANOFSKY.

   arthritis

 arthritis, inflammation of one or more joints of the body, usually
 producing pain, redness, and stiffness. It disables more people than any
 other chronic disorder. A common form is osteoarthritis, a degenerative
 disease of the joints that commonly occurs with aging. Rheumatoid
 arthritis, an AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE of unknown cause, is a progressive,
 crippling joint disorder most common in women between 25 and 50. Initial
 treatment for arthritis includes use of heat, physical therapy, and
 ASPIRIN; in more severe cases, gold salts and CORTISONE are given, but
 they often have undesirable side effects. See also GOUT.

   arthropod

 arthropod, invertebrate animal, having a segmented body covered by a
 jointed exoskeleton with paired jointed appendages; member of the phylum
 Arthropoda, the largest and most diverse invertebrate phylum. The
 exoskeleton is periodically shed (molted) to permit growth and
 METAMORPHOSIS. Arthropods make up more than 80% (800,000) of all known
 animal species; they include TRILOBITES, HORSESHOE CRABS, ARACHNIDS, SEA
 SPIDERS, CRUSTACEANS, INSECTS, CENTIPEDES, and MILLIPEDES.

   Arthur

 Arthur, king of Britain: see ARTHURIAN LEGEND.

   Arthur

 Arthur, dukes of Brittany. Arthur I, 1187-1203?, duke 1196-1203?, was the
 son of Geoffrey, fourth son of HENRY II of England. After the death of
 RICHARD I of England, Arthur's claim to the English crown was passed over
 in favor of his uncle JOHN. Arthur allied himself with PHILIP II of
 France, who invested Arthur with Richard's fiefs in France. Fighting
 ensued, and Arthur was captured (1202) by John, who is suspected of
 murdering him. Arthur's story is told in Shakespeare's King John. Arthur
 III, 1394-1458, duke 1457-58, was known as comte de Richemont before his
 accession. As constable of France in the HUNDRED YEARS WAR, he captured
 (1436) Paris from the English and helped to regain Normandy for France.

   Arthur, Chester Alan

 Arthur, Chester Alan, 1830?-86, 21st president of the U.S. (1881-85); b.
 Fairfield, Vt. A lawyer, he was appointed (1871) collector of the port of
 New York. His removal (1878) by Pres. HAYES angered Sen. Roscoe CONKLING
 and other New York Republicans, but they were placated in 1880 by
 Arthur's nomination as vice president on the Republican ticket with James
 A. GARFIELD. Succeeding to the presidency after Garfield's assassination,
 Arthur had an honest, efficient, and dignified administration. He
 supported the civil service reform act of 1883 and vetoed a Chinese
 exclusion bill that violated a treaty with China.

   Arthurian legend

 Arthurian legend, mass of stories, popular in medieval lore, concerning
 King Arthur of Britain and his knights. The earliest reference to Arthur
 is in the Welsh poem Gododdin (c.600), although later sources place him
 at the Battle of Mt. Badon, mentioned by Gildas c.540. In Nennius (c.800)
 he appears as a Celtic victor over Saxon invaders. The legend was greatly
 elaborated by GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH in his Historia (c.1135), which
 represents Arthur as the conqueror of Western Europe. Wace's Roman de
 Brut (c.1155) infuses the story with the spirit of chivalric romance, and
 the Brut of LAYAMON (c.1200) pictures Arthur as national hero. The
 12th-cent. French poet CHRETIEN DE TROYES introduced in Perceval the
 theme of the quest for the Holy Grail. GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, a
 medieval German poet, wrote the first great treatment of the TRISTRAM AND
 ISOLDE story. The Middle English Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (c.1370)
 embodied the ideal of chivalric knighthood. Sir Thomas MALORY'S Morte
 d'Arthur (1485) was the last important medieval treatment. Since Malory,
 the legend has appeared in the work of TENNYSON, SWINBURNE, William
 MORRIS, T.H. WHITE, and others. It is generally accepted that the
 Arthurian legend developed out of Celtic mythology, as collected in the
 Welsh MABINOGION. The stories may have coalesced around Irish hero tales
 and were probably carried to the Continent by Breton minstrels before
 1000. Despite innumerable variations, the basic story has remained the
 same. Arthur, the illegitimate son of Uther Pendragon, king of Britain,
 wins recognition after his father's death by removing a sword from a
 stone. Merlin, the court magician, then reveals his parentage. Reigning
 at CAMELOT, Arthur proves a mighty and noble king. He possesses the great
 sword Excalibur, given him by the mysterious Lady of the Lake. His
 enemies include his sorceress sister, Morgan le Fay, and Sir Mordred,
 usually his nephew, who fatally wounds him. The dying king is borne away
 to Avalon, whence he will someday return. Among the knights in Arthur's
 court are Sir Launcelot and Sir Tristram, both involved in illicit and
 tragic unions, Launcelot with Arthur's wife, Guinevere, and Tristram with
 Isolde, the wife of his uncle, King Mark. Other figures include Sir
 Pelleas and Sir Gawain; Sir Galahad, Launcelot's son; Sir Percivale (or
 Parsifal); and other knights of the Round Table.

   artichoke

 artichoke, name for two plants of the COMPOSITE family, both having
 edible parts. The French, or globe, artichoke (Cynara scolymus), of S
 Europe, is a thistlelike plant whose immature, globular flower heads are
 used as vegetables; only the lower parts of the fleshy bracts ("leaves")
 and the center ("heart") are eaten. The other artichoke plant is the
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE.

   artificial insemination

 artificial insemination, technique of artificially injecting
 sperm-containing semen from a male into a female to cause pregnancy. The
 technique is widely used in the propagation of cattle, especially to
 produce many offspring from one prize bull. Artificial insemination is
 also used in humans when normal fertilization cannot be achieved, as with
 STERILITY or IMPOTENCE in the male or anatomical disorders in the female
 (see IN VITRO FERTILIZATION).

   artificial intelligence

 artificial intelligence (AI), the use of COMPUTERS to model the
 behavioral aspects of human reasoning and learning. Research in AI is
 concentrated in some half-dozen areas. In problem solving, one must
 proceed from a beginning (the initial state) to the end (the goal state)
 via a limited number of steps; AI here involves an attempt to model the
 reasoning process in solving a problem, such as the proof of a theorem in
 EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY. In game theory (see GAMES, THEORY OF), the computer
 must choose among a number of possible "next" moves to select the one
 that optimizes its probability of winning; this type of choice is
 analogous to that of a chess player selecting the next move in response
 to an opponent's move. In pattern recognition, shapes, forms, or
 configurations of data must be identified and isolated from a larger
 group; the process here is similar to that used by a doctor in
 classifying medical problems on the basis of symptoms. Natural language
 processing is an analysis of current or colloquial language usage without
 the sometimes misleading effect of formal grammars; it is an attempt to
 model the learning process of a translator faced with the phrase "throw
 mama from the train a kiss." CYBERNETICS is the analysis of the
 communication and control processes of biological organisms and their
 relationship to mechanical and electrical systems; this study could
 ultimately lead to the development of "thinking" robots (see ROBOTICS).
 Machine learning occurs when a computer improves its performance of a
 task on the basis of its programmed application of AI principles to its
 past performance of that task.

   artificial kidney

 artificial kidney: see DIALYSIS.

   artificial life support

 artificial life support, systems that use medical technology to aid,
 support, or replace a vital function of the body that has been seriously
 damaged. Such techniques include artificial pacemakers, dialysis
 machines, and oxygenators. The use of these systems to prolong the life
 of a patient who has suffered apparently irreversible damage to a vital
 organ system may raise such ethical issues as the quality of life,
 EUTHANASIA, and the right to die.

   artificial respiration

 artificial respiration, any measure that causes air to flow in and out of
 a person's lungs when natural breathing is inadequate or ceases.
 Respiration can be taken over by mechanical devices, e.g., the artificial
 lung; in emergency situations, mouth-to-mouth (or, for a small child,
 mouth-to-nose) procedures are often used. The victim's mouth is cleared
 of foreign material, and the head is tilted back. Holding the nostrils
 tightly shut, the person administering artificial respiration places his
 (or her) mouth over that of the victim and blows air into the lungs,
 allowing for exhalation after each breath. Twelve vigorous breaths are
 administered per minute for an adult, twenty shallow breaths per minute
 for a child.

   Artigas, Jose Gervasio

 Artigas, Jose Gervasio, 1764-1850, Uruguayan independence leader. He
 joined (1811) the revolution against Spanish rule and became leader in
 the Banda Orientale (now URUGUAY). Artigas agitated against the
 territory's annexation (1820) by Brazil and went into exile.

   artillery

 artillery, a term now applied to heavy firearms, as distinguished from
 SMALL ARMS. It came into use in the mid-14th cent. with the introduction
 in Europe of GUNPOWDER, which had been discovered many centuries earlier
 in China. First employed mainly against fortifications, artillery was
 increasingly used in the field from the early 17th cent. It was
 characteristically smooth-bore and muzzle-loaded, firing solid, round
 shot, until the late 19th cent., when breech-loaded, rifled, and
 shell-firing artillery became standard. Modern artillery includes a
 variety of long-range guns that fire their shells with rapid
 muzzle-velocity in a low arc; howitzers, which fire on a high trajectory
 at relatively nearby targets; antiaircraft guns, which fire rapidly and
 at high angles; armor-piercing antitank guns; and many field-artillery
 pieces used in support of infantry and other ground operations. Mobility
 has become a key factor in the usefulness of heavy firearms, most of
 which now either are self-propelled or can be towed.

   art nouveau

 art nouveau, decorative art movement begun in Western Europe that lasted
 from the 1880s to World War I. It was characterized by a richly
 ornamental, asymmetrical style of whiplash linearity, reminiscent of
 twining plant tendrils, and was most successful in furniture, jewelry,
 and book design and illustration. Its themes were symbolic and often
 erotic. Chief exponents included the illustrators Aubrey BEARDSLEY and
 Walter Crane in England; the architects Henry van de Velde and Victor
 HORTA in Belgium; the architect Hector Guimard and the jewelry designer
 Rene Lalique in France; the painter Gustav KLIMT in Austria; the
 architect Antonio GAUDI in Spain; the illustrator Otto Eckmann and the
 architect Peter BEHRENS in Germany; and the glassware designer Louis C.
 TIFFANY and the architect Louis SULLIVAN in the U.S.

   arts and crafts

 arts and crafts, term for the field of the designing and hand fabrication
 of functional and decorative objects. The term was invented in
 late-19th-cent. England to refer to a movement, begun by William MORRIS
 and others, to revive the hand techniques almost obliterated by
 industrialization.

   Aruba

 Aruba, island (1985 est. pop. 61,000) 69 sq mi (179 sq km) in the
 NETHERLANDS ANTILLES. Tourism and the refining of oil from nearby
 Venezuela are the major sources of revenue. Oranjestad is the capital.

   arum

 arum, common name for the Araceae, a family of chiefly tropical and
 subtropical herbaceous herbs. The characteristic inflorescence consists
 of a single fleshy spike (spadix), which bears small flowers, and a
 typically showy flowerlike bract or modified leaf (spathe) surrounding
 the spadix. The largest plant inflorescence known belongs to the Sumatran
 krubi (Amorphophallus titanum) of this family; its spadix reaches a
 height of 15 ft (4.6 m). Among other members of the family are the
 decorative arum lily, or calla (genus Zantedeschia); the smaller, showy
 water arum, or wild calla (Calla palustris); the climbing shrub
 philodendron (genus Philodendron), a popular houseplant; and the
 decorative Anthurium and Caladium. Some species in this family have
 large, starchy edible rootstocks (corms). A major food source in the
 Pacific and Far East, the corms of elephant's ear (Colocasia esculenta),
 or taro, are the main ingredient of poi. Corms of the arum Indian bread
 were eaten by natives of E North America.

   Aryans

 Aryans, speakers of Indo-European or Indo-Iranian languages. In the 2d
 millennium BC, waves of warlike nomadic Aryan tribes spread from S Russia
 and Turkistan through Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. They invaded India
 c.1500 BC, colonizing the PUNJAB. The subsequent Indo-European period was
 characterized by a pastoral-agricultural economy and the use of bronze
 objects and horse-drawn chariots. In the 20th cent., NAZI racist
 propaganda idealized the Aryan conquest and claimed German descent from
 the Aryans.

   As

 As, chemical symbol of the element ARSENIC.

   asbestos

 asbestos, common name for any of a group of fibrous silicate minerals
 resistant to acid and fire. Asbestos usually occurs as veins in rocks and
 seems to be a product of METAMORPHISM. Chrysotile asbestos (H4Mg3Si2O9),
 a form of SERPENTINE, is the main commercial asbestos. Asbestos is
 produced chiefly in Canada; asbestos products include yarn and rope, pipe
 covering, brake linings, fire-fighting equipment, and insulating
 materials. Studies have shown that asbestos particles in the air can
 cause lung cancer and the lung disease asbestosis.

   Ascension

 Ascension, volcanic, largely barren island (1980 est. pop. 1,013), 34 sq
 mi (88 sq km), in the S Atlantic, part of the British colony of SAINT
 HELENA. It is the site of a U.S. air base, and a missile- and
 satellite-tracking station.

   Ascension

 Ascension, name given to the departure of JESUS from earth. Ascension
 Thursday, a major feast for most Christians, commemorates the event and
 occurs on the 40th day after Easter.

   Asch, Sholem

 Asch, Sholem, 1880-1957, American Yiddish novelist and playwright; b.
 Poland. His writings often depict Jewish life in Europe and the U.S., as
 in Three Cities (1933) and East River (1946). Later works, e.g., Mary
 (1949), reflect the common spiritual heritage of Jews and Christians.

   Ascham, Roger

 Ascham, Roger, 1515-68, English humanist. A leading intellectual figure
 of the Tudor period, he tutored Princess Elizabeth (ELIZABETH I) in the
 classics and later served as her secretary; he was also Latin secretary
 to MARY I. He wrote Toxophilus (1557), an essay on archery, and The
 Scholemaster (1570), a treatise on the teaching of Latin.

   Asclepius

 Asclepius, legendary Greek physician and god of medicine; son of APOLLO
 and Coronis. The sick were treated in his temples; the serpent and cock
 were sacred to him.

   ascorbic acid

 ascorbic acid: see VITAMIN.

   ASEAN

 ASEAN: see ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS.

   Asgard

 Asgard, in Norse mythology, home of the gods. Also called Aesir, it
 consisted of luxurious palaces and halls. One of the most beautiful was
 Valhalla, the hall of dead heroes.

   Asgeirsson, Asgeir

 Asgeirsson, Asgeir, 1894-1972, president of ICELAND (1952-68). He was a
 member of parliament (1923-52), held various cabinet posts, and served
 (1946-52) as governor of the International Monetary Fund.

   ash

 ash, tree or shrub (genus Fraxinus) of the OLIVE family, mainly of north
 temperate regions. The ashes have small clusters of greenish flowers and
 long-winged, wind-dispersed fruits. The white ash (F. americana) is a
 source of durable hardwood timber used for sporting goods, furniture, and
 tool handles; the blue ash (F. quadrangulata) provides a blue dye. The
 mountain ash and prickly ash are not true ashes.

   Ashanti

 Ashanti, or Asante,historic and present-day region in central GHANA,
 inhabited by the Ashanti, one of Ghana's major ethnic groups. In the 17th
 cent. the Ashanti confederation was forged, with its capital at KUMASI
 and with the chieftain of the Oyoko clan as king. Ashanti came into
 conflict with the British colonies along the coast, and the Anglo-Ashanti
 wars (19th cent.) resulted in the dissolution of the confederation in
 1896. In 1901 Ashanti became part of the British colony of the Gold
 Coast. The people are noted for their goldwork and colorful Kente cloth.
 (See also GHANA, ancient empire.)

   Ashbery, John

 Ashbery, John, 1927-, American poet and art critic; b. Rochester, N.Y.
 His poems are experimental, narrative, and strongly visual. His
 collections include Some Trees (1956), Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror
 (1975; Pulitzer), Shadow Train (1981), and A Wave (1984).

   ashcan school

 ashcan school: see EIGHT, THE.

   Ashe, Arthur (Robert)

 Ashe, Arthur (Robert), 1943-, American tennis player; b. Richmond. He was
 (1968) the first black to win the U.S. Open. He also took the Australian
 (1970) and Wimbledon (1975) titles.

   Asher

 Asher: see ISRAEL, TRIBES OF.

   Ashton, Sir Frederick

 Ashton, Sir Frederick, 1906-1988, British choreographer and dancer; b.
 Ecuador. He studied in England with Leonid MASSINE and Maria Rambert. He
 joined (1935) the Sadler's Wells Ballet (now the Royal Ballet) as
 choreographer and later became director (1963-70). His precise, lyrical
 works include Cinderella, Ondine, and A Month in the Country.

   Ashurbanipal

 Ashurbanipal: see ASSURBANIPAL.

   Ashurnasirpal II

 Ashurnasirpal II, d. 860? BC, king of ancient ASSYRIA (884-860? BC). He
 conquered considerable territory and helped to create a centralized
 state.

   Ash Wednesday

 Ash Wednesday: see LENT.

   Asia

 Asia, the world's largest continent, c.17,139,000 sq mi (44,390,000 sq
 km), joined in the west with Europe (which may be considered a peninsula
 of Asia) to form the great Eurasian land mass. It ranges in elevation
 from 29,028 ft (8,848 m) at Mt. EVEREST, the world's highest mountain, to
 1,292 ft (394 m) below sea level at the DEAD SEA, the world's lowest
 point. It is traversed from east to west by a massive central highland
 region containing the Tibetan Plateau, the HIMALAYAS, the HINDU KUSH, and
 other great mountain systems. The continent has every type of climate,
 from tropical to polar and from desert to rainy. The countries of Asia
 are Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia
 (Kampuchea), China, Cyprus, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan,
 Jordan, North Korea, South Korea, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia, the
 Maldives, the Mongolian People's Republic, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, the
 Republic of the Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka,
 Syria, Taiwan (the Republic of China), Thailand, Asian Turkey, the Asian
 USSR, the United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, Yemen, and Southern Yemen; other
 political units are Brunei, Hong Kong, and Macao (see separate articles).
 Asia was the site of some of the world's earliest civilizations and today
 contains nearly 60% of the world's population. Some of the world's
 greatest population densities are found in S and E Asia, particularly in
 the great alluvial river valleys of the GANGES, in India, and the YANGTZE
 and HUANG HE, in China. See map of Asia in separate section.

   Asia Minor

 Asia Minor, peninsula, W Asia, forming the Asian part of Turkey. Most of
 the peninsula is occupied by the Anatolian plateau, which is crossed by
 numerous mountains interspersed with lakes. The first civilization
 established there (c.1800 BC) was that of the HITTITES. The site of TROY
 and other ancient cities, Asia Minor was subjugated by many invaders,
 including the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and Crusaders. Conquered by
 the Turks between the 13th and 15th cent. AD, it was part of the OTTOMAN
 EMPIRE until the establishment of modern Turkey after WORLD WAR I.

   Asimov, Isaac

 Asimov, Isaac, 1920-, American biochemist and author; b. USSR. He taught
 biochemistry at Boston Univ., but he is best known as a prolific author
 of science fiction, e.g., The Foundation Trilogy (1951-83).

   Asmara

 Asmara, city (1984 est. pop. 275,385), capital of Eritrea prov., N
 Ethiopia. A commercial and industrial center, it is connected by rail
 with the Red Sea port of Massawa. Manufactures include textiles and beer.
 The city was occupied (1889) by the Italians, became (1900) the capital
 of their colony of Eritrea, and was a base for the Italian invasion of
 Ethiopia (1935-36). It was taken by the British in 1941. In the late
 1970s Asmara was briefly besieged by Eritrean guerrillas fighting to
 secede from Ethiopia.

   Asmoneans

 Asmoneans: see MACCABEES.

   Asoka

 Asoka, d. c.232 BC, Indian emperor (c.273-c.232 BC) of the MAURYA
 dynasty. One of the greatest of the ancient rulers, he brought nearly all
 of INDIA together. However, he sickened of war, turned (c.257 BC) to
 BUDDHISM, and thereafter professed nonviolence. He sent Buddhist
 missionaries as far afield as Greece and Egypt, and was largely
 responsible for transforming Buddhism into a world religion.

   asp

 asp, popular name for several species of VIPER, one of which, the
 European asp (Vipera aspis), is native to S Europe. It is also a name for
 the Egyptian COBRA.

   asparagus

 asparagus, perennial garden vegetable (Asparagus officinalis) of the LILY
 family, native to the E Mediterranean area, cultivated from antiquity and
 now grown in much of the world. Its green stems function as leaves, and
 the true leaves are reduced to scales. Its edible shoots are cut in the
 spring. Related species, the asparagus fern (A. plumosus) and smilax (A.
 asparagoides), are used for decoration.

   Aspen

 Aspen, city (1986 est. pop. 3,320), alt. 7,850 ft (2,390 m), seat of
 Pitkin co., S central Colo., on the Roaring Fork R.; inc. 1881. Once a
 booming silver-mining town, it has been transformed into a modern,
 cosmopolitan ski resort. The Aspen Inst. for Humanistic Studies and Aspen
 Music School (which has held an annual music festival since 1949) are
 located there.

   aspen

 aspen: see WILLOW.

   Aspen Music Festival

 Aspen Music Festival: see MUSIC FESTIVAL.

   asphalt

 asphalt, brownish-black substance used in road making, roofing, and
 waterproofing. A naturally occurring mixture of HYDROCARBONS, it is
 commercially obtained as a residue in the DISTILLATION or refining of
 PETROLEUM. Asphalt varies in consistency from a solid to a semisolid,
 melts when heated, and has great tenacity. Used in paints and varnishes,
 it imparts an intense black color. Crushed asphalt rock, a natural
 mixture of asphalt, sand, and limestone, is used as road-building
 material.

   asphodel

 asphodel, hardy, stemless herbs (genera Asphodelus and Asphodeline) of
 the LILY family, native to India and the Mediterranean. Both have showy
 flower spikes. Other asphodels include the false asphodel (genus
 Tofieldia) and the mountain asphodel, or turkeybeard (Xerophyllum
 asphodeliodes).

   aspirin

 aspirin, acetyl derivative of salicylic acid, commonly used to lower
 fever; relieve headache, muscle, and joint pain; and reduce inflammation,
 particularly that caused by rheumatic fever and arthritis. Known side
 effects are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal bleeding.
 Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is often substituted for aspirin. See also
 ANALGESIC.

   Asquith, Herbert Henry

 Asquith, Herbert Henry: see OXFORD AND ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY ASQUITH,
 1ST EARL OF.

   ass

 ass, hoofed, herbivorous MAMMAL (genus Equus), related to, but smaller
 than, the HORSE. Unlike the horse, the ass has a large head, long ears,
 and small hooves. The two living species are the sandy-colored wild Asian
 ass (E. hemonius), now endangered, and the larger, gray African ass (E.
 asinus), from which domestic donkeys are descended.

   Assad, Hafez al-

 Assad, Hafez al-, 1928-, president of SYRIA. He was defense minister
 before leading the 1965 military coup that made him president. A strong
 anti-Zionist, he is a major supporter of the PALESTINE LIBERATION
 ORGANIZATION. In 1976 he committed Syrian troops as part of a
 peace-keeping force in LEBANON, but they were soon supporting the PLO
 guerrillas.

   Assamese

 Assamese, language belonging to the Indic group of the Indo-Iranian
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   assault

 assault, in law, intentional attempt to use violence to do bodily harm to
 another. The victim must reasonably believe the perpetrator capable of
 such violence. See BATTERY.

   assemblage

 assemblage: see COLLAGE.

   Assemblies of God

 Assemblies of God: see PENTECOSTALISM.

   Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de

 Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de: see MACHADO DE ASSIS, JOAQUIM MARIA.

   Associated Press

 Associated Press: see NEWS AGENCY.

   Association of Southeast Asian Nations

 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), organization established
 by the Bangkok Declaration (1967), linking the nations of Indonesia,
 Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. It seeks to promote
 socioeconomic progress and regional stability through cooperation in
 banking, trade, technology, agriculture, industry, and tourism. Its
 headquarters are in Djakarta.

   associative law

 associative law, in mathematics, law holding that for a given operation
 combining three quantities, two at a time, the initial pairing is
 arbitrary. Addition and multiplication are associative; thus
 (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) and (a*b)*c=a*(b*c) for any three members a, b, c.
 Subtraction and division, however, are not associative.

   assonance

 assonance: see RHYME.

   Assurbanipal

 Assurbanipalor Ashurbanipal, d. 626? BC, king of ancient ASSYRIA (669-633
 BC), son and successor of Esar-Haddon. He was the last of the great kings
 of Assyria. Under him Assyria reached the height of sumptuous living, and
 art and learning flourished. A few years after his reign ended, Assyria
 succumbed to the Medes and the Persians. His great expenditures in wars
 to preserve the state contributed somewhat to its collapse.

   Assyria

 Assyria, ancient empire of W Asia, originating around the city of Ashur,
 on the upper Tigris R., S of its later capital, NINEVEH. At first a small
 Semitic city-state, Assyria flourished briefly under Tiglathpileser I (d.
 c.1074 BC). Its real importance, however, began in the 9th cent. with the
 conquests of ASHURNASIRPAL II, who set up an imperial administration.
 Later kings such as Shalmaneser III, Tiglathpileser III, and Sargon
 gained hegemony in the Middle East. SENNACHERIB consolidated their
 holdings, and Esar-Haddon (r.681-668 BC) defeated the Chaldaeans and
 conquered Egypt. Under his successor, ASSURBANIPAL (r.669-633 BC),
 Assyria reached its height of learning, art, and splendor. But Egypt
 broke away, and Assyria's decline was rapid. Soon after Assurbanipal's
 death Nineveh was sacked (612 BC) and Assyria was absorbed, first by
 Babylonia and then by the Persian empire.

   Assyrian art

 Assyrian art.  An Assyrian artistic style, distinct from that of
 BABYLONIA, began to emerge c.1500 BC and lasted until the fall of NINEVEH
 in 612 BC It took the form of precisely delineated, polychrome carved
 stone reliefs. These concerned royal affairs, chiefly hunting and war
 making. Predominance was given to animal forms, particularly horses and
 lions, which are represented in great detail. Human figures are
 comparatively rigid and static, but also minutely detailed. Among the
 best-known Assyrian reliefs are the lion-hunt alabaster carvings showing
 ASHURNASIRPAL II (9th cent. BC) and ASSURBANIPAL (7th cent. BC), both of
 which are in the British Museum. Guardian animals, usually lions and
 winged beasts with bearded human heads, were sculpted partially in the
 round for fortified royal gateways. Exquisite examples of Assyrian relief
 carving may be seen at the British and Metropolitan museums.

   Assyrian language

 Assyrian language, Hamito-Semitic language of ancient times, in the
 Akkadian group. See LANGUAGE.

   Astaire, Fred

 Astaire, Fred, 1899-1987, American dancer; b. Omaha, Nebr., as Frederick
 Austerlitz. After dancing in VAUDEVILLE with his sister, Adele, he made
 many films, often with Ginger Rogers, in which he displayed an elegant
 style of ballroom dance and tap. He also danced in movies with Eleanor
 Powell, Rita Hayworth, and Cyd Charisse, and on television with Barrie
 Chase. His influence on dancing is incalculable. Many classical dancers,
 notably NUREYEV and BARYSHNIKOV, acknowledge their debt to him.

   Astarte

 Astarte, Semitic goddess of fertility and love. Dominant in ancient
 Eastern religions, she was the most important goddess of the Phoenicians,
 corresponding to the Babylonian ISHTAR and the Greek Aphrodite. See also
 GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS.

   astatine

 astatine (At), semimetallic radioactive element, discovered in 1931 by
 Fred Allison and E.J. Murphy. The heaviest known HALOGEN, it is believed
 to be similar to iodine in its chemical properties. Astatine-211
 (half-life: 7.21 hr) is used as a radioactive tracer because it collects
 in the thyroid gland. See ELEMENT; PERIODIC TABLE.

   aster

 aster, widely distributed, wild and cultivated perennial flowering plants
 (genus Aster) of the COMPOSITE family. Most species have white, pink,
 blue, or purple flowers that bloom in the fall. The China aster
 (Callistephus chinensis), the common aster of florists and flower
 gardens, and the golden asters (genus Chrysopsis) are in the same family.

   asteroid, planetoid

 asteroid, planetoid, or minor planet,small, usually irregularly shaped
 body orbiting the sun, most often at least partially between the orbits
 of Mars and Jupiter. Ceres is the largest asteroid (diameter: 470 mi/750
 km) and was the first discovered (1801). Of the more than 2,000 asteroids
 known, most have been discovered photographically; their paths appear as
 short lines in a time exposure. Asteroids may be fragments of a planet
 shattered in the remote past; material that failed to condense into a
 single planet; or material from the nuclei of old comets. The Trojan
 asteroids revolve in the same orbit as Jupiter, kept by perturbation
 effects in two groups 60 deg ahead of and 60 deg behind Jupiter. The
 Apollo asteroids cross the earth's orbit; they may be the cause of the
 earth's several meteorite craters and are a possible location for future
 mining.

   asthma

 asthma, chronic respiratory disorder characterized by labored breathing
 and wheezing resulting from obstructed and constricted air passages.
 Although asthma usually results from an allergic reaction (see ALLERGY),
 specific allergens are not always identifiable. Illness and stress may
 precipitate an attack. For acute attacks EPINEPHRINE injections and
 oxygen therapy bring immediate relief. Long-term control includes use of
 bronchodilators, STEROIDS, breathing exercises, and, if possible, the
 identification and avoidance of allergens.

   astigmatism

 astigmatism, visual defect resulting from irregular curvature of the
 cornea or lens, preventing light rays from converging on the retina (see
 EYE). With astigmatism, some light rays focus on the retina, while others
 focus in front of or behind it. Congenital or caused by disease or
 injury, astigmatism can occur in addition to FARSIGHTEDNESS and
 NEARSIGHTEDNESS. It may be alleviated with corrective lenses.

   Astor, John Jacob

 Astor, John Jacob, 1763-1848, American merchant; b. Germany. At 21 he
 arrived in Baltimore, penniless; later he opened a small fur shop in New
 York City. Shrewd and ambitious, he became a leader of the China trade.
 His AMERICAN FUR COMPANY (1808) exercised a virtual monopoly on the fur
 trade in U.S. territories, and at his death Astor was the wealthiest man
 in the country. His great-grandson William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount
 Astor, 1848-1919, b. N.Y.C., was an American-British financier. In 1890
 he moved to England, where he contributed huge sums to public causes. He
 was made baron in 1916 and viscount in 1917. His elder son, Waldorf
 Astor, married Nancy Witcher (Langhorne) Astor, Viscountess Astor,
 1879-1964, a British political leader who became the first woman to sit
 in PARLIAMENT. As a Conservative member (1919-45) she espoused temperance
 and reforms in women's and children's welfare, and in the 1920s she and
 her husband were leaders in the "Tory democracy" reform program.

   astrolabe

 astrolabe, instrument of ancient origin that measured altitudes of
 celestial bodies and determined their positions and motions. It typically
 consisted of a wooden or metal disk with the circumference marked off in
 degrees, suspended from an attached ring. Angular distances were
 determined by sighting with the alidade-a movable pointer pivoted at the
 disk's center-and taking readings of its position on the graduated
 circle. Skilled mariners used astrolabes up to the 18th cent. to
 determine latitude, longitude, and time of day.

   astrology

 astrology, form of DIVINATION based on the theory that movements of the
 celestial bodies (stars, planets, sun, and moon) influence human affairs
 and determine events. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians, believing all events
 to be predetermined, developed a nondeistic system of divination. The
 spread of astrological practice was arrested by the rise of CHRISTIANITY,
 with its emphasis on divine intervention and free will; but in the
 RENAISSANCE astrology regained popularity, in part due to rekindled
 interest in science and ASTRONOMY. Christian theologists warred against
 astrology, and in 1585 SIXTUS V condemned it. At the same time the work
 of KEPLER and others undermined astrology's tenets, although the practice
 has continued. One's horoscope is a map of the heavens at the time of
 one's birth, showing the positions of the heavenly bodies in the ZODIAC.

   astronaut

 astronaut or cosmonaut,crew member on a U.S. or Soviet manned spaceflight
 mission. The early astronauts and cosmonauts were generally trained
 aircraft test pilots; later astronauts and cosmonauts, however, have
 included scientists and physicians. As far as is possible, all conditions
 to be encountered in space, e.g., the physiological disorientation
 arising from weightlessness (see SPACE MEDICINE), are simulated in ground
 training. Using trainers and mock-ups of actual spacecraft, astronauts
 and cosmonauts rehearse every maneuver from liftoff to recovery; every
 conceivable malfunction and difficulty is anticipated and prepared for.
 Prominent Soviet cosmonauts include Yuri GAGARIN, Valentina TERESHKOVA,
 and Aleksei LEONOV. Prominent U.S. astronauts include Alan SHEPARD, John
 GLENN, Edward WHITE, Neil ARMSTRONG, Buzz ALDRIN, and John YOUNG.

   astronomical coordinate systems

 astronomical coordinate systems, four basic systems used to indicate the
 positions of celestial bodies on the celestial sphere. The latter is an
 imaginary sphere that has the observer at its center and all other
 celestial bodies imagined as located on its inside surface.

 Equatorial The celestial equator is the projection of the earth's EQUATOR
 onto the celestial sphere, and the celestial poles are the points where
 the earth's axis, if extended, intersects the celestial sphere. Right
 ascension (R.A.) is the angle (in hours, minutes, and seconds, with 1
 h=15 deg) measured eastward from the vernal EQUINOX to the point where
 the hour circle (the great circle passing through the celestial poles and
 the body) intersects the celestial equator. Declination is the angle (in
 degrees, minutes, and seconds, as are all other angles defined hereafter)
 measured north (+) or south (-) along the body's hour circle between the
 celestial equator and the body.

 Horizon or Altazimuth Altitude is the angle measured above (+) or below
 (-) the observer's celestial horizon (the great circle on the celestial
 sphere midway between the points-zenith and nadir-directly above and
 below the observer) to the body along the vertical circle passing through
 the body and the zenith. Azimuth is the angle measured along the
 celestial horizon from the observer's celestial meridian (the vertical
 circle passing through the nearest celestial pole and the zenith) to the
 point where the body's vertical circle intersects the horizon. The
 earth's rotation constantly changes a body's altitude and azimuth for an
 observer.

 Ecliptic or Celestial The ecliptic poles are the two points at which a
 line perpendicular to the plane of the ECLIPTIC and passing through the
 earth's center intersects the celestial sphere. Celestial latitude is the
 angle measured north (+) or south (-) from the ecliptic to the body along
 the latitude circle through the body and the ecliptic poles. Celestial
 longitude is the angle measured along the ecliptic from the vernal
 equinox to the latitude circle, in the same sense as R.A.

 Galactic The galactic equator is the intersection of the mean plane of
 our galaxy with the celestial sphere, and the galactic poles are the two
 points at which a line perpendicular to the mean galactic plane and
 passing through the earth's center intersects the celestial sphere.
 Galactic latitude is the angle measured north (+) or south (-) from the
 galactic equator to the body along the great circle passing through the
 body and the galactic poles. Galactic longitude is the angle measured
 eastward along the galactic equator from the galactic center.

   astronomical unit

 astronomical unit (AU), mean distance between the earth and the sun. One
 AU is c.92,960,000 mi (149,604,970 km).

   astronomy

 astronomy, branch of science that studies the motions and natures of
 celestial bodies, such as PLANETS, STARS, and GALAXIES; more generally,
 the study of matter and energy in the universe at large. Astronomy is
 perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. In many primitive civilizations
 the regularity of celestial motions was recognized, and attempts were
 made to keep records and predict events. Astronomical observations
 provided a basis for the CALENDAR by determining the units of MONTH and
 YEAR. Later, astronomy served in navigation and timekeeping. The earliest
 astronomers were priests, and no attempt was made to separate astronomy
 from the pseudoscience of ASTROLOGY. Astronomy reached its highest
 development in the ancient world with the Greeks of the Alexandrian
 school in the Hellenistic period. ARISTARCHUS OF SAMOS determined the
 sizes and distances of the MOON and SUN and advocated a heliocentric
 (sun-centered) cosmology. ERATOSTHENES made the first accurate
 measurement of the actual size of the earth. The greatest astronomer of
 antiquity, HIPPARCHUS, devised a geocentric system of cycles and
 epicycles (a compounding of circular motions) to account for the
 movements of the sun and moon. Using such a system, PTOLEMY predicted the
 motions of the planets with considerable accuracy (see PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM).
 One of the landmarks of the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th
 cent. was Nicholas COPERNICUS' revival (1543) of the heliocentric theory
 (see COPERNICAN SYSTEM). The next great astronomer, Tycho BRAHE, compiled
 (1576-97) the most accurate and complete astronomical observations yet
 produced. Johannes KEPLER'S study of Brahe's observations led him to the
 three laws of planetary motion that bear his name (see KEPLER'S LAWS).
 GALILEO Galilei, the first to make astronomical use of the

 moons of JUPITER and the phases of VENUS) for the Copernican cosmology.
 Sir Isaac NEWTON, possibly the greatest scientific genius of all time,
 succeeded in uniting the sciences of astronomy and PHYSICS. His laws of
 motion and theory of universal GRAVITATION, published in 1687, provided a
 physical, dynamic basis for the merely descriptive laws of Kepler. By the
 early 19th cent. the science of CELESTIAL MECHANICS had reached a highly
 developed state through the work of Alexis Clairaut, Jean d'ALEMBERT,
 Leonhard EULER, Joseph LAGRANGE, Pierre LAPLACE, and others. In 1838,
 Friedrich BESSEL made the first measurement of the distance to a star
 (see PARALLAX). Astronomy was revolutionized in the second half of the
 19th cent. by techniques based on photography and the SPECTROSCOPE.
 Interest shifted from determining the positions and distances of stars to
 studying their physical composition (see STELLAR EVOLUTION). With the
 construction of ever more powerful telescopes (see OBSERVATORY), the
 boundaries of the known universe constantly increased. Harlow SHAPLEY
 determined the size and shape of our galaxy, the MILKY WAY. Edwin
 HUBBLE'S study of the distant galaxies led him to conclude that the




 observations in new parts of the spectrum, e.g., gamma-ray astronomy,
 RADIO ASTRONOMY, ultraviolet astronomy, and X-ray astronomy. The new
 observational techniques have led to the discovery of strange new
 astronomical objects, e.g., PULSARS, QUASARS, and black holes (see
 GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE).

   astrophysics

 astrophysics, application of the theories and methods of physics to the
 study of stellar structure, STELLAR EVOLUTION, the origin of the SOLAR
 SYSTEM, and related problems of COSMOLOGY.

   Asturias, Miguel Angel

 Asturias, Miguel Angel, 1899-1974, Guatemalan writer. His major works are
 his novels, including The President (1946), a study of a dictatorship;
 The Green Pope (1954); and The Eyes of the Interred (1960), about banana
 exploitation in the Caribbean. He also wrote stories and poetry. He
 received the 1967 Nobel Prize in literature.



 Asturias, region and former kingdom, NW Spain, S of the Bay of Biscay.
 The major occupations are the mining of coal, iron, and other resources;
 steel-making; cattle-raising; fishing; and the growing of apples for
 cider. When the MOORS conquered 8th-cent. Spain, Christian nobles fled to
 the Asturian mountains, formed a kingdom, and began the long reconquest
 of Spain. In the 10th cent. Leon became the capital of the kingdom, then
 known as Asturias and Leon. The kingdom was united (1230) with CASTILE.

   Asuncion

 Asuncion, city (1982 est. pop. 455,517), S Paraguay, capital of Paraguay,
 on the Paraguay R. It is the nation's principal port and chief industrial
 and cultural center. Meat-packing is the largest industry. One of the
 oldest cities in South America, founded in 1537, it retains a colonial
 aspect. It became a center of early Jesuit missionary activity and was
 the most important town in the Rio de la PLATA region until it was
 partially eclipsed by BUENOS AIRES during the 18th cent.

   Aswan High Dam

 Aswan High Dam, one of the world's largest dams, on the Nile R., in
 Egypt, built (1960-70) c.4 mi (6.4 km) south of the smaller Aswan Dam
 (completed, 1902; enlarged, 1934). It is 375 ft (114 m) high and 11,811
 ft (3,600 m) long. The dam has a hydroelectricity capacity of 10 billion
 kwh and stores sufficient water in impounded Lake Nasser to irrigate more
 than 7 million acres (2,809,400 hectares) of farmland. The USSR provided
 funding and engineers for the project.

   asylum

 asylum, refuge, most often granted by a nation to a fugitive from another
 nation. It is usually reserved for victims of political, religious, or
 other discrimination. See also EXTRADITION.

   At

 At, chemical symbol of the element ASTATINE.

   Atacama, Desert of

 Atacama, Desert of, extremely arid plateau, c.2,000 ft (610 m) high, in N
 Chile. It is c.600 mi (970 km) long and has great nitrate and copper
 wealth. Chile gained sole control of the area from Bolivia in the 1880s
 (see PACIFIC, WAR OF THE).

   Atalanta

 Atalanta, in Greek mythology, fleet huntress who joined the Calydonian
 boar hunt (see MELEAGER). She demanded that each of her suitors race her,
 the winner to be rewarded with marriage, the losers to die. Hippomenes
 finally won her by dropping three golden apples that she stopped to
 retrieve.

   Ataturk, Kemal

 Ataturk, Kemal, 1881-1938, Turkish leader, founder of modern Turkey,
 first president of TURKEY (1923-38). Originally known as Mustafa Kemal,
 he was an army officer who took part (1908) in the Young Turk movement,
 distinguished himself in World War I, and, after the collapse of Ottoman
 power, founded the Turkish Nationalist Party. With the Allies controlling
 the government at Constantinople (Istanbul), he set up a rival government
 at Ankara. He expelled the Greeks who were occupying Anatolia (1921-22),
 abolished the sultanate (1922), and forced the European powers to
 recognize the Turkish republic. He ruled for 15 years as a virtual
 dictator. He instituted widespread internal reforms in his efforts to
 Westernize his nation; those changes included abolishing the CALIPHATE
 (1924), which in effect disestablished Islam. In foreign affairs he
 pursued a moderate policy, maintaining friendly relations with Turkey's
 neighbors, especially Russia, with whom he established the Balkan
 Entente.

   Atget, Eugene

 Atget, Eugene, 1857-1927, French photographer. At 47 he began to produce
 his evocative record of Paris and its environs. He sold his work to
 printers and to the Paris historical monuments society. His images of the
 parks, vendors, bridges, and prostitutes of Paris go beyond
 documentation.

   Athabascan

 Athabascan, group of related North American Indian languages forming a
 branch of the Nadene linguistic family, or stock. See AMERICAN INDIAN
 LANGUAGES.

   Athanasius, Saint

 Athanasius, Saint, c.297-373, patriarch of ALEXANDRIA (328-73), Doctor of
 the Church. At the first Council of NICAEA (325) he took part in the
 debate against the heresy of ARIANISM. He continued to defend the Nicene
 orthodoxy, especially in Discourses Against the Arians, and was exiled
 from his see five times between 335 and 365. The Athanasian CREED is no
 longer ascribed to him but to a 4th-cent. Western writer. Feast: May 2.

   atheism

 atheism, denial of the existence of God or gods and of any supernatural
 existence, to be distinguished from AGNOSTICISM, which holds that the
 existence cannot be proved. Since the 19th cent. atheism has been
 professed by many individuals and groups.

   Athelstan

 Athelstanor AEthelstan, d. 939, king of WESSEX (924-39). He built his
 kingdom on foundations laid by his grandfather ALFRED and by 937 he was
 overlord of all England. Popular and able, he issued laws that attempted
 to impose royal authority on customary law.

   Athena

 Athena or Pallas Athena,in Greek mythology, one of the most important
 OLYMPIAN deities, sprung from the forehead of ZEUS. She was the goddess
 of war and peace, a patron of arts and crafts, a guardian of cities
 (notably Athens), and the goddess of wisdom. Her most important temple
 was the PARTHENON and her primary festival the Panathenaea. A virgin
 goddess, Athena is represented in art as a stately figure, armored, and
 wielding her breastplate, the aegis. The Romans identified her with
 MINERVA.

   Athens

 Athens, city (1981 pop. 885,737), capital of Greece, E central Greece.
 Greater Athens, a transportation hub including the Aegean port of
 PIRAIEVS, accounts for most of the country's industry, including
 textiles, machine tools, and ships. Tourism is also important. Early
 Athens, the center of ancient Greek civilization, was rigidly governed by
 aristocratic archons until the reforms of SOLON (594 BC) and CLEISTHENES
 (506 BC) established a democracy of its freemen. It emerged from the
 PERSIAN WARS (500-449 BC) as the strongest Greek city-state, and reached
 its cultural and imperial zenith in the time of PERICLES (443-429 BC).
 Its citizens included SOCRATES, AESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES, and EURIPIDES.
 After defeat by its arch-rival Sparta in the PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404
 BC) it began a long decline that continued under the Macedonians and
 Romans; yet it could still boast such citizens as ARISTOTLE,
 ARISTOPHANES, and PLATO. Captured (395 AD) by Visigoths, it became the
 capital of the BYZANTINE EMPIRE, then came in turn under French, Spanish,
 and Ottoman Turkish rule before becoming (1834) the capital of newly
 independent Greece. The city escaped damage in World War II. The first
 modern OLYMPIC GAMES were held there in 1896. Overlooking the city is its
 foremost landmark, the ACROPOLIS, where the ruins of the PARTHENON, the
 Propylaea, and the ERECHTHEUM are located.

   Athens

 Athens,

 the Univ. of Georgia. Industries include poultry processing and the
 manufacture of clocks, electronic equipment, and textiles. The CLASSIC
 REVIVAL houses of numerous Georgia statesmen are notable.

   athlete's foot

 athlete's foot: see RINGWORM.

   Athos

 Athos or Akte,peninsula, NE Greece, in the Aegean Sea. At its southern
 tip is Mount Athos, also called Hagion Oros, a religious community (c.30
 sq mi/80 sq km) of about 20 Eastern Orthodox monasteries of the Order of
 St. Basil. Founded c.963, it enjoyed administrative independence under
 the Byzantine and Ottoman empires and was made (1927) a theocratic
 republic under Greek suzerainty. Women and female animals are barred.

   Atlanta

 Atlanta, capital and largest city (1986 est. pop. 421,910; met. area
 2,560,300) of Georgia, seat of Fulton co.; settled 1837, inc. as a city
 1847. Located in one of America's fastest-growing urban areas, it is the
 largest commercial, industrial, and financial center in the SE U.S. and
 the largest city in Georgia, as well as a transportation hub and a
 convention center. Many facilities of the federal government are located
 in the area, which also produces textiles, chemicals, automobiles,
 aircraft, clothing, and a wide variety of other goods. The city is also a
 center of international trade and commerce. Atlanta was captured and
 burned (1864) by Gen. William T. SHERMAN; rebuilt, it prospered and
 became the state capital in 1868. Among its educational institutions are
 Emory Univ., the Georgia Inst. of Technology, and Atlanta Univ. Points of
 interest include the Atlanta Memorial Arts Center, Grant Park, and the
 grave of Martin Luther KING, Jr. Atlanta has a symphony orchestra and
 teams in all major sports.

   Atlanta campaign

 Atlanta campaign, May-Sept. 1864, of the U.S. CIVIL WAR. W.T. SHERMAN
 concentrated Union forces around Chattanooga, Tenn., and on May 6 moved
 south with two objectives: to destroy J.E. JOHNSTON'S Confederate army
 and to capture ATLANTA. Sherman repeatedly outflanked the Confederates,
 forcing them back to the Chattahoochee R. by July. J.B. HOOD, who had
 replaced Johnston, counterattacked but failed to halt the Union advance.
 Atlanta's communications were cut on Sept. 1, and Hood withdrew that
 night. Sherman took the city on Sept. 2.

   Atlantic Charter

 Atlantic Charter, program of peace aims enunciated on Aug. 14, 1941, by
 U.S. Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT and British Prime Min. Winston CHURCHILL.
 Included among the aims was the list of human rights known as the FOUR
 FREEDOMS.

   Atlantic City

 Atlantic City, city (1986 est. pop. 35,980), SE N.J., an Atlantic resort
 and convention center; inc. 1854. On Absecon Island, a sandbar 10 mi (16
 km) long, it was a fishing village until 1854, when the railroad began to
 transform it into a fashionable resort. It is known for its 6-mi (9.7-km)
 boardwalk, its convention hall, and its Steel Pier (built 1898; burned
 1982). After the state legalized casino gambling there (1976), the city
 entered a new era of prosperity.

   Atlantic Ocean

 Atlantic Ocean, world's second largest ocean, c.31,800,000 sq mi
 (82,362,000 sq km), separating North and South America from Europe and
 Africa. It is narrowest (c.1,600 mi/2,575 km) off NE Brazil and deepest
 (c.28,000 ft/8,530 m) in the Milwaukee Deep, N of Puerto Rico. The
 generally narrow continental shelf reaches its greatest widths off NE
 North America, SE South America, and NW Europe. The ocean is divided
 lengthwise by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a submarine mountain range
 c.300-600 mi (480-970 km) wide that extends c.10,000 mi (16,100 km) from
 Iceland to near the Antarctic Circle. This ridge, which has a few peaks
 that emerge as islands, is constantly widening, filling with molten rock,
 and pushing the bordering continents farther apart (see PLATE TECTONICS).

   Atlantis

 Atlantis, in Greek mythology, large island in the western sea. PLATO
 describes it as a UTOPIA destroyed by an earthquake. Questions as to its
 existence have provoked speculation over the centuries. One theory holds
 that it was a part of the Aegean island of THERA that sank c.1500 BC

   Atlas

 Atlas, in Greek mythology, a TITAN. After the defeat of the Titans by the
 OLYMPIANS, he was condemned to hold the sky upon his shoulders for all
 eternity.

   Atlas Mountains

 Atlas Mountains, mountain system, NW Africa, c.1,500 mi (2,410 km) long.
 It is widest and most rugged in Morocco, where Jebel Toubkal reaches a
 high point of 13,671 ft (4,167 m). The mountains are rich in phosphates,
 coal, iron, and oil.

   atmosphere

 atmosphere, the mixture of gases and other substances surrounding a
 celestial body with sufficient gravity to maintain it. Although some
 details about the atmospheres of the other planets and some satellites
 are known (see articles on individual planets), a complete description is
 available only for the earth's atmosphere, the study of which is called
 METEOROLOGY. The gaseous constituents of the earth's atmosphere are not
 chemically combined, and thus each retains its own physical and chemical
 properties. Within the first 40 to 50 mi (64 to 80 km) above the earth,
 the mixture is of uniform composition (except for a high concentration of
 OZONE at 30 mi/50 km). This whole region contains more than 99% of the
 total mass of the earth's atmosphere. Based on their relative volumes,
 the gaseous constituents are nitrogen (78.09%), oxygen (20.95%), argon
 (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), and minute traces of neon, helium,
 methane, krypton, hydrogen, xenon, and ozone. Additional atmospheric
 constituents include water vapor and particulate matter, such as various
 forms of dust and industrial pollutants. The earth's atmosphere is
 separated into certain distinct regions, each having a different
 temperature range. The troposphere, where air is in constant motion (see
 WIND), extends from the earth's surface to an altitude of 5 mi (8 km) at
 the poles and 10 mi (16 km) at the equator. Clouds and other WEATHER
 phenomena occur here (see also CLIMATE). All forms of the earth's animal
 and plant life exist in the troposphere or in the waters beneath it.
 Above the troposphere, the stratosphere extends to about 30 mi (50 km),
 followed by the mesosphere, up to about 50 mi (80 km), the thermosphere,
 up to about 400 mi (640 km), and finally the exosphere. The ionosphere is
 in the range (50 to 400 mi/80 to 640 km) that contains a high
 concentration of electrically charged particles (ions), which are
 responsible for reflecting radio signals. Above it, out to about 40,000
 mi (64,400 km) in a region called the magnetosphere, electrically charged
 particles are trapped by the earth's magnetic field (see AURORA; VAN
 ALLEN RADIATION BELTS). The atmosphere protects the earth by absorbing
 and scattering harmful radiation and causing extraterrestrial solid
 matter (see METEOR) to burn from the heat generated by air friction.

   atoll

 atoll: see CORAL REEFS; ISLAND.

   atom

 atom, the smallest unit of a chemical ELEMENT having the properties of
 that element. An atom contains several kinds of particles. Its central
 core, the nucleus, consists of positively charged particles, called
 PROTONS, and uncharged particles, called NEUTRONS. Surrounding the
 nucleus and orbiting it are negatively charged particles, called
 ELECTRONS. Each atom has an equal number of protons and electrons. The
 nucleus occupies only a tiny fraction of an atom's volume but contains
 almost all of its mass. Electrons in the outermost orbits determine the
 atom's chemical and electrical properties. The number of protons in an
 atom's nucleus is called the ATOMIC NUMBER. All atoms of an element have
 the same atomic number and differ in atomic number from atoms of other
 elements. The total number of protons and neutrons combined is the atom's
 MASS NUMBER. Atoms containing the same number of protons but different
 numbers of neutrons are different forms, or ISOTOPES, of the same
 element. See also ATOMIC WEIGHT.

 History In the 5th cent. BC the Greek philosophers DEMOCRITUS and
 Leucippus proposed that matter was made up of tiny, indivisible particles
 in constant motion. Aristotle, however, did not accept the theory, and it
 was ignored for centuries. Modern atomic theory began with John DALTON,
 who proposed (1808) that all atoms of an element have exactly the same
 size and weight, and that atoms of elements unite chemically in simple
 numerical ratios to form compounds. In 1911 Ernest RUTHERFORD explained
 an atom's structure in terms of a positively charged nucleus surrounded
 by negatively charged electrons orbiting around it. In 1913 Niels BOHR
 used QUANTUM THEORY to explain why electrons could remain in certain
 allowed orbits without radiating energy. The development of quantum
 mechanics during the 1920s resulted in a satisfactory explanation of all
 phenomena related to the role of electrons in atoms and of all aspects of
 their associated spectra (see SPECTRUM). The quantum theory has shown
 that all particles have certain wave properties. As a result, electrons
 in an atom cannot be pictured as localized in space but rather should be
 viewed as a cloud of charge spread out over the entire orbit. The
 electron clouds around the nucleus represent regions in which the
 electrons are most likely to be found. Physicists are currently studying
 the behavior of large groups of atoms (see SOLID-STATE PHYSICS), and the
 nature of and relations among the hundreds of ELEMENTARY PARTICLES that
 have been discovered in addition to the proton, neutron, and electron.

   atomic bomb

 atomic bomb, weapon deriving its great explosive force from the sudden
 release of NUCLEAR ENERGY through the fission, or splitting, of heavy
 atomic nuclei. The first atomic bomb was successfully tested by the U.S.
 near Alamogordo, N.Mex., on July 16, 1945 (see MANHATTAN PROJECT). In the
 final stages of WORLD WAR II the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima
 on Aug. 6, 1945, and on Nagasaki three days later to force Japan to
 surrender. Atomic bombs were subsequently developed by the USSR (1949),
 Great Britain (1952), France (1960), China (1964), and India (1974).
 Practical fissionable nuclei for atomic bombs are the isotopes
 URANIUM-235 and PLUTONIUM-239, which are capable of undergoing chain
 reaction. If the mass of the fissionable material exceeds the critical
 mass, the chain reaction multiplies rapidly into an uncontrollable
 release of energy. An atomic bomb is detonated by bringing together very
 rapidly (e.g., by means of a chemical explosion) two subcritical masses
 of fissionable material. The ensuing explosion produces great amounts of
 heat, a shock wave, and intense neutron and gamma radiation. The region
 of the explosion becomes radioactively contaminated, and wind-borne
 radioactive products may be deposited elsewhere as fallout. See also
 DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR; HYDROGEN BOMB.

   atomic clock

 atomic clock: see CLOCK.

   atomic energy

 atomic energy: see NUCLEAR ENERGY.

   Atomic Energy Commission

 Atomic Energy Commission: see NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION.

   atomic mass

 atomic mass: see ATOMIC WEIGHT.

   atomic number

 atomic number, often represented by the symbol Z, the number of PROTONS
 in the nucleus of an ATOM. Atoms with the same atomic number make up a
 chemical ELEMENT. The elements are arranged in the PERIODIC TABLE in the
 order of their atomic numbers.

   atomic weight

 atomic weight, mean (weighted average) of the masses of all the naturally
 occuring ISOTOPES of a chemical ELEMENT; the atomic mass is the mass of
 any individual isotope. Atomic weight is usually expressed in atomic mass
 units (amu); the atomic mass unit is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of
 a carbon-12 atom. Each proton or neutron weighs about 1 amu, and thus the
 atomic mass is always very close to the MASS NUMBER (total number of
 protons and neutrons in the nucleus). Because most naturally occurring
 elements have one principal isotope and only insignificant amounts of
 other isotopes, most atomic weights are also very nearly whole numbers.
 For the atomic weight of individual elements, see PERIODIC TABLE.

   atonality

 atonality, systemic avoidance of harmonies and melodies that imply a
 keynote (see KEY). The term designates a method of composition in which
 the composer deliberately rejects the principle of TONALITY in favor of
 another principle of order, such as the 12-tone system (see SERIAL
 MUSIC). The move toward atonality has been apparent since the 19th cent.,
 when WAGNER, Richard STRAUSS, and DEBUSSY obscured basic tonalities in
 their music. Atonal composers of the 20th cent. include SCHOENBERG, BERG,
 and IVES.

   Atonement, Day of

 Atonement, Day of: see JEWISH HOLIDAYS.

   ATP

 ATP: see ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE.

   Atreus

 Atreus, in Greek mythology, king of Mycenae; son of PELOPS, father of
 AGAMEMNON and MENELAUS. In retaliation for his brother Thyestes'
 seduction of his wife, Atreus murdered three of Thyestes' sons and served
 them to him at a feast. Thyestes then laid a curse on the house of
 Atreus. Thyestes' son AEGISTHUS killed Atreus, and Thyestes became king.

   atrium

 atrium, term for an interior court in Roman domestic architecture; also a
 type of entrance court in early Christian churches. The Roman atrium was
 an unroofed or partially roofed area with rooms opening from it. In early
 times it held a hearth in its center; later a tank collected rainwater.
 In more luxurious Roman dwellings, individual chambers had courts of
 their own, called peristyles. The ruins of POMPEII display atria in
 various forms.

   Attar

 Attar: see FARID AD-DIN ATTAR.

   Attila

 Attila, d. 453, king of the HUNS (434-53). From 434 he extorted tribute
 from the Eastern and Western Roman emperors. In 450 MARCIAN of the East
 and VALENTINIAN III of the West refused to pay. Valentinian's sister
 Honoria proposed an alliance with Attila, who took this as a marriage
 offer and demanded half the Western empire as dowry. Refused, he attacked
 Gaul but was defeated (451) by the Romans. He invaded (452) Italy but
 spared Rome, apparently because of a shortage of supplies and an outbreak
 of pestilence in his army. Although feared for his savagery, he was a
 just ruler.

   Attlee, Clement Richard, 1st Earl

 Attlee, Clement Richard, 1st Earl, 1883-1967, British statesman. A lawyer
 and social worker, he became leader of the Labour party in 1935. During
 World War II he served in Winston CHURCHILL'S coalition cabinet
 (1940-45), and in 1945 became prime minister. His government nationalized
 the Bank of England and much of British industry; enacted social reforms,
 including the National Health Service; and granted independence to Burma,
 India, Pakistan, Ceylon, and Palestine. Attlee left office in 1951. He
 led the opposition until 1955, when he received the title Earl Attlee.

   Atwood, Margaret

 Atwood, Margaret, 1939-, Canadian poet and novelist. Her powerful novels
 treat the destructiveness of human relations. They include The Edible
 Woman (1969), Surfacing (1972), Bodily Harm (1981), and The Handmaid's
 Tale (1986). Among her volumes of poetry is Selected Poems (1978).

   Au

 Au, chemical symbol of the element GOLD.

   Aubrey, John

 Aubrey, John, 1626-97, English antiquarian and writer. Friendly with many
 famous people, he left copious letters and memoranda. His most celebrated
 work, Lives of Eminent Men, was published in 1813. Only his Miscellanies
 (1696) appeared in his lifetime.

   Auckland

 Auckland, city (1987 pop. 889,200), NW North Island, New Zealand, on an
 isthmus between the Pacific Ocean and the Tasman Sea. It is the country's
 largest city and its chief port, industrial center, and naval base.
 Frozen meats and dairy products are important exports. Industries include
 shipbuilding, food processing, oil refining, and the manufacture of
 automobiles and chemicals. Auckland was founded in 1840 and was the
 capital of New Zealand until replaced (1865) by WELLINGTON. The Univ. of
 Auckland is among the city's educational institutions.

   Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh)

 Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh), 1907-73, Anglo-American poet, a major 20th-cent.
 literary figure. In the 1930s he was associated with Spender, MACNEICE,
 and ISHERWOOD; with the last he wrote the verse plays The Dog Beneath the
 Skin (1935), The Ascent of F6 (1936), and On the Frontier (1938). Some of
 Auden's most original poetry appeared in the early 1930s. Later volumes,
 ranging in subject from politics to psychology to Christianity, include
 The Double Man (1941), Collected Poetry (1945), The Age of Anxiety (1947;
 Pulitzer), Nones (1951), and About the House (1965). He also wrote
 critical essays and opera librettos. A U.S. resident from 1939 and
 citizen from 1946, Auden divided his last years among England, Italy,
 Austria, and New York.

   audiovisual instruction

 audiovisual instruction, the use of nonverbal as well as verbal
 materials, particularly pictures and sounds, to promote learning.
 Audiovisual devices, formerly limited to static materials such as maps,
 graphs, and textbook illustrations, were used successfully as
 instructional tools by the U.S. armed forces during World War II. As
 technology developed, audiovisual instruction began to include films,
 photographs, sound and video recordings, and television, as well as
 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION provided through computers and other types of
 teaching machines. Instructional television is widely used in schools,
 industry, and the military; with the use of cable television and
 electronic audio and video equipment, it can be available in the home as
 well.

   auditing

 auditing: see under ACCOUNTING.

   Audubon, John James

 Audubon, John James, 1785-1851, American ornithologist; b. Les Cayes,
 Santo Domingo (now Haiti). After arriving in the U.S. in 1803, he began
 the extensive ornithological observations that would lead to the
 publication of his bird drawings and paintings as The Birds of America
 (1827-38). The accompanying text, called the Ornithological Biography (5
 vol., 1831-39), was written in collaboration with the Scottish naturalist
 William MacGillivray. Audubon's drawings and paintings remain one of the
 great achievements of American intellectual history.

   Aue, Hartmann von

 Aue, Hartmann von: see HARTMANN VON AUE.

   August

 August: see MONTH.

   Augusta

 Augusta. 1 City (1986 est. pop. 45,440), seat of Richmond co., E Ga., on
 the Savannah R.; inc. 1798. The trade center for a large area of Georgia
 and South Carolina, it has diversified industries, including textiles and
 paper. A river trading port as early as 1717, it grew with tobacco and
 cotton trade. During the CIVIL WAR it housed the chief Confederate powder
 works. The city, a popular resort, is known for its golf tournaments and
 many fine old houses. 2 City (1986 est. pop. 20,640), state capital and
 seat of Kennebec co., SW Me., on the Kennebec R.; inc. as a city 1849.
 Shoes, fabrics, and paper products are among its manufactures. The
 Plymouth Company established a trading post on the site in 1628; Fort
 Western was built in 1754. In 1837 manufacturing began with the building
 of a dam. The Capitol building (1829) was designed by Charles BULFINCH
 and later enlarged.

   Augustine, Saint

 Augustine, Saint, 354-430, Doctor of the Church, bishop of Hippo (near
 present-day Annaba, Algeria); b. near Hippo. Brought up as a Christian by
 his mother, St. Monica, Augustine gave up his religion while at school in
 Carthage, then converted to MANICHAEISM. He taught rhetoric in Rome
 (after 376) and Milan (after 384). In Milan he was drawn to the teachings
 of St. AMBROSE and to NEOPLATONISM, and finally embraced Christianity,
 returning (387) to a monastic life in Tagaste. In 391 he was ordained a
 priest in Hippo, where he remained for the rest of his life, serving as
 bishop from 396. St. Augustine's influence on Christianity was immense,
 and theologians, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, look upon him as the
 founder of theology. His polemics against Manichaeism, Donatism, and
 Pelagianism are well known, and his autobiographical Confessions is a
 classic of Christian mysticism. On the Trinity systematized Christian
 doctrine, and The City of God, his monumental defense of Christianity
 against paganism, is famous for its Christian view of history. Feast:
 Aug. 28.

   Augustine of Canterbury, Saint

 Augustine of Canterbury, Saint, d. c.605, Italian missionary, called the
 Apostle of the English, first archbishop of Canterbury (from 601). A
 BENEDICTINE, he was sent by Pope GREGORY I to England, where he converted
 King AETHELBERT and introduced Roman monastic practices. Feast: May 27
 (May 26 in England and Wales).

   Augustus

 Augustus, 63 BC-AD 14, first Roman emperor; a grandnephew of Julius
 CAESAR. Born Caius Octavius, he became on adoption by the Julian gens (44
 BC) Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian); Augustus was a title of
 honor granted (27 BC) by the senate. Caesar made the boy his heir without
 his knowledge, and after Caesar was killed (44 BC), Octavian became
 dominant at Rome. He made an alliance with ANTONY and Lepidus (d. 13 BC;
 see LEPIDUS, family) known as the Second Triumvirate and with Antony
 defeated the army of Marcus Junius Brutus (see BRUTUS, family) and Caius
 Cassius Longinus (see CASSIUS, family) at Philippi (42 BC). Octavian's
 forces next defeated POMPEY at Mylae (36 BC). After the naval victory at
 Actium (31 BC) over Antony and CLEOPATRA, Octavian controlled all of the
 Roman territories. The senate in 29 BC made him imperator
 [Lat.,=commander; from it is derived emperor] and in 27 BC augustus
 [august, reverend]. The month Sextilis was renamed Augustus (August) in
 his honor. He enacted many reforms in Rome and in the provinces and tried
 to hold the Roman borders set by Caesar. His attempt to make a buffer
 state in German territory led to the revolt of Arminius, in which a Roman
 army was destroyed. Augustus built ROMAN ROADS, beautified Rome, and was
 munificent to arts and letters. He was a patron of VERGIL, OVID, LIVY,
 and HORACE. He also established the concept of the Pax Romana [Roman
 peace]. He was succeeded by his stepson TIBERIUS.

   Augustus

 Augustus, Polish kings. Augustus II, 1670-1733, was king of POLAND
 (1697-1733) and, as Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony (1694-1733).
 He succeeded John III as king by becoming a Catholic and by giving the
 nobility unprecedented powers. In 1700 he involved Poland in the NORTHERN
 WAR. He was highly unpopular, and his death began the War of the POLISH
 SUCCESSION. One of its results was that his son, Augustus III, 1696-1763,
 succeeded him as king of Poland (1735-63). He was also, as Frederick
 Augustus II, elector of Saxony (1733-63). One of the unsuccessful
 claimants of the Hapsburg lands, he opposed Maria Theresa in the War of
 the AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION.

   auk

 auk, swimming and diving BIRD of the family Alcidae, which includes the
 PUFFIN and guillemot. Clumsy on land, auks seldom leave the water except
 to nest; they return to the same nesting site every year. The largest
 species, the flightless great auk (Pinguinus impennis), was hunted for
 its flesh, feathers, and oil; it became extinct c.1844.

   Aurangzeb

 Aurangzebor Aurangzib, 1618-1707, Mogul emperor of INDIA (1658-1707), son
 and successor of SHAH JAHAN. He ascended the throne after defeating his
 three brothers and imprisoning his father. The MOGUL Empire reached its
 greatest extent under him, but he was fanatically devoted to Islam and
 persecuted the Hindus (see HINDUISM) and SIKHS, thus fatally weakening
 Mogul control over the Indian population.

   Aurelian

 Aurelian (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus), c.212-275, Roman emperor (270-75).
 He succeeded Claudius II and defended the empire against the barbarians
 and ambitious rulers (e.g., Zenobia of Palmyra). One of Rome's greatest
 emperors, he regained Britain, Gaul, Spain, Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia
 and revived the glory of Rome. He was murdered, and Marcus Claudius
 Tacitus succeeded him.

   Auriol, Vincent

 Auriol, Vincent, 1884-1966, French statesman, first president (1947-54)
 of the Fourth Republic. A Socialist until 1959, he was finance minister
 (1936-37) under Leon BLUM and a member of the provisional government
 (1945).

   aurochs

 aurochs: see CATTLE.

   Aurora

 Aurora, city (1986 est. pop. 217,090), N central Colo., a residential
 suburb of DENVER; inc. 1903. It is the fast-growing trade center for a
 large livestock and farming area. Electrical products, aircraft parts,
 and oil-field equipment are manufactured. Tourism, construction, and
 nearby military bases are important to the local economy.

   aurora

 aurora, luminous display of various forms and colors in the night sky.
 The aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern
 lights) are usually visible at latitudes within, respectively, the Arctic
 Circle and Antarctic Circle, but they are sometimes seen in middle
 latitudes. Both are seen most frequently at the time of the equinoxes and
 at times of great sunspot activity. Auroras occur at altitudes of 35 to
 600 mi (56 to 970 km) and are thought to be caused by high-speed
 particles from the sun excited to luminosity after colliding with air
 molecules.

   Auschwitz

 Auschwitz, now Oswiecim, Poland: see CONCENTRATION CAMPS.

   Ausgleich

 Ausgleich: see AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY.

   Ausonius

 Ausonius (Decimus Magnus Ausonius), c.310-c.395, Latin poet; b. Bordeaux.
 His travel verses (Mosella), family sketches (Parentalia), and Order of
 Noble Cities, on 20 Roman cities, give portraits of people and places.

   Austen, Jane

 Austen, Jane, 1775-1817, English novelist. She spent her first 25 years
 at her father's Hampshire vicarage, writing novels published much later.
 Northanger Abbey, written early, appeared posthumously (with Persuasion)
 in 1818. Published in her lifetime were Sense and Sensibility (1811),
 Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), and Emma (1816),
 comedies of manners, depicting the self-contained world of the English
 counties. Providing husbands for marriageable daughters is a central
 theme. Austen's work is noted for polished irony, moral firmness, and
 vivid characterization. She received little notice during her life, but
 today she is regarded as one of the masters of the English novel.

   Austerlitz

 Austerlitz, Czech Slavkov u Brna, town, S Czechoslovakia, in Moravia. An
 agricultural center with sugar refineries and cotton mills, it was a seat
 of the ANABAPTISTS from 1528. At Austerlitz, NAPOLEON I won (Dec. 2,
 1805) his greatest victory by defeating the Russian and Austrian armies.
 The town has an 18th-cent. castle and a 13th-cent. church.

   Austin, Stephen Fuller

 Austin, Stephen Fuller, 1793-1836, Texas colonizer, known as the Father
 of Texas; b. Wythe co., Va. He took up the colonizing plans of his
 father, Moses Austin, 1761-1828, and began (1822) planting settlements in
 Texas between the Brazos and Colorado rivers. He later forwarded the
 Texas Revolution (1836) and was briefly secretary of state of the
 Republic of Texas.

   Austin

 Austin, city (1986 est. pop. 466,550), state capital and seat of Travis
 co., S central Tex., on the Colorado R.; inc. 1839. It is the commercial
 heart of a ranching, poultry, dairy, cotton, and grain area.
 Hydroelectric development (beginning in the 1930s) has spurred enormous
 industrial growth; the city now manufactures a wide variety of products,
 and is a center for electronic and scientific research. The Univ. of
 Texas' main campus is in Austin. State capital since 1870, it was capital
 (1839-42) of the Texas Republic.

   Australasia

 Australasia, islands of the South Pacific, including AUSTRALIA, NEW
 ZEALAND, NEW GUINEA, and adjacent islands. The term sometimes includes
 all of OCEANIA.

   Australia

 Australia, smallest continent, c.2,400 mi (3,860 km) east to west and
 c.2,000 mi (3,220 km) north to south, only continent occupied by a single
 nation, the Commonwealth of Australia (1987 est. pop. 16,249,000),
 2,967,877 sq mi (7,686,810 sq km). Subdivisions of the nation include the
 offshore island state of TASMANIA; the five mainland states of
 QUEENSLAND, NEW SOUTH WALES, VICTORIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, and WESTERN
 AUSTRALIA; the NORTHERN TERRITORY; and the AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY,
 containing CANBERRA, the federal capital. External territories include
 CHRISTMAS ISLAND, the COCOS (KEELING) ISLANDS, the CORAL SEA ISLANDS,
 NORFOLK ISLAND, Heard and McDonald islands, and the Australian Antarctic
 Territory. See map in separate section.

 Geography Australia is the flattest and driest of the continents, as well
 as the oldest and most isolated. Elevations range from 39 ft (12 m) below
 sea level at Lake EYRE, the lowest point, to a high point of 7,316 ft
 (2,230 m) at Mt. KOSCIUSKO, in the AUSTRALIAN ALPS near the New South
 Wales-Victoria border; much of the ancient western plateau is under 2,000
 ft (610 m). Two thirds of the continent is either desert or semiarid.
 Humid climates are restricted to eastern coastal areas and to Tasmania.
 Alternating wet winters (June-August) and dry summers (November-March)
 occur in small areas of South Australia and Western Australia, and dry
 winters and wet summers alternate along the tropical northeastern coast.
 The MURRAY R. and its major tributaries, the DARLING and MURRUMBIDGEE,
 form the principal river system. Plant and animal life is distinctive,
 including many species, such as the giant EUCALYPTUS, KOALA, KANGAROO,



 bauxite, and a significant supplier of iron ore, wheat, meat, dairy
 products, sugar, and fruit. Manufacturing is highly developed and
 concentrated mainly in the coastal regions of Victoria and New South
 Wales. Iron, steel, automobiles, aircraft, electrical equipment and
 appliances, chemicals, and textiles are leading manufactures. SYDNEY,
 MELBOURNE, BRISBANE, ADELAIDE, and NEWCASTLE, all located along the
 southeastern coast, are the largest commercial and industrial centers.
 New South Wales and Victoria are the most populous states. Most
 Australians are of British ancestry. The indigenous population, the
 Australian aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, totaled 159,897 in
 1981. Immigration contributes significantly to population growth; in 1984
 slightly more than 20% of the population had been born in Australia.
 Racially discriminatory immigration policies were officially ended in
 1973, and recent years have seen increased Asian immigration.

 History and Government The aborigines are thought to have come from
 Southeast Asia c.20,000 years ago. The area was first visited by
 Europeans in the 17th cent. but attracted little interest until Capt.
 James COOK sailed (1770) into BOTANY BAY and claimed the entire eastern
 coast for Great Britain. The first settlement, a penal colony for
 "transported" British convicts, was established in 1788 where Sydney now
 stands. By the middle of the 19th cent. free colonization had replaced
 the old penal settlements, and the colonies of Tasmania (1825), Western
 Australia (1829), South Australia (1834), Victoria (1851), and Queensland
 (1859) had been established. Wool and wheat were early exports, and gold
 rushes in 1851 and 1892 attracted new settlers. In 1901 the colonies were
 federated as states of the Commonwealth of Australia, and in 1927 the
 seat of government was transferred from Melbourne to Canberra. Australia
 fought on the side of Britain in both world wars. In WORLD WAR II the
 Japanese bombed or shelled DARWIN, Port Jackson, and Newcastle, and the
 Allied victory in the battle of the CORAL SEA (1942) probably averted an
 invasion of Australia. Australia joined regional defense pacts after the
 war and sent troops to aid the U.S. in the VIETNAM WAR. The nation has a
 popularly elected bicameral parliament. Executive power rests with the
 governor general (representing the crown) and a cabinet and prime
 minister. British intervention in Australian affairs was formally
 abolished in 1986.

   Australian Alps

 Australian Alps, mountain chain, SE Australia, forming the southern part
 of the EASTERN HIGHLANDS. It reaches a high point of 7,316 ft (2,230 m)
 at Mt. KOSCIUSKO, the highest peak in Australia.

   Australian Ballet

 Australian Ballet, founded in Melbourne (1962). It drew on the tradition
 established (1940) by Edouard Borovansky of the Ballets Russes (see
 DIAGHILEV) and is linked to the ROYAL BALLET in style and repertoire.
 Performances include a film version (1973) of Rudolf NUREYEV'S Don
 Quixote.

   Australian Capital Territory

 Australian Capital Territory (1983 pop. 240,100), 939 sq mi (2,432 sq
 km), SE Australia, an enclave within NEW SOUTH WALES containing CANBERRA,
 the capital of Australia. Most of it was ceded to the federal government
 by New South Wales in 1911 for use as the future capital; a small section
 on the east coast, at Jervis Bay, was ceded for use as a port in 1915.
 The territory is administered by the federal government and has an
 18-member elected House of Assembly with advisory responsibilities.

   Australian languages

 Australian languages, aboriginal languages spoken by perhaps 130,000
 persons on the continent of Australia. These languages, estimated at 100
 to 600 in number, do not seem to be related to any other linguistic
 family and have no writing of their own. Many are already or nearly
 extinct.

   Australopithecus

 Australopithecus: see MAN, PREHISTORIC.

   Austria

 Austria, Ger. Osterreich, officially Republic of Austria, federal
 republic (1987 est. pop. 7,573,000), 32,374 sq mi (83,849 sq km), central
 Europe; bordered by Yugoslavia and Italy (S), Switzerland and
 Liechtenstein (W), West Germany and Czechoslovakia (N), and Hungary (E).
 VIENNA is the capital; principal cities include SALZBURG, INNSBRUCK,
 GRAZ, and LINZ. The ALPS traverse Austria from west to east and occupy
 three fourths of the country; the highest peak is the Grossglockner
 (12,460 ft/3,798 m). Austria is drained by the DANUBE R. and its
 tributaries. Forestry, cattle-raising, and dairying are the main sources
 of livelihood in the alpine provinces. In the rest of the country tillage
 agriculture predominates; the chief crops are potatoes, sugar beets,
 barley, wheat, rye, and oats. Manufacturing (steel, chemicals,
 foodstuffs, textiles, and machinery) and mining (graphite, iron,
 magnesium, and lignite) employ nearly half of the labor force. Tourism is
 very important. Divided into nine provinces, Austria has a mixed
 presidential-parliamentary form of government. The population is
 predominantly German-speaking and Roman Catholic.

 History Located at the crossroads of Europe, Austria has been from
 earliest times a thoroughfare and a battleground. Settled by Celts, the
 area was conquered (15 BC-AD 10) by Rome; overrun (from the 5th cent.) by
 Huns, Goths, Lombards, and Bavarians; conquered (788) by CHARLEMAGNE;
 taken (after 814) by the Moravians (see MORAVIA) and then the MAGYARS;
 and reconquered (955) by Holy Roman Emperor OTTO I, who bestowed it (976)
 on the house of Babenberg. Acquired in 1251 by Ottocar II of BOHEMIA, it
 was claimed (1282) by RUDOLF I of Hapsburg, king of the Germans, and from
 that time until its fall in 1918, Austrian history is that of the house
 of HAPSBURG. (See AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE; AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN
 MONARCHY; AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR; CONGRESS OF VIENNA; FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
 WARS; GERMAN CONFEDERATION; HOLY ALLIANCE; HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE; METTERNICH
 SEVEN YEARS WAR; THIRTY YEARS WAR.) Following the collapse of the
 Austro-Hungarian monarchy at the end of WORLD WAR I, German Austria was
 proclaimed (1918) a republic. The Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919), which
 fixed its boundaries, reduced it to a small country of 7 million
 inhabitants, and deprived it of its raw materials, food, and markets.
 Unemployment, bankruptcy, and political unrest followed, and in 1934 a
 corporative totalitarian regime was established under Engelbert DOLLFUSS
 (who was assassinated) and his successor, Kurt von SCHUSCHNIGG. The
 nation became part of the German Third Reich in 1938, when it was
 occupied by German troops. After its capture (1945) by U.S. and Soviet
 troops, Austria was restored as a republic. Divided into zones, it was
 occupied by the Allies until 1955, when a peace treaty declared it a
 sovereign and neutral power. By the 1960s the country enjoyed
 unprecedented prosperity. Politically, a nearly equal balance of power
 between conservatives and socialists resulted in a succession of
 coalition governments until 1966, when the conservative People's party
 won a clear majority. The party was ousted in the 1970 elections by the
 Socialists, who, under Chancellor Bruno KREISKY, held power into the



   Austrian Succession, War of the

 Austrian Succession, War of the, 1740-48, European war precipitated by
 the succession of MARIA THERESA to the Hapsburg lands by virtue of the
 PRAGMATIC SANCTION. She was challenged by the elector of Bavaria (who
 became Emperor CHARLES VII in 1742), PHILIP V of Spain, and AUGUSTUS III
 of Poland. FREDERICK II of Prussia, claiming part of Silesia, opened
 hostilities by invading that region. Prussia was joined by France, Spain,
 Bavaria, and Saxony. After being promised its Silesian claim, Prussia
 made a separate peace in 1742. Saxony went over to Austria in 1743, and
 England (at war with Spain), Holland, and Sardinia became Austrian
 allies. Fearing Maria Theresa's growing power, Prussia reentered the war
 in 1744. Maria Theresa's husband was elected emperor, as FRANCIS I, in
 1745, on the death of Charles VII. France defeated the English at
 Fontenoy, and GEORGE II sued for peace. The war dragged on in other
 areas, including North America (see FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS). In 1748 the
 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war. Maria Theresa's throne was safe,
 but Prussia had emerged as a major European power.

   Austro-Hungarian Monarchy

 Austro-Hungarian Monarchy or Dual Monarchy,the HAPSBURG empire from the
 constitutional compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867 until its fall in 1918. The
 empire was divided into two states. Cisleithania (lands W of the Leitha
 River) comprised Austria proper, Bohemia, Moravia, Austrian Silesia,
 Slovenia, and Austrian Poland. Transleithania included Hungary,
 Transylvania, Croatia, and part of Dalmatia. The Hapsburg monarch ruled
 Cisleithania as emperor of Austria and ruled Transleithania as king of
 Hungary. Both states elected separate parliaments for internal affairs
 and had independent ministries. A common cabinet dealt with foreign
 affairs, common defense, and common finances. The monarchy was weakened
 by this ethnic diversity. Czech, Italian, Slavic, and Rumanian minorities
 desired autonomy and later sought to break free of the empire. Archduke
 FRANCIS FERDINAND apparently had a plan for a South Slavic partner in the
 monarchy, but his assassination (1914) cut short this hope and
 precipitated WORLD WAR I. In foreign affairs Austria-Hungary allied
 (1879) with Germany (see TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE) and in 1908
 angered SERBIA by annexing BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA. The empire was
 dissolved at the end of World War I, and Emperor CHARLES I abdicated
 (1918). The Treaty of VERSAILLES and other treaties established the
 boundaries of the successor states.

   Austronesian

 Austronesian, name sometimes used for the Malayo-Polynesian languages.
 See LANGUAGE.

   Austro-Prussian War

 Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks War,June 15-Aug. 23, 1866, between
 Austria (seconded by the various German states) and Prussia (allied with
 Italy). It was provoked by BISMARCK as a way of expelling Austria from
 the GERMAN CONFEDERATION, thereby assuring Prussian hegemony there. The
 pretext was a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration
 of SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. Prussia quickly overran Holstein and the German
 states allied with Austria, and was victorious in Bohemia and Italy. The
 Treaty of Prague ended the war. Austria was excluded from German affairs
 and forced to cede Venetia to Italy. Prussia demanded no territory from
 Austria but annexed Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfurt, laying the
 groundwork for the establishment (1871) of the German empire.

   auteur

 auteur,  a term in film criticism. It is applied to a director who so
 dominates the film-making process that it is appropriate to call the
 director the auteur, or author, of the movie.

   authentic modes

 authentic modes: see MODE, in music.

   autism

 autism, in psychology, a condition-characterized by withdrawal,
 fantasies, delusions, and hallucinations-stemming from an inability to
 relate to and perceive the environment realistically. The symptoms of
 infantile autism include delay in the acquisition of speech, resistance
 to change of any kind, and obsessive and stereotyped body movements.
 Treatment is still experimental, and relatively few autistic children
 show significant remission of symptoms.

   autoimmune disease

 autoimmune disease, general term for several disorders in which the body
 produces antibodies (see IMMUNITY) against its own substances, resulting
 in tissue injury. For example, in systemic lupus erythematosus,
 individuals develop antibodies to their own nucleic acids and cell
 structures, causing dysfunction of many organs, including the heart,
 kidneys, and joints. Autoimmune diseases are treated by a variety of
 nonspecific IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE DRUGS and STEROIDS.

   automation

 automation, automatic operation and control of machinery or processes by
 devices that make and execute decisions without human intervention. Such
 devices use self-correcting control systems that employ feedback; i.e.,
 they use part of their output to control their input. Because of their
 ability to store, select, record, and present data, COMPUTERS are widely
 used to direct automated systems. See also DATA PROCESSING; ROBOTICS.

   automobile

 automobile, self-propelled vehicle used for travel on land. The
 fundamental structure of the automobile consists of seven basic systems:
 the engine, usually mounted in front and driving either the two front or
 the two back wheels; the fuel system, using a CARBURETOR to produce the
 optimal combustible mixture of fuel and air; the electrical system,
 including a battery that provides a power source to the ignition; the
 cooling, steering and suspension, and BRAKE systems; and the
 TRANSMISSION, which transmits power from the engine crankshaft to the
 wheels by means of a series of gears. Evolving from earlier experiments
 with steam-powered vehicles, models using the gasoline-fueled
 INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE were first developed by the German engineers
 Karl BENZ (1885) and Gottlieb DAIMLER (1886). U.S. leadership in
 automobile production began with Henry FORD'S founding (1903) of the Ford
 Motor Co., its production (1908) of the inexpensive Model T, and its
 development of assembly-line techniques. General Motors, Ford's principal
 competitor, became the world's largest automobile manufacturer in the
 1920s, and U.S. dominance of the field continued until the 1970s, when it
 was challenged by growing sales of Japanese and German cars. See also
 AUTOMOBILE RACING; DIESEL ENGINE; POLLUTION; SMOG.

   automobile racing

 automobile racing, sport in which high-speed, specially constructed
 automobiles are raced on outdoor or indoor courses. The five basic types
 of competition are the grand prix, a series of races in several countries
 that leads to the designation of a world-champion driver; stock car,
 using standard cars with special equipment; midget car; sports car; and
 drag racing, involving acceleration tests over 1/4-mi. (.4025-km) tracks.
 The sport originated in France in 1894. The best-known U.S. race is the
 Indianapolis 500, first held in 1911.

   autumnal equinox

 autumnal equinox: see EQUINOX.

   Averroes

 Averroes, Arabic Ibn Rushd, 1126-98, Spanish-Arabian philosopher. His
 greatest work, his commentaries on ARISTOTLE, remained influential in the
 West well into the Renaissance. Averroes held that the domains of faith
 and reason did not conflict, and that philosophic truth derives from
 reason rather than faith (see SCHOLASTICISM). In this he was opposed by
 St. THOMAS AQUINAS.

   Avery, Milton

 Avery, Milton, 1893-1965, American painter; b. Altmar, N.Y. A master
 colorist in the tradition of MATISSE, he is known for figurative works
 that display bold massing of forms and for landscapes that verge on
 complete abstraction, e.g., Dunes and Sea II (1960; Whitney Mus.,
 N.Y.C.).

   Avestan

 Avestan, language belonging to the Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian
 subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See LANGUAGE.

   aviation

 aviation, operation of heavier-than-air aircraft and related activities.
 Aviation can be divided into military aviation (see AIRCRAFT CARRIER; AIR
 FORCE), air transport (commercial airline operations), and general
 aviation (agricultural, business, charter, instructional, and pleasure
 flying). The first successful flights of a motor-powered airplane
 carrying a human were made by Orville and Wilbur WRIGHT near Kitty Hawk,
 N.C. on Dec. 17, 1903. The first successful SEAPLANE was constructed in
 1911-12. During the early 1900s, aviators demonstrated the feasibility of
 air travel to various parts of the world. World War I provided additional
 motivation for aviation research and development. The availability of
 cheap, surplus aircraft in the U.S. after the war encouraged barnstorming
 and stunt-flying; the result was a more airplane-conscious public.
 Private companies in America contracted the carrying of airmail after
 1925. Technological improvements in WIND TUNNEL testing, engine and
 airframe design, and maintenance equipment combined in the 1930s to
 provide faster, larger, and more durable airplanes. The transportation of
 passengers became profitable, and routes were extended to include several
 foreign countries. Transpacific airmail service began in 1934, and was
 soon followed by a similar service for passengers. In 1939 the first
 transatlantic service for mail and passengers was inaugurated. The
 application of JET PROPULSION to commercial air transportation began in
 1952. The first supersonic transports (SST) for passenger service were
 put into service during the mid-1970s. See also AIRSHIP; BALLOON; GLIDER;
 HELICOPTER.

   Avicenna

 Avicenna, Arabic Ibn Sina, 980-1037, Persian philosopher and physician,
 the most renowned philosopher of medieval Islam. His interpretation of
 ARISTOTLE followed that of the NEOPLATONISTS. Avicenna's Canon of
 Medicine, a classic text, was particularly influential from 1100 to 1500.

   Avignon

 Avignon, city (1982 pop. 91,474), capital of Vaucluse dept., SE France,
 on the Rhone R. It has a wine trade and many manufactures. The papal see
 during the Babylonian Captivity (1309-78), it was later (1378-1408) the
 residence of several antipopes (see PAPACY and SCHISM, GREAT). Avignon
 was joined to France after a plebiscite (1791). Medieval ramparts and the
 papal palace are highlights of the city.

   avionics

 avionics, the electronics used for the navigation and running of an
 airplane, missile, or space ship. Avionics are only those systems carried
 aboard the craft. They may include RADAR, guidance systems, and
 stabilization systems. The term also refers to the industry of producing
 avionic components, as well as the research and development of such
 systems.

   avocado

 avocado, tropical American broad-leaved evergreen tree (genus Persea) of
 the LAUREL family, and its pear-shaped fruit. The fruit has a tough,
 inedible, usually dark green skin and an oily flesh surrounding a large,
 hard seed. The flesh is eaten fresh, chiefly in salads.

   Avogadro, Amadeo, conte di Quaregna

 Avogadro, Amadeo, conte di Quaregna, 1776-1856, Italian physicist. In
 1811 he advanced the hypothesis (since known as Avogadro's law) that
 equal volumes of gases under identical conditions of pressure and
 temperature contain the same number of molecules. This hypothesis led to
 the determination by other physicists of the value of Avogadro's number,
 i.e., the number of molecules in one MOLE, or gram-molecular weight, of
 any gas.

   Avogadro's number

 Avogadro's number: see MOLE, in chemistry.

   avoirdupois weights

 avoirdupois weights: see ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT; WEIGHTS AND
 MEASURES,.

   Awami League

 Awami League, political party in PAKISTAN and BANGLADESH. Founded in
 1949, it became the vehicle for the political interests of East Pakistan.
 When East Pakistan won independence (1971) as Bangladesh, the league
 became the new nation's dominant political party. However, in 1981 the
 National party defeated the league in national elections.

   axiom

 axiom, in MATHEMATICS and LOGIC, general statement accepted without proof
 as the basis for logically deducing other statements (THEOREMS). Examples
 of axioms used widely in mathematics are those related to equality (e.g.,
 "If equals are added to equals, the sums are equal") and those related to
 operations (e.g., the ASSOCIATIVE LAW). A postulate, like an axiom, is a
 statement that is accepted without proof; it deals, however, with
 specific subject matter (e.g., properties of geometrical figures), not
 general statements.

   Axis

 Axis, 1936-45, coalition of countries in WORLD WAR II headed by Germany,
 Italy, and Japan. They were opposed, and defeated, by the Allies, headed
 by the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China.

   Ayacucho

 Ayacucho, city (1981 pop. 69,533), capital of Ayacucho dept., S central
 Peru. It is a commercial and tourist center in a region of rich gold,
 silver, and nickel mines. On the nearby plains of Ayacucho, Antonio Jose
 de SUCRE won (1824) a military victory that secured Peru's independence
 from Spain and assured the liberation of South America.

   Ayala, Ramon Perez de

 Ayala, Ramon Perez de: see PEREZ DE AYALA, RAMON.

   Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

 Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini: see KHOMEINI, AYATOLLAH RUHOLLAH.

   Ayckbourn, Alan

 Ayckbourn, Alan, 1939-, English playwright. He is known for such
 ingenious antibourgeois FARCES as How the Other Half Loves (1970); Absurd
 Person Singular (1973); The Norman Conquests (1974), a trilogy; and
 Bedroom Farce (1975).

   Aymara

 Aymara, SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS of the Lake TITICACA basin in Peru and
 Bolivia. Their language is classified as a separate unit (see AMERICAN
 INDIAN LANGUAGES). Believed to be the originators of the great culture
 seen in the ruins of TIAHUANACO, they were subjugated by the INCA (15th
 cent.) and by the Spanish (16th cent.) but retained their pastoral
 civilization and patrilineal society. Still dominant in the region today,
 the Aymara have adopted some aspects of Spanish culture and Christian
 belief.

   Ayub Khan, Muhammad

 Ayub Khan, Muhammad, 1907-74, president (1958-69) of PAKISTAN. After 1951
 he was commander of the Pakistani armed forces, and in 1958 he led a
 military coup and became president. Although he inaugurated far-reaching
 reforms and a new constitution, unrest grew; despite his reelection in
 1965, he bowed to pressure and resigned in 1969.

   azalea

 azalea, shrubs (genus Rhododendron) of the HEATH family, distinguished by
 typically deciduous leaves and large clusters of pink, red, orange,
 yellow, purple, or white flowers. Most grow in damp acid soils of hills
 and mountains, and are native to North America and Asia. Native American
 azaleas include the flame azalea (R. calendulacea) and the fragrant white
 azalea (R. viscosa), also called swamp honeysuckle. Most of the
 brilliantly flowered garden varieties are from China and Japan.

   Azana, Manuel

 Azana, Manuel, 1880-1940, president of Spain (1936-39). A leader of the
 republican revolution of 1930, he served as premier (1931-33) in the
 first republic. He headed the Loyalist government in the SPANISH CIVIL
 WAR but held little real power.

   Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic

 Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republicor Azerbaidzhan, constituent republic
 (1987 est. pop. 6,811,000), 33,428 sq mi (86,579 sq km), SE European
 USSR, in Transcaucasia; capital: BAKU. It is bounded by the Dagestan
 Republic (N); Iran (S), where the Araks R. divides it from Iranian
 Azerbaijan; the Caspian Sea (E); and the Armenian Republic (W). The area
 is rich in oil and other minerals. Manufactures include cement and steel.
 Grapes, cotton, and tobacco are major crops. In addition to the
 Turkic-speaking Shiite Muslim Azerbaijani majority, there are Russian,
 Armenian, and other minorities. Under Persian and Mongol rule from
 ancient times, the region was acquired by Russia from Persia between 1813
 and 1828. It became a Soviet republic in 1920.

   azidothymide

 azidothymide: see AZT.

   azimuth

 azimuth: see ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS.

   Azoic time

 Azoic time: see GEOLOGIC ERA.

   Azores

 Azores, island group belonging to Portugal (1986 est. pop. 253,500), 905
 sq mi (2,344 sq km), located in the Atlantic Ocean, c.900 mi (1,448 km)
 west of mainland Portugal. The nine main islands are Sao Miguel (the
 largest) and Santa Maria in the southeast; Terceira, Pico, Fayal, Sao
 Jorge, and Graciosa in the center; and Flores and Corvo in the northwest.
 Ponta Delgado, on Sao Miguel, is the largest city. The islands are
 divided into three districts named after their capitals: Ponta Delgado,
 Angra do Heroismo (on Terceira), and Horta (on Fayal).

   Azorin

 Azorin: see MARTINEZ RUIZ, JOSE.

   AZT

 AZT  or azidothymide,a drug used to treat AIDS. Although it does not cure
 AIDS, it inhibits the virus's ability to reproduce, prolonging the lives
 of most patients. Among its possible adverse effects are anemia,
 dementia, and blindness.

   Aztec

 Aztec, MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS dominating central Mexico at the time of
 the Spanish conquest (16th cent.), with a Nahuatlan language of the
 Uto-Aztecan stock (see AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES). Until the founding of
 their capital, Tenochtitlan (c.1325), the Aztec were a poor nomadic tribe
 in the valley of Mexico. In the 15th cent. they became powerful,
 subjugating the Huastec to the north and the MIXTEC and ZAPOTEC to the
 south, and achieving a composite civilization based on a TOLTEC and
 Mixteca-Puebla heritage. Engineering, architecture, art, mathematics,
 astronomy, sculpture, weaving, metalwork, music, and picture writing were
 highly developed; agriculture and trade flourished. The nobility,
 priesthood, military, and merchant castes predominated. War captives were
 sacrificed to the many Aztec gods, including the god of war,
 Huitzilopochti. In 1519, when CORTES arrived, many subject peoples
 willingly joined the Spanish against the Aztecs. Cortes captured
 MONTEZUMA, who was subsequently murdered, and razed Tenochtitlan.

   B

 B, chemical symbol of the element BORON.

   Ba

 Ba, chemical symbol of the element BARIUM.

   Baade, Walter

 Baade, Walter, 1893-1960, German-American astronomer. He presented
 evidence for the existence of two different stellar populations of older
 and newer stars. Baade knew that, at the then-accepted distance of the
 Andromeda galaxy, cluster-type variable stars should have appeared on
 photographs that he took with the 200-in. (5.08-m) telescope at Palomar
 Observatory. Because they did not, he correctly reasoned (1952) that the
 distances to this galaxy and other extragalactic systems must be doubled.

   Baal

 Baal, plural Baalim [Semitic,=possessor], the OLD TESTAMENT term for the
 deity or deities of CANAAN. First applied to local gods, it was later the
 name of the chief deity. His cult practiced holy PROSTITUTION and child
 sacrifice. In Israel it was denounced by Hebrew Prophets. The name is
 synonymous with evil, hence Beelzebub (see SATAN).

   Baal-Shem-Tov

 Baal-Shem-Tov [Heb.,=master of the good name, i.e., the name of God,]
 c.1698-1760, Jewish founder of modern HASIDISM; b. Poland as Israel ben
 Eliezer. He was called Baal-Shem-Tov because of his reputation as a
 miracle healer. Central to his teachings is the notion that one must
 worship God in all activities-and with joy. From his large circle of
 followers developed communities of modern HASIDIM.

   Babbage, Charles

 Babbage, Charles, 1792-1871, English mathematician and inventor, famous
 for his attempts to develop a mechanical computational aid he called the
 "analytical engine." Although it was never constructed and was decimal
 rather than binary in conception, it clearly anticipated the modern
 digital COMPUTER. A scientist with extremely broad interests, Babbage
 probed the roles of learned societies and government in advancing
 science, and wrote on mass production and on what is now called
 operational research.

   Babbitt, Irving

 Babbitt, Irving, 1865-1933, American scholar; b. Dayton, Ohio. A
 professor of French literature at Harvard (1912-33), he helped initiate
 New Humanism, a movement based on classical moderation. His works include
 The New Laokoon (1910) and On Being Creative (1932).

   Babbitt, Milton

 Babbitt, Milton, 1916-, American composer; b. Philadelphia. His "total
 serialization" attempts to apply 12-tone principles to all the elements
 of composition: dynamics, timbre, and rhythm, as well as melody and
 harmony (see SERIAL MUSIC; TWELVE-TONE MUSIC). In 1959 he became director
 of the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center (N.Y.C.).

   Babel, Isaac Emmanuelovich

 Babel, Isaac Emmanuelovich, 1894-1941, Russian writer. A brilliant
 stylist, he won fame with Odessa Tales (1923-24), depicting Jewish ghetto
 life, and Red Cavalry (1926), which drew on his Civil War experiences.
 His also wrote the novel Benia Krik (1927) and the play Sunset (1928). He
 was arrested in 1939 and died in a labor camp.

   Babel

 Babel, in the BIBLE, Babylonian city where NOAH'S descendants (who spoke
 one language) tried to build a tower reaching to heaven. For this
 presumption they lost the ability to speak intelligibly to each other.
 Gen. 11.1-9.

   Bab el Mandeb

 Bab el Mandeb, strategic strait between Arabia and NE Africa, 17 mi (27
 km) wide, connecting the RED SEA with the Gulf of ADEN. It is a vital
 link in the MEDITERRANEAN SEA-SUEZ CANAL-INDIAN OCEAN sea lane.

   Babeuf, Francois Noel

 Babeuf, Francois Noel, 1760-97, French revolutionary activist. In 1794 he
 founded a political journal that argued for economic and political
 equality. Imprisoned in 1795, he grew surer of his communist views. He
 formed a secret society called the Conspiracy of Equals and plotted to
 overthrow the government of the DIRECTORY. The plot was discovered, and
 Babeuf was executed.

   Babington, Anthony

 Babington, Anthony, 1561-86, English conspirator. He was executed for
 plotting the murder of ELIZABETH I and the freeing of MARY QUEEN OF
 SCOTS. The proof against him convinced Elizabeth that it was necessary to
 behead Mary.

   Babism

 Babism, a 19th-cent. Persian sect, an outgrowth of SHIITE Islam that was
 founded by Mirza Ali Muhammad of Shiraz, who proclaimed himself the Bab
 gate in 1844. Babism, incorporating elements of SUFISM, GNOSTICISM, and
 Shiite Islam, centered on a belief in the coming of the Promised One.
 Oppressed from 1845, the movement declared its complete secession from
 ISLAM in 1848, and in 1863 the Babists were expelled from Persia. After
 1868 a division had its center in Acre, under the leadership of BAHA
 ULLAH, the founder of BAHA'ISM.

   baboon

 baboon, large, powerful, ground-living MONKEY (genus Papio), also called
 dog-faced monkey, related to the MANDRILL. Found in the open country of
 Africa and Asia, baboons have close-set eyes under heavy brow ridges,
 long, heavy muzzles, powerful jaws, cheek pouches for storing food, and
 sharp, tusklike upper canine teeth. Baboons have a highly developed
 social structure.

   Babur

 Babur, 1483-1530, founder of the MOGUL empire in INDIA. A descendant of
 TAMERLANE, he invaded India from Afghanistan. He defeated (1526) the
 sultan of Delhi, captured Agra and Delhi, and later conquered most of N
 India. Babur was a poet; his autobiography is his major work.

   Babylon

 Babylon, ancient city of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates R. It became one
 of the most important cities of the ancient Near East when HAMMURABI made
 it the capital of his kingdom of BABYLONIA. The city was destroyed (c.689
 BC) by the Assyrians under SENNACHERIB, but it was rebuilt. The brilliant
 color and luxury of Babylon became legendary from the days of
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR (d. 562 BC). The Hanging Gardens were one of the SEVEN
 WONDERS OF THE WORLD. The Persians captured the city in 538 BC

   Babylonia

 Babylonia, ancient empire of Mesopotamia. Historically the name refers to
 the first dynasty of Babylon established by HAMMURABI (c.1750 BC) and to
 the Neo-Babylonian period after the fall of the Assyrian empire.
 Hammurabi, who had his capital at BABYLON, issued a famous code of laws
 for the management of the empire. Babylonian religion and cuneiform
 writing were derived from the older culture of SUMER and the quasi-feudal
 society was divided into classes. These Babylonian institutions
 influenced ASSYRIA and so contributed to the later history of the Middle
 East and of Western Europe. Babylonia degenerated into anarchy (c.1180
 BC), but flourished once again as a subsidiary state of the Assyrian
 empire after the 9th cent. BC Later, Nabopo lassar established (625 BC)
 what is generally known as the Chaldean or New Babylonian empire, which
 reached its height under his son NEBUCHADNEZZAR. In 538 BC the last of
 the Babylonian rulers surrendered to CYRUS THE GREAT of Persia.

   Babylonian art

 Babylonian art: see SUMERIAN AND BABYLONIAN ART.

   Babylonian captivity

 Babylonian captivity, in the history of Israel, the period from the fall
 of Jerusalem (586 BC) to the reconstruction in Palestine of a new Jewish
 state (after 538 BC). Following the capture of the city by the
 Babylonians, thousands of JEWS were deported to Mesopotamia. In 538 BC
 the Persian King CYRUS THE GREAT decreed the restoration of worship at
 Jerusalem. The century following this decree was the time of Jewish
 reintegration into a national and religious unit.

   baby's breath

 baby's breath, name for a plant of the PINK family, for the white
 bedstraw of the MADDER family, and for grape hyacinth of the LILY family.

   Bacchanalia

 Bacchanalia, in Roman religion, festival honoring BACCHUS, god of wine.
 Originally a religious ceremony, it led to drunken, licentious excesses
 and was outlawed (186 BC).

   Bacchus

 Bacchus, in Greek and Roman religion, god of wine, vegetation, and
 fertility. His worship was celebrated in orgiastic rites such as the
 Bacchanalia.

   Bacchylides

 Bacchylides, fl. c.470 BC, Greek lyric poet. He was a competent writer of
 dithyrambs, but he lacked the inspiration of his contemporary PINDAR.

   Bach

 Bach, German family of distinguished musicians who flourished from the
 16th through the 18th cent., its most renowned member being Johann
 Sebastian Bach (see separate article). Johannes, or Hans, Bach,
 1580-1626, was a carpet weaver and musical performer at festivals. His
 sons and descendants were noted organists and composers. One grandson,
 Johann Ambrosia Bach, 1645-95, a musician, was the father of Johann
 Sebastian Bach. Johann Christoph Bach, 1671-1721, Johann Sebastian's
 eldest brother, was an organist; he took his younger brother in and
 taught him after their parents' death. Of the 20 children of Johann
 Sebastian, several were noted as musicians. The eldest son, Wilhelm
 Friedemann Bach, 1710-84, was a brilliant organist and well-known
 composer, but his life ended in poverty and dissolution. A younger son
 was Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, 1714-88, also a composer and for 28 years
 (1740-68) the harpsichordist of Frederick the Great. He wrote an
 important treatise, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments
 (1753). The youngest son, Johann Christian Bach, 1735-82, known as the
 "English Bach," became (1762) music master to King GEORGE III. A popular
 composer in the rococo style, he influenced the young MOZART.

   Bach, Alexander

 Bach, Alexander, 1813-93, Austrian politician. As minister of the
 interior (1849-59) he instituted the Bach system for the centralization
 and Germanization of Hapsburg lands. It also ended internal tariffs. The
 system met opposition, especially in Hungary, and was replaced after
 1859.

   Bach, Johann Sebastian

 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1685-1750, German composer and organist, one of
 the greatest composers of the Western world. Born into a gifted family,
 Bach was trained in music from childhood by his father, Johann Ambrosia,
 and later by his brother Johann Christoph. He held a variety of posts,
 serving as organist in Arnstadt (1703-7), Muhlhausen (1707-8), and Weimar
 (1708-17) before becoming (1717) musical director for Prince Leopold at
 Cothen. After the death (1720) of his first wife, Maria Barbara Bach, he
 married (1721) Anna Magdalena Wulken. He had in all 20 children, several
 of whom became noted as musicians (see separate article). In 1723, Bach
 became cantor and music director of St. Thomas Church, Leipzig, a
 distinguished post that he held until his death. In his instrumental and
 choral works, Bach perfected the art of POLYPHONY and brought the era of
 BAROQUE music to its culmination. During his lifetime he was better known
 as a virtuoso organist than as a composer, but since the 19th cent. his
 genius has been recognized, and his reputation has grown steadily. In his
 early years as organist, he composed a series of works for organ that
 culminated in the great preludes and FUGUES written at Weimar. At Cothen
 he focused on instrumental compositions, such as the Brandenburg
 Concertos, and keyboard works, such as Book I of the celebrated
 Well-Tempered Clavier. His superb religious compositions from the Leipzig
 period include the St. John Passion and the Mass in B Minor, and some 300
 sacred CANTATAS, of which nearly 200 are extant. His last notable pieces
 are the Musical Offering, composed (1747) for Frederick the Great, and
 the Art of the Fugue (1749).

   bachelor's button

 bachelor's button, popular name for several plants usually characterized
 by rounded flowers, such as the CORNFLOWER and globe AMARANTH.

   Bach system

 Bach system: see under BACH, ALEXANDER.

   backgammon

 backgammon, game of chance and skill played by two persons on a specially
 marked board divided by a space (bar) into two "tables," each of which
 has 12 alternately colored points (elongated triangular spaces) on which
 each player places 15 pieces (disks) in a prescribed formation. Two dice
 are thrown to determine moves. The object is to be the first to move
 one's pieces around and off the board. The game has very ancient roots in
 the Middle East.

   Bacon, Francis

 Bacon, Francis, 1561-1626, English philosopher, essayist, and statesman.
 After his opposition (1584) to Queen Elizabeth I's tax program retarded
 his political advancement, he was favored by the earl of Essex, whom
 Bacon later helped to prosecute (1601). Under James I he advanced from
 knight (1603) to attorney general (1613) to lord chancellor (1618). In
 1621 he pleaded guilty to charges of accepting bribes and was fined and
 banished from office; he spent the rest of his life writing in
 retirement. Bacon's best-known writings are his aphoristic Essays
 (1597-1625). He projected a major philosophical work, the Instauratio
 Magna, but completed only two parts: the Advancement of Learning (1605),
 later expanded in Latin as De Augmentis Scientarum (1623); and the Novum
 Organum (1620). His major contribution to philosophy was his application
 of INDUCTION, the approach used by modern science, rather than the a
 priori method of medieval SCHOLASTICISM.

   Bacon, Francis

 Bacon, Francis, 1909-, English painter; b. Ireland. Self-taught, he
 expresses the satirical, horrifying, and hallucinatory in such works as
 Three Studies for the base of Crucifixion (1944; Tate Gall., London).

   Bacon, Nathaniel

 Bacon, Nathaniel, 1647-76, leader of Bacon's Rebellion in colonial
 Virginia. Dissatisfied with the government of Sir William BERKELEY, and
 its neglect of frontier defense, Bacon led (1676) a popular uprising. He
 drove Berkeley from JAMESTOWN, but his death from malaria ended the
 revolt.

   Bacon, Roger

 Bacon, Roger, c.1214-94?, English scholastic philosopher and scientist, a
 FRANCISCAN. A celebrated teacher at Oxford, Bacon had an interest far in
 advance of his times in natural science and accurate observation of
 phenomena, without, however, abandoning his faith. Three of his most
 important works, summarizing his studies, were written for Pope CLEMENT I
 in one year (1267-68): the Opus majus, Opus minor, and the Opus tertium.
 Deeply interested in alchemy, Bacon was credited by contemporaries with
 great learning in magic. Many discoveries have been attributed to him,
 including the invention of gunpowder and the first examination of cells
 through a microscope, but much doubt has been cast on the authenticity of
 such claims.

   bacteria

 bacteria, microscopic, unicellular organisms having three typical forms:
 rod-shaped (bacillus), round (coccus), and spiral (spirillum). The
 cytoplasm of most bacteria is surrounded by a cell wall; the nucleus
 contains DNA but lacks the nuclear membrane found in higher plants and
 animals. Many forms are motile, propelled by movements of a filamentlike
 appendage (flagellum). Reproduction is chiefly by transverse fission
 (MITOSIS), but conjugation (transfer of nucleic acid between two cells)
 and other forms of genetic recombination also occur. Some bacteria
 (aerobes) can grow only in the presence of free or atmospheric oxygen;
 others (anaerobes) cannot grow in its presence; and a third group
 (facultative anaerobes) can grow with or without it. In unfavorable
 conditions, many species form resistant spores. Different types of
 bacteria are capable of innumerable chemical metabolic transformations,
 e.g., PHOTOSYNTHESIS and the conversion of free nitrogen and sulfur into
 AMINO ACIDS. Bacteria are both useful and harmful to humans. Some are
 used for soil enrichment with leguminous plants (see NITROGEN CYCLE), in
 pickling, and alcohol and cheese fermentation, to decompose organic
 wastes (in septic tanks and the soil), and in GENETIC ENGINEERING.
 Others, called pathogens, cause a number of plant and animal diseases,
 including CHOLERA, SYPHILIS, TYPHOID FEVER, and TETANUS.

   bacteriological warfare

 bacteriological warfare: see BIOLOGICAL WARFARE.

   bacteriophage

 bacteriophage or phage,VIRUS that infects BACTERIA, sometimes destroying
 them. A phage has a head composed of PROTEIN and an inner core of NUCLEIC
 ACID. It infects a host by attaching itself by its tail to the bacterial
 cell wall and injecting nucleic acid (DNA) into its host, in which it
 produces new phage particles. Eventually the bacterial cell is destroyed
 by lysis, or dissolution, releasing the phage particles to infect other
 cells. Phages are highly specific, with a particular phage infecting only
 certain species of bacteria; they are important tools in studies of
 bacterial genetics and cellular mechanisms.

   Bactria

 Bactria, ancient Greek kingdom in central Asia. Its capital was Bactra
 (now Balkh, in N Afghanistan). A satrapy of the Persian Empire, it fell
 to ALEXANDER THE GREAT in 328 BC It declared its independence in 256 BC
 and became a powerful state, carrying its conquests deep into N India.
 Later Bactria fell (c.1301 BC) to the nomadic Sakas and did not rise
 again as a state.

   Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st
   Baron

 Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st Baron,
 1857-1941, British soldier, founder of the BOY SCOUTS. For his work in
 organizing (1908) the Boy Scout and Girl Guide movements, he received a
 peerage in 1929.

   badger

 badger, any of several related members of the WEASEL family. Most are
 large, nocturnal burrowers with broad, heavy bodies, long snouts, sharp
 claws, and long, grizzled fur. The Old World badger (Meles meles), found
 in Europe and N Asia, weighs about 30 lb (13.6 kg) and feeds on rodents,
 insects, and plants. The smaller American badger (Taxidea taxus) has
 short legs and a white stripe over the forehead and around each eye; a
 swift burrower, it will pursue prey into their holes and may construct
 its own living quarters 30 ft (9.1 m) below ground level.

   Badlands National Park

 Badlands National Park: see NATIONAL PARKS .

   badminton

 badminton, game played by two or four persons in which a shuttlecock
 (small, cork hemisphere with feathers) is volleyed over a net with light,
 gut-strung rackets. For singles play the court measures 17 ft (5.18 m) by
 44 ft (13.40 m) ; the doubles court is 3 ft (.91 m) wider. The game,
 which is generally similar to tennis, probably originated in India. It
 was introduced into the U.S. in the 1890s.

   Badoglio, Pietro

 Badoglio, Pietro, 1871-1956, Italian soldier and premier (1943-44). In
 1936 he victoriously ended the conquest of Ethiopia. After MUSSOLINI'S
 fall he became premier and negotiated an armistice (1943) with the
 Allies.

   Baeda

 Baeda: see BEDE, SAINT.

   Baedeker, Karl

 Baedeker, Karl, 1801-59, German publisher of travel guides. Issued in
 many editions, the "Baedekers" provided historical data. Auto touring
 guides were issued after 1950.

   Baer, Karl Ernst von

 Baer, Karl Ernst von, 1792-1876, Estonian biologist. Considered a founder
 of modern embryology, he discovered the notochord and the mammalian egg
 in the ovary. His History of the Development of Animals (2 vol., 1828-37)
 presented the theory of embryonic germ layers (consisting of cells from
 which body tissues and organs develop) and showed that early embryonic
 development is similar in all animals.

   Baez, Joan

 Baez, Joan, 1941-, American folk singer; b. N.Y.C. Singing ballads and
 SPIRITUALS in a clear, soprano voice, she greatly influenced the
 popularity of FOLK SONG in the 1960s. She was also involved in nonviolent
 social action.

   Baffin, William

 Baffin, William, c.1584-1622, British arctic explorer. Although he failed
 to find the NORTHWEST PASSAGE on two expeditions (1615-16), he discovered
 BAFFIN BAY. His belief that the Northwest Passage did not exist delayed
 arctic exploration for a time.

   Baffin Bay

 Baffin Bay, ice-clogged body of water with hazardous icebergs, c.700 mi
 (1,130 km) long, between Greenland and Baffin Island (NE Canada), linked
 with the N Atlantic Ocean by the Davis Strait. Visited (1585) by John
 Davis and explored (1616) by William BAFFIN, it was an important whaling
 station in the 19th cent.

   Baffin Island

 Baffin Island, 183,810 sq mi (476,068 sq km), NE Canada, largest island
 in the Arctic Archipelago and fifth largest in the world. Largely tundra
 in the west and mountains in the east, it is inhabited mainly by ESKIMOS.
 Iqaluit, in the southeast, is the largest settlement. Early explorers
 were Martin FROBISHER (1576-78) and William BAFFIN (1616).

   Baganda

 Baganda, also called Ganda, the largest ethnic group in Uganda. Bagandas
 comprise about 30% of the population and have the country's highest
 standard of living and literacy rate. Their traditional homeland is
 Buganda, an area of central and southern Uganda.

   Bagehot, Walter

 Bagehot, Walter, 1826-77, English social scientist. Editor (1860-77) of
 the highly regarded Economist, he studied the English banking system
 (Lombard Street, 1873) and economy (Economic Studies, 1880). His classic
 English Constitution (1867) distinguished effective government
 institutions from those in decay, while Physics and Politics (1872) was
 an early application of DARWINISM to the social sciences. He was also a
 noted literary critic.

   Baghdad

 Baghdad or Bagdad,city (1981 est. pop. 3,500,000), capital and largest
 city of Iraq, central Iraq, on both banks of the Tigris R. Most of Iraq's
 industries are in Baghdad; they include the making of carpets, leather,
 textiles, and cement. The present city was founded (AD 762) by the
 ABBASIDS and became their capital. Under the caliph HARUN AR-RASHID it
 developed into one of the great cities of Islam. The Mongols sacked
 Baghdad in 1258; it became (1638) part of the Ottoman Empire, and during
 World War I it was captured (1917) by the British. In 1921 the city was
 made the capital of newly created Iraq. Baghdad is rich in archaeological
 remains and has several museums.

   Bagot, Sir Charles

 Bagot, Sir Charles, 1781-1843, British diplomat. As minister to the U.S.
 (1815-20), he negotiated the RUSH-BAGOT CONVENTION, which limited
 armaments on the U.S.-Canadian border. He was later governor general of
 Canada (1841-43).

   bagpipe

 bagpipe, musical instrument, most widely used in Ireland and Scotland,
 consisting of an inflated bag, usually leather; one or two chanters (or
 chaunters), melody pipes with finger holes; and one or more drones, which
 produce one tone each. The bagpipe is an ancient instrument, probably
 carried E and W from Mesopotamia by Celtic migrations.

   Baha'ism

 Baha'ism, religion founded by BAHA ULLAH, a doctrinal outgrowth of
 BABISM, with Baha Ullah as the Promised One of the earlier religion.
 Emphasizing simplicity and charity, Baha'ists believe in the unity of all
 religions, in universal education, in world peace, and in the equality of
 men and women, and also advocate an international language and
 government. In the 20th cent. Baha'i teachings have spread across the
 world, particularly to Africa. The administrative center of the world
 faith is in Haifa, Israel; its U.S. headquarters is in Wilmette, Ill.

   Bahamas

 Bahamas, officially Commonwealth of the Bahamas, independent nation (1986
 est. pop. 235,000), 4,403 sq mi (11,404 sq km), in the Atlantic Ocean,
 consisting of some 700 islands and islets and about 2,400 cays, beginning
 c.50 mi (80 km) off SE Florida and extending c.600 mi (970 km) SE, nearly
 to Haiti. Most of the islands are low, flat, and river less, and many are
 uninhabited. The capital is NASSAU, on New Providence island, which,
 although smaller than many of the other islands, is the major population
 center. Other islands, called "out islands," include Grand Bahama, Great
 and Little Abaco, the Biminis, and Great and Little Inagua. The Bahamas'
 fine beaches, lush vegetation, and colorful coral reefs have made it one
 of the hemisphere's most popular winter resort areas. Tourism is the
 major industry, although sugar and oil refining industries have been
 added to diversify the economy. The population is about 85% black and
 mulatto, and the language is English.

 History Christopher COLUMBUS set foot in the New World in the Bahamas
 (1492), presumably on San Salvador. The British settled the Bahamas in
 the 1600s and imported blacks to work cotton plantations, which
 disappeared in the mid-19th cent., after the slaves were freed. Black
 Bahamians won control of the government from the white minority in the
 1960s, and independence was granted in 1973. In the early 1980s the
 government sought to preserve the character of the islands by restricting
 property sales to foreigners and stemming immigration from HAITI.

   Bahasa Indonesia

 Bahasa Indonesia, another name for Indonesian, one of the
 Malayo-Polynesian languages. See LANGUAGE .

   Baha Ullah

 Baha Ullah or Baha Allah,1817-92, Persian religious leader, originally
 named Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri. One of the first disciples of BABISM, in
 1863 (shortly before being exiled to Constantinople) he declared himself
 to be the Promised One expected by Babists. He then founded BAHA'ISM and
 wrote its fundamental book, Kitabi Ikan (tr. The Book of Certitude,
 1943).

   Bahrain

 Bahrainor Bahrein, officially the State of Bahrain, independent sheikhdom
 (1987 est. pop. 416,275), 231 sq mi (598 sq km), an archipelago in the
 PERSIAN GULF between the Qatar Peninsula and Saudi Arabia. The two main
 islands are Bahrain and Al Muharraq. The capital and chief port is AL
 MANAMAH. Flat and sandy, with a few low hills, Bahrain has a hot, humid
 climate. The economy is based on oil, and oil revenues have financed
 modernization projects, particularly in health and education. However,
 oil reserves are expected to be depleted during the 1990s, and steps are
 being taken to diversify the nonagricultural sector of the economy. The
 majority of the population are Muslim Arabs. Ruled successively by
 Portugal (16th cent.) and Persia (intermittently from 1602), Bahrain
 became a sheikhdom in 1783 and a British protected state in 1861.
 Independence was declared in 1971. A constitution, adopted in 1973,
 limited the sheikh's powers and gave women the vote, but in 1975 the
 sheikh dissolved the National Assembly. In the early 1980s Bahrain
 established closer ties with other Persian Gulf states, particularly
 Saudi Arabia, with which it is connected by a causeway built in the
 1980s.

   Baikal, Lake

 Baikal, Lake: see BAYKAL.

   Baird, Spencer Fullerton

 Baird, Spencer Fullerton, 1823-87, American zoologist; b. Reading, Pa.
 While at the Smithsonian Institution (from 1850; as secretary from 1878)
 he supervised the building of a museum that housed the great collection
 of North American fauna amassed under his guidance. He set up the Marine
 Biological Station at Woods Hole, Mass., organized expeditions of the
 research ship Albatross, and initiated studies on wildlife preservation.
 His most important scientific papers were taxonomic studies of birds and
 mammals.

   Bairiki

 Bairiki, town (1979 est. pop. 1,800) on TARAWA atoll, capital of
 KIRIBATI.

   Baja California

 Baja California or Lower California, peninsula, NW Mexico, separating the
 Gulf of California from the Pacific Ocean. It is c.760 mi (1,220 km) long
 and 30 to 150 mi (48 to 241 km) wide, and is divided between the states
 of Baja California (N) and Baja California Sur (S). The peninsula is
 generally mountainous and arid, with some irrigated agriculture in the
 north, around Mexicali. Resort ranches, new roads, and deep-sea fishing
 facilities along the scenic coasts support a growing tourist industry.
 U.S. forces occupied (1847-48)) the peninsula during the MEXICAN WAR.

   Bakelite

 Bakelite for its inventor, Leo Baekeland, a synthetic thermosetting
 phenol-formaldehyde RESIN with an unusually wide variety of industrial
 applications ranging from billiard balls to electrical insulation.

   Baker, Howard Henry, Jr.

 Baker, Howard Henry, Jr., 1925-, U.S. public official; b. Huntsville,
 Tenn. As a conservative moderate Republican senator (1966-87) from
 Tennessee, he gained (1973) national attention as a member of the Senate
 committee investigating the WATERGATE AFFAIR. He became (1977) Senate
 minority leader, Senate majority leader after the 1980 elections, and
 White House Chief of Staff (1987-88) under Pres. Reagan.

   Bakersfield

 Bakersfield, city (1986 est. pop. 150,400), seat of Kern co., S central
 Calif., at the S end of the SAN JOAQUIN valley; inc. 1898. Petroleum was
 discovered in the area in 1899. The city is an oil drilling and refining,
 mining, and agricultural center. Cotton, citrus fruits, grapes, and roses
 are grown.

   baking soda

 baking soda: see SODIUM BICARBONATE.

   Bakke Case

 Bakke Case: see UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA REGENTS V. BAKKE.

   Bakst, Leon Nicolaevich

 Bakst, Leon Nicolaevich, 1866-1924, Russian painter, b. Lev Samuilovich
 Rosenberg. A painter of the eclectic school, he sought closer ties with
 the West before the Revolution through his involvement with the artists'
 group known as Mir Iskusstva or "World of Art." He is noted for his
 elaborate stage and costume designs for the Russian ballet, e.g.,
 L'Apres-midi d'un Faune (1912).

   Baku

 Baku, city (1987 est. pop. 1,741,000), capital of the AZERBAIJAN SOVIET
 SOCIALIST REPUBLIC, SE European USSR, on the Caspian Sea. Baku is a major
 Soviet port and a center for oil drilling, refining, and shipbuilding.
 Until World War II it was the leading source of Soviet oil. Under
 independent Shirvan shahs the city was a medieval center of trade and
 crafts. It was under Persian rule from 1509 to 1806 when it was annexed
 by Russia. In 1920 it became part of the USSR.

   Bakunin, Mikhail

 Bakunin, Mikhail, 1814-76, Russian revolutionary and leading exponent of
 ANARCHISM. After taking part (1848-49) in revolutions in France and
 Saxony, he was exiled to Siberia. He escaped (1861) to London, where he
 worked with Aleksandr HERZEN. In the first International Workingmen's
 Association he clashed with Karl MARX and was expelled (1872); their
 philosophical split led the International to dissolve (1876). Bakunin
 held that human beings are inherently good and deserve absolute freedom;
 he advocated the violent overthrow of existing governments. His works
 include God and the State (1882).

   Balaguer, Joaquin

 Balaguer, Joaquin, 1907-, president of the Dominican Republic (1960-62,
 1966-78). He served in dictator TRUJILLO MOLINA'S government as vice
 president (1957-60) and president until ousted (1962) by the military.
 During his second tenure, he restored financial stability, but political
 chaos led him to resort to repression. He ran unsuccessfully for
 president in 1982.

   Balakirev, Mili Alekseyevich

 Balakirev, Mili Alekseyevich, 1837-1910, Russian composer and conductor,
 leader of the group called the FIVE. His music, combining ROMANTICISM
 with Russian folk songs, includes the symphonic poem Tamara.

   balalaika

 balalaika: see STRINGED INSTRUMENT.

   balance of payments

 balance of payments, relation between all payments in and out of a
 country over a given period. It is an outgrowth of the concept of BALANCE
 OF TRADE, which it includes; it also includes the movement of government
 and private capital between countries (e.g., investments and debt
 payments). The INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND was created (1945) to deal
 with problems relating to the balance of payments. The U.S., which has
 generally experienced an unfavorable balance of payments since the late
 1950s, sought to improve the balance in the early 1970s through
 DEVALUATION of the dollar.

   balance of power

 balance of power, system of international relations in which nations
 shift alliances to maintain an equilibrium of power and prevent dominance
 by any single state. Its modern development began in the 17th cent. with
 efforts of European countries to contain the France of LOUIS XIV. The
 balance of power was of primary concern to European nations from 1815 to
 1914, particularly to contain the rising power of GERMANY, and was
 attacked as a cause of WORLD WAR I. It declined with the rise of the U.S.
 and the USSR as superpowers after 1945, but after the 1960s, with the
 emergence of China, the THIRD WORLD, and a revived Europe, it seemed to
 be reemerging as a component of international relations.

   balance of trade

 balance of trade, relation between the value of a nation's exports and
 imports. The concept first became important in the 16th and 17th cent.
 with the growth of MERCANTILISM, whose theorists held that a nation
 should have an excess of exports over imports (i.e., a favorable
 balance); although challenged by Adam SMITH and other economists, the
 idea is still widely believed. The balance of trade is a major element in
 a nation's BALANCE OF PAYMENTS.

   Balanchine, George

 Balanchine, George, 1904-83, American choreographer and ballet dancer; b.
 Russia. A member of Sergei Pavlovich DIAGHILEV'S BALLETS RUSSES
 (1924-28), he moved (1933) to the U.S. and helped to found (1934) the
 School of American Ballet. In 1948 he became artistic director and
 principal choreographer of the NEW YORK CITY BALLET. His many works,
 e.g., Serenade, Agon, emphasize form, often abstract. He was one of the
 most important figures in ballet in the 20th cent.

   Balboa, Vasco Nunez de

 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, c.1475-1519, Spanish CONQUISTADOR, discoverer of
 the PACIFIC OCEAN. Fleeing HISPANIOLA in 1510, he hid in a vessel that
 took the explorer Enciso to Panama. After reaching Darien, he seized
 command from Enciso and, with the aid of friendly Indians, marched across
 the isthmus. He reached the Pacific in Sept. 1513, claiming it and its
 shores for Spain. He was later accused of treason and beheaded.

   Balch, Emily Green

 Balch, Emily Green, 1867-1961, American economist and pacifist; b.
 Jamaica Plain, Mass. She taught at Wellesley College until her dismissal
 (1918) for opposing U.S. involvement in World War I. Co-founder (with
 Jane ADDAMS) of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom,
 Balch shared the 1946 Nobel Peace Prize with J.R. Mott.

   bald cypress

 bald cypress, common name for the Taxodiaceae, a family of deciduous or
 evergreen CONIFERS with needlelike or scalelike leaves and woody cones.
 Most species are native to the Far East; some, e.g., the big trees and
 redwoods (see SEQUOIA) and bald cypresses, are native to North America.
 Almost all are cultivated for ornament. The common bald cypress (Taxodium
 distichum), valued for its softwood, forms dense forests in the SE U.S.
 and is common in the EVERGLADES. Bald cypresses are called "bald" because
 of their deciduous character, unusual in conifers. True CYPRESSES belong
 to a separate family.

   Balder

 Balder, beautiful and gracious Norse god of light; son of Odin (see
 WODEN) and FRIGG. Invulnerable to everything but mistletoe, he was killed
 by a mistletoe dart made by LOKI.

   Baldung

 Baldungor Baldung-Grien, Hans, c.1484-1545, German religious and
 mythological painter. His style reveals his interest in brilliant color,
 light, and twisted forms. He is best known as a painter of disturbing
 subjects, e.g., Death and the Maiden (Basel, Switzerland).

   Baldwin

 Baldwin, Latin emperors of CONSTANTINOPLE. Baldwin I, 1171-1205 (r.
 1204-05), was a leader in the Fourth CRUSADE as count of Flanders.
 Elected emperor of Constantinople, he was taken in battle by the
 Bulgarians (1205) and died in captivity. His brother, HENRY OF FLANDERS,
 succeeded him. Baldwin II, 1217-73 (r. 1228-61), was the last Latin
 emperor of Constantinople. To obtain funds, he sold part of the True
 Cross to LOUIS IX of France and pawned his own son to the Venetians. When
 MICHAEL VIII of Nicaea stormed Constantinople, Baldwin fled to Italy.

   Baldwin

 Baldwin, Latin kings of Jerusalem. Baldwin I, 1058?-1118 (r.1100-18), was
 a brother of GODFREY OF BOUILLON, whom he accompanied in the First
 CRUSADE. He gained the chief ports of Palestine and aided other Latin
 rulers against the Muslims. His cousin and successor, Baldwin II, d. 1131
 (r.1118-31), was also in the First Crusade. As king he warred with the
 Turks in N Syria. During his reign TYRE and Antioch became Jerusalem's
 dependents. Baldwin III, 1130-62 (r. 1143-62), the son of Fulk of Anjou,
 ruled as Latin power in the East began to decay. Edessa fell (1144) to
 the Muslims, the Second Crusade failed, and the Turkish sultan Nur ad-Din
 took (1154) N Syria. His nephew Baldwin IV (the Leper), c.1161-85
 (r.1174-85), defended his kingdom constantly against SALADIN. When his
 leprosy became worse, he had his child-nephew crowned (1183) Baldwin V
 (d. 1186).

   Baldwin, James

 Baldwin, James, 1924-87, black American author; b. N.Y.C. His works,
 dealing with American blacks and relations between the races, include
 novels, e.g., Go Tell It on the Mountain (1953) and Just Above My Head
 (1979); essay collections, e.g., Notes of a Native Son (1955); plays; and
 short stories.

   Baldwin, Robert

 Baldwin, Robert, 1804-58, Canadian statesman. A reform leader in Upper
 CANADA, he proposed (1836) representative government for the entire
 country. After the reunion (1841) of Upper and Lower Canada, Baldwin and
 LA FONTAINE formed a coalition government (1842), and won an overwhelming
 victory in the 1847 election. Their second coalition (1847-51), called
 the "great ministry," implemented responsible government. Among its
 accomplishments was the Baldwin Act, which reformed local government in
 ONTARIO.

   Baldwin, Roger Nash

 Baldwin, Roger Nash, 1884-1981, American civil libertarian; b. Wellesley,
 Mass. He helped to found (1920) the AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION and
 was its director until 1950 and its adviser on international affairs
 thereafter. He also taught at the New School for Social Research
 (1938-42) and the Univ. of Puerto Rico (1966-74).

   Baldwin, Stanley

 Baldwin, Stanley, 1867-1947, British statesman. A Conservative, he was
 three times prime minister (1923-24; 1924-29; 1935-37). He broke the 1926
 general strike and secured the abdication of EDWARD VIII. An able
 politician, Baldwin has been criticized for his apparent blindness to the
 threat to peace indicated by the rise of fascism in Europe.

   Balearic Islands

 Balearic Islands, archipelago (1986 pop. 754,777) in the W Mediterranean
 Sea, forming Baleares prov. of Spain. The three principal islands are
 Majorca, Minorca, and Ibiza. All have a mild climate and are popular
 tourist centers. The Balearics were occupied by Moors in the 8th cent.
 and captured (1229-35) by James I of Aragon. They were included
 (1276-1343) in the independent kingdom of Majorca and reverted to the
 Aragonese crown under Peter IV.

   Balenciaga, Cristobal

 Balenciaga, Cristobal: see FASHION .

   Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, 1st earl of

 Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, 1st earl of, 1848-1930, British statesman.
 A Conservative, he held many cabinet positions and was prime minister
 from 1902 to 1905. As foreign secretary under LLOYD GEORGE (1916-19), he
 issued the Balfour Declaration (1917), pledging British support for a
 Jewish national home in Palestine.

   Bali

 Bali, island and (with two offshore islets) province (1980 pop.
 2,469,930), S Indonesia, c.2,200 sq mi (5,700 sq km), separated from JAVA
 (W) by the narrow Bali Strait. The fertile, scenic, and densely populated
 island is largely mountainous and volcanic, reaching a high point of
 10,308 ft (3,142 m) at Mt. Agung. Rice, vegetables, fruits, and coffee
 are grown, and livestock is important. Industries include food
 processing, tourism, and handicrafts. The Balinese people retain their
 Hindu religion in a predominantly Muslim nation and are known for their
 uniquely ritualistic and beautiful music, folk drama, dancing, and
 architecture.

   Balinese music

 Balinese music, a survival of the pre-Islamic music of Java, uses the
 tonal systems of JAVANESE MUSIC. The orchestras of tuned percussion
 instruments (gamelans) include xylophones, gongs, flutes, fiddles,
 rattles, cymbals, and drums. Each of various forms of dance and drama has
 a gamelan that specializes in its music.

   Baliol, John de

 Baliol, John de, d. 1269, English nobleman; founder of Balliol College,
 Oxford. A regent for ALEXANDER III of Scotland, he was removed from
 office and later fought for HENRY III of England in the BARONS' WAR. His
 third son, John de Baliol, 1249-1315, king of Scotland (1292-96), claimed
 the throne at the death of MARGARET MAID OF NORWAY. EDWARD I of England
 supported him over ROBERT I in return for feudal overlordship, and he was
 crowned. In 1296 he renounced his oath of fealty, was defeated, and
 surrendered to Edward. He was imprisoned until 1299, when he retired to
 France. His son, Edward de Baliol, d. 1363, king of Scotland, invaded
 Scotland (1332) with the aid of EDWARD III and defeated supporters of
 DAVID II. After David's return from France (1341), he never held power.

   Balkan Peninsula

 Balkan Peninsula, generally mountainous land area, SE Europe, projecting
 south from the line of the Sava and Danube rivers between the Black,
 Aegean, Mediterranean, Ionian, and Adriatic seas. It comprises all or
 parts of six nations-Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and
 Romania-collectively referred to as the Balkan states. The peninsula,
 which was at times part of ancient Greece and the Roman and Byzantine
 empires, was ruled by Turks as part of the Ottoman Empire from the late
 15th cent. until the end of the BALKAN WARS in 1913.

   Balkan Wars

 Balkan Wars, two short wars (1912, 1913) fought for possession of the
 European territories of the deteriorating OTTOMAN EMPIRE (Turkey). In the
 first war, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro expelled Turkey from
 all of its European possessions except Constantinople (now Istanbul). The
 second war was brought on by Serbia (joined by Greece, Rumania, and
 Turkey), which demanded that Bulgaria cede to it the larger part of
 Macedonia. Bulgaria lost and was forced to cede territories to all four
 victors. The nationalism heightened by the Balkan Wars was one of the
 causes of WORLD WAR I.

   Ball, Lucille

 Ball, Lucille, 1911-89, American actress and producer; b. Jamestown, N.Y.
 An accomplished comedienne, she starred (1951-74) in three popular
 television series, beginning with "I Love Lucy." She also headed Desilu
 Productions (1962-67) and Lucille Ball Productions (1967-89). Her films
 include Stage Door (1937) and Mame (1974).

   ballad

 ballad, in literature, short narrative poem usually relating a dramatic
 event. Folk ballads date from c. 12th cent., literary ballads from the
 18th. The anonymous folk ballad was originally sung, passed along orally,
 and changed in transmission. It was short, simple, and formulaic, often
 with a stock refrain. From the late 18th cent. hundreds were
 collected-historical, romantic, supernatural, nautical, or heroic.
 American ballads deal with cowboys, outlaws, folk heroes, and blacks.
 Mid-20th cent. FOLK MUSIC has drawn on the tradition. The literary ballad
 is more elaborate, a prime example being S.T. COLERIDGE'S Rime of the
 Ancient Mariner.

   ballade

 ballade, in literature, French 14th-15th cent. verse form, usually
 consisting of three eight-line stanzas and a concluding four-line envoy
 (a summary or address). Ballades by Francois VILLON and, in English, by
 Geoffrey CHAUCER are famous.

   ballet

 ballet [Ital. ballare,=to dance], classic, formalized solo or ensemble
 dancing of a disciplined, dramatic nature, performed to music.
 Foreshadowed in mummeries and masquerades, it emerged as a distinct form
 in Italy before the 16th cent. The first ballet combining dance, decor,
 and special effects was presented in 1581 at the French court of
 CATHERINE DE' MEDICI. The 17th-cent. court ballets, danced until 1681 by
 males only, incorporated OPERA and drama. In 1708 the first ballet for
 public performance marked the appearance of a separate art form.
 Choreographic notation came into being and mythological themes were
 explored. Italian influence brought elevated and less horizontal
 movement, and Pierre Beauchamps established the five basic foot positions
 (see diagram). Marie Camargo introduced a shortened skirt, tights, and
 the first ballet slippers, allowing great freedom of movement. Her rival,
 Marie Salle (the first female choreographer), wore a liberating,
 Grecian-style costume. The ballet d'action, developed c.1760 by Jean
 Georges Noverre, told a story through movement and facial expression.
 Modern ballet technique, stressing the turned-out leg and resulting
 variety of movement, was set down in 1820 by Carlo Blasis. With La
 Sylphide (1832) the romantic period began. Brilliant choreography
 emphasized the beauty and virtuosity of the prima ballerina; the male
 dancer functioned only as her partner until the 20th cent., when virtuoso
 male dancing revived. Conflicts of reality and illusion, flesh and spirit
 were revealed in romantic love stories and fairy tales. Under the
 pressure of NATURALISM in the theater, ballet declined through the
 mid-19th cent., but after 1875 a renaissance in romantic ballet began in
 Russia, where Marius Petipa and other European masters created many of
 the great standard ballets, e.g., Sleeping Beauty and Swan Lake. In 1909
 the Russian impresario Sergei DIAGHILEV brought his Ballets Russes to
 Paris. In the following 20 years the Russian style, with the
 revolutionary music of composers like STRAVINSKY and modified by the
 MODERN DANCE influences of Isadora DUNCAN and others, brought a ballet
 renaissance to Europe and America. Paris, London, and New York City
 became major centers. Today Russian and English ballet continue to
 exemplify one major trend, toward storytelling and lavish production.
 American ballet, under the influence of George BALANCHINE, displays an
 opposing tendency toward abstraction in theme and simplicity in design.
 See articles on major dance companies and individual dancers.

   Ballet Folklorico de Mexico

 Ballet Folklorico de Mexico, Mexico's national dance company. It was
 founded (1952) by Amalia Hernandez at the National Institute of Fine
 Arts, Mexico City, to produce dances based on Mexican folklore for
 television. Artistic excellence led to its recognition as one of the
 world's finest "ethnic" ballets.

   Ballets Russes

 Ballets Russes: see DIAGHILEV, SERGEI PAVLOVICH.

   ballistics

 ballistics, science of projectiles, such as bullets, bombs, rockets, and
 missiles. Interior ballistics deals with the propulsion and motion of a
 projectile within a gun or firing device. Exterior ballistics is
 concerned with the motion of the projectile while in flight, and includes
 the study of the trajectory, or curved flight path, of the projectile.
 Terminal ballistics is concerned with the phenomena occurring at the
 termination of the projectile's flight; such termination may result from
 impact on a solid target or explosion of the projectile. In criminology,
 the term ballistics is applied to the identification of the weapon from
 which a bullet was fired. Microscopic imperfections in a gun barrel make
 characteristic scratches and grooves on bullets fired through it.

   balloon

 balloon, lighter-than-air craft without a propulsion system, lifted by
 inflation of one or more containers with a gas lighter than air or with
 heated air. During flight, altitude is gained by discarding ballast,
 e.g., bags of sand, and lost by releasing some of the lifting gas from
 its container. In some late designs using air heated by a gas-fired
 burner, the altitude is controlled by varying the temperature of the
 heated air. The balloon was invented by the French brothers Joseph and
 Jacques Etienne MONTGOLFIER, who in 1783 caused a linen bag about 100 ft
 (30 m) in diameter to rise in the air. Using a Montgolfier balloon,
 Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes made the first manned
 balloon flight on Nov. 21, 1783. The Americans Ben Abruzzo, Maxie
 Anderson, and Larry Newman made (1978) the first successful transatlantic
 balloon crossing. Today WEATHER BALLOONS equipped with radio transmitters
 (see RADIOSONDE) and other instruments transmit meteorological readings
 to ground stations at regular intervals. High-altitude balloons are used
 in astronomy, especially in the study of cosmic rays and the photography
 of other planets. See also AIRSHIP; PICCARD, AUGUSTE.

   balsa

 balsa: see BOMBAX.

   Balthazar

 Balthazar: see WISE MEN OF THE EAST.

   Baltic languages

 Baltic languages, a subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages.
 See LANGUAGE .

   Baltic Sea

 Baltic Sea, N Europe, arm of the Atlantic Ocean, c.163,000 sq mi (422,170
 sq km), bordered by Denmark, Finland, Germany, Poland, Sweden, and the
 USSR. Shallow and partly frozen in winter, it is connected to the
 Atlantic by several straits, including the KATTEGAT and SKAGGERAK, and by
 the Kiel Canal. Principal arms of the Baltic are the gulfs of Bothnia,
 Finland, and Riga.

   Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron

 Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron: see CALVERT, GEORGE.

   Baltimore

 Baltimore, city (1986 est. pop. 752,800), N Md., on the Patapsco R.
 estuary, a branch of CHESAPEAKE BAY; settled early 17th cent., inc. 1745.
 One of the ten largest U.S. cities, Baltimore is a major seaport,
 industrial center, and railhead. Shipbuilding, food processing, metal and
 oil refining, and the production of aircraft, missiles and chemicals are
 among the leading industries. The city grew phenomenally with the opening
 (1818) of the NATIONAL ROAD and the founding (1827) of the Baltimore &
 Ohio Railroad. Largely rebuilt after a fire in 1904, it became famous for
 its white-stepped, red-brick row houses. Johns Hopkins Univ., Goucher
 College, and the Peabody Conservatory of Music are among the city's many
 educational institutions. Cultural features include the Baltimore Museum
 of Art and the Enoch Pratt Free Library. H.L. MENCKEN, Babe RUTH, and
 Billie HOLIDAY were among Baltimore's best-known natives. The city's
 sights include the U.S.S. Constellation; the first U.S. Roman Catholic
 cathedral (1806-21), designed by B.H. LATROBE; and the Inner Harbor, part
 of a major urban redevelopment scheme for the downtown area.

   Balts

 Balts, peoples of the E coast of the Baltic Sea, namely the Latvians,
 Lithuanians, and now-extinct Old Prussians. The Estonians are related to
 the Finns rather than to the Balts. In the 13th cent. the TEUTONIC
 KNIGHTS and Livonian Brothers of the Sword conquered and Christianized
 Estonia and Latvia, which remained under German economic dominance until
 the 20th cent. The Lithuanians, who resisted annexation and adopted
 Christianity in 1387, formed a powerful state that united (1569) with
 Poland. Estonia passed in 1561 to Sweden and in 1721 to Russia, which by
 1795 controlled all the Baltic lands. Independent after World War I,
 LATVIA, LITHUANIA, and ESTONIA were incorporated into the USSR in 1940.

   Baluchi

 BaluchiLANGUAGE .

   Balzac, Honore de

 Balzac, Honore de, 1799-1850, French writer, among the great masters of
 the NOVEL. Half starving in a Paris garret, he began his career by
 writing sensational novels to order under a pseudonym. His great work,
 called "The Human Comedy," written over a 20-year period, is a collection
 of novels and stories recreating French society of the time, picturing in
 precise detail individuals of every class and profession. Chief among
 them are Pere Goriot (1835) and Cousin Bette (1847). His short stories
 include some of the best in the language.

   Bamako

 Bamako, city (1976 pop. 404,022), capital of Mali, a port on the Niger R.
 It is a major regional trade center connected by rail to DAKAR, on the
 Atlantic Ocean. Manufactures include processed meat, textiles, and metal
 goods. Bamako was a center of Muslim learning under the MALI empire
 (c.11th-15th cent.). It became (1908) the capital of the Sudan, a
 province of French West Africa. It has a botanical and zoological park,
 gardens, and several educational institutions.

   bamboo

 bamboo, plant (genus Bambusa) of the GRASS family, chiefly of warm or
 tropical regions. The genus contains the largest grasses, sometimes
 reaching 100 ft (30 m). Bamboo stalks are hollow, usually round, and
 jointed, with deciduous leaves. Bamboo is used as wood, and for
 construction work, furniture, utensils, fiber, paper, fuel, and
 innumerable other articles. Bamboo sprouts and the grains of some species
 are eaten. Native American bamboo is a CANE.

   banana

 banana, name for a family of tropical herbs (the Musacae), for a genus
 (Musa) of herbaceous plants, and for the fruits they produce. Bananas are
 probably native to tropical Asia, but are widely cultivated. They are
 related to the economically valuable MANILA HEMP and to the
 BIRD-OF-PARADISE FLOWER. Banana plants have a palmlike aspect and large
 leaves, the overlapping bases of which form the so-called false trunk.
 Only female flowers develop into the banana fruit (botanically, a berry),
 each plant bearing fruit only once. The seeds are sterile; propagation is
 through shoots from the rhizomes. Bananas are an important food staple in
 the tropics.

   Bancroft, George

 Bancroft, George, 1800-1891, American historian and public official; b.
 Worcester, Mass. Bancroft was secretary of the navy (1845-46) under Pres.
 POLK and established the U.S. Naval Academy. Later he was minister to
 Britain (1846-49) and Prussia (1867-74). He supported Pres. LINCOLN in
 the CIVIL WAR. His History of the United States (10 vol., 1834-74) is
 anti-British and intensely patriotic but remains valuable because of its
 extensive use of source materials.

   Bancroft, Hubert Howe

 Bancroft, Hubert Howe, 1832-1918, American historian; b. Granville, Ohio.
 A wealthy publisher, he produced, with a staff of researchers and
 writers, a prodigious history of the U.S. West, Central America, and
 Mexico (39 vol., 1874-90). In 1905 he presented his collection of 60,000
 books, manuscripts, maps, and personal narratives to the Univ. of
 California, and as the Bancroft Library it remains an outstanding
 repository of the history of the West.

   band

 band, in music, a group of musicians playing mainly on WIND and
 PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS, often outdoors. Such groupings in medieval and
 Renaissance Europe were the town and military bands, integral to the
 civic and social life of the community. The U.S. Marine Band, founded
 1798, was the first important band in the U.S. In the mid-19th cent. the
 concert band developed, with a repertory including marches, flourishes,
 and music transcribed from other mediums. Leading bandmasters include
 J.P. SOUSA and E.F. GOLDMAN. Modern bands include marching bands, dance
 bands, JAZZ bands, and rock bands (see ROCK MUSIC).

   Banda, Hastings Kamuzu

 Banda, Hastings Kamuzu, 1902?-, president of MALAWI (1966-). A physician,
 he was a leading nationalist in Nyasaland. He became president for life
 when it became independent as Malawi.

   Bandaranaike, Sirimavo

 Bandaranaike, Sirimavo, 1916-, prime minister (1960-65, 1970-77) of SRI
 LANKA (formerly Ceylon). She was largely responsible for the constitution
 of 1972 that transformed Ceylon into the republic of Sri Lanka. In 1980

 of abuses as prime minister.

   Bandung

 Bandung or Bandoeng,city (1980 pop. 1,462,637), capital of West Java
 prov., Indonesia, 75 miles (120 km) SE of DJAKARTA. Founded by the Dutch
 in 1810, it became the administrative and military headquarters of the
 Netherlands East Indies. Third largest city in Indonesia, Bandung is an
 industrial hub, a famous educational and cultural center, and a tourist
 resort. It is a textile center and site of the country's quinine
 industry.

   Bandung Conference

 Bandung Conference, 1955, meeting of diplomats from 29 African and Asian
 countries held at BANDUNG, Indonesia. It promoted economic and cultural
 cooperation and opposed colonialism. Communist China played a prominent
 part.

   Bangalore

 Bangalore, city (1981 pop. 2,914,000), capital of Karnataka state, S
 central India. It is an industrial center producing electronic equipment,
 aircraft, textiles, and other manufactures. Founded in 1537, it became
 the administrative seat of Mysore (now Karnataka) in 1831. The city has
 many parks and several institutes of learning.

   Bangkok

 Bangkok, city (1986 pop. 5,446,708), capital of Thailand, S central
 Thailand, on the east bank of the Chao Phraya R., near the Gulf of Siam.
 Thailand's largest city, its financial and industrial hub, and a leading
 city of Southeast Asia, Bangkok lies in the rice-growing region. Rice,
 tin, teak, and rubber are shipped from the city's port. Industrial plants
 include rice mills, textile mills, sawmills, oil refineries, and
 shipyards. The city is also a famous jewelry-trading center. Ethnic
 Chinese dominate commerce and industry. A city that contrasts ancient and
 modern structures, Bangkok contains the vast, walled Grand Palace and
 over 400 Buddhist temples. It is the site of five universities, as well
 as the National Museum. It became the nation's capital in 1782. Thon
 Buri, part of metropolitan Bangkok, is an industrial city on the river's
 west bank. It was the capital of Siam (1769-82).

   Bangladesh

 Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, republic,
 formerly East Pakistan (1986 est. pop. 102,563,000), 55,126 sq mi
 (142,776 sq km), S Asia, bordered by India (W, N, and E), Burma (SE), and
 the Bay of Bengal (S). Principal cities include DACCA (the capital) and
 CHITTAGONG. A low-lying alluvial region, Bangladesh is composed mainly of
 the combined delta of the GANGES, BRAHMAPUTRA, and Meghna rivers. The
 climate is tropical monsoonal, and there are frequent, devastating
 floods. The economy is agricultural; jute (of which Bangladesh produces
 over 50% of the world supply), rice, and tea are the principal crops.
 Bangladesh has the highest population density in the world. The majority
 of the people are Bengalis, and about 80% are Sunni Muslims.

 History Governed for centuries by Afghan, Mogul, and Muslim rulers, the
 area that is now Bangladesh became part of British India in the late 18th
 cent. When Pakistan achieved independence in 1947, Bangladesh, then
 called East Bengal and, after 1955, East Pakistan, became an eastern
 province of Pakistan, from which it is separated by more than 1,000
 miles. A movement for greater autonomy was spearheaded by Sheikh Mujibar
 Rahman, whose AWAMI LEAGUE won a majority in the federal Pakistani
 assembly in 1970. The government postponed assembly sessions, and on Mar.
 26, 1971, the Awami League declared the province independent as
 Bangladesh. Civil war ensued, and an estimated 1 million Bengalis were
 killed before India intervened on Bangladesh's behalf and Pakistan was
 defeated in Dec. 1971. Widespread famine and political unrest have
 plagued the new nation. Rahman was assassinated in a military coup in
 1975. Two countercoups quickly followed, bringing to power Gen. Ziaur
 Rahman, who was elected president in 1978. He brought some stability to
 the country and reintroduced civilian rule, but was killed in an abortive
 coup in 1981. Another coup, and the introduction of martial law, followed
 in 1982. Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad became president in 1987.

   Bangor

 Bangor, city (1980 pop. 31,643), seat of Penobscot co., S Me., at the
 confluence of the Penobscot and Kenduskeag rivers; inc. as a city 1834.
 It is a port of entry, commercial center, and gateway to a large resort
 and lumber area. Shoes, paper, lumber, and electronic equipment are
 produced. Settled in 1769 (as Sunbury), it was an important 19th-cent.
 shipbuilding center with a trade in ice, lumber, and stone.

   Bangui

 Bangui, city (1984 pop. 473,817), capital of the Central African
 Republic. A port and light industrial center on the Ubangi R., it handled
 most of the country's international trade until 1978, when an overland
 route was opened through Cameroon. The city is being developed as a
 tourist center for the country's large wildlife reserves and national
 parks. Bangui was founded (1889) by French explorers. It has a university
 (est. 1970).

   banjo

 banjo: see STRINGED INSTRUMENT.

   Banjul

 Banjul, formerly Bathurst, port city (1983 pop. 44,188), capital of
 Gambia, on St. Mary's Island where the Gambia R. enters the Atlantic
 Ocean. It is Gambia's only large city and its administrative and economic
 center. Peanut processing, the chief industry, provides the leading
 export. The city was founded (1816) by the British as a trading post and
 a base for suppressing the slave trade.

   Bank for International Settlements

 Bank for International Settlements (BIS), financial institution
 established (1930) in Basel, Switzerland, by bankers and diplomats of
 Europe and the U.S. As a meeting place for the governors of West European
 central banks, the BIS serves to promote international financial
 cooperation. It is the representative of several important West European
 financial enterprises and holds the accounts of the European Coal and
 Steel Community (see EUROPEAN COMMUNITY). The BIS is run by a board
 composed of eight West European central bank governors and five other
 financiers. Officials of the U.S. FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM attend BIS
 meetings.

   banking

 banking, primarily the business of dealing in money and instruments of
 credit. Banks are usually differentiated from other financial
 institutions by their principal functions of accepting deposits-subject
 to withdrawal or transfer by check-and of making loans. In recent years,
 however, this distinction has become blurred, as more and more nonbanking
 companies have moved to take over the traditional business of banks.
 Banking, in the form of making loans at interest, dates back to
 antiquity. It developed rapidly in the 18th and 19th cent. to support the
 expansion of industry and trade. The first bank in the U.S. was the Bank
 of North America, established (1781) in Philadelphia. Congress chartered
 the first BANK OF THE UNITED STATES in 1791 to engage in commercial
 banking and to act as fiscal agent of the government but failed to renew
 its charter in 1811. A similar fate attended the second Bank of the
 United States. In 1838 New York adopted the Free Banking Act, which
 permitted anyone to engage in banking, upon compliance with certain
 charter provisions. The idea spread rapidly, and from 1840 to 1863 all
 banking business was done by state-chartered institutions (state banks).
 The National Bank Act (1863) created a system of banks to be chartered by
 the federal government (national banks). Both types of banks continue in
 existence today. The FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM was established in 1913 to
 oversee the U.S. banking system. The Federal Deposit Insurance
 Corporation (FDIC; 1933) provides for insurance of bank deposits.
 International banking grew in importance after World War II. The
 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) makes
 loans to governments and private investors, and the International
 Monetary Fund provides members with technical assistance in international
 banking. Many of the world's major banks operate branches in other
 countries. Two major types of banks in the U.S. are commercial banks and
 mutual savings banks. The 14,000 commercial banks are the mainstay of the
 U.S. banking system. Known as full-service banks, they render a wide
 range of services, in addition to their primary functions of making loans
 and investments and handling demand (checking) as well as savings and
 other time deposits. Savings banks, which are exclusively
 state-chartered, until recently accepted only savings deposits and made
 loans mainly for home mortgages. Today they have the right to offer
 checking accounts, either as a result of legislation or indirectly
 through NOW (negotiable order of withdrawal) accounts. A similar thrift
 institution is the SAVINGS AND LOAN ASSOCIATION. Types of financial
 institutions that perform one or more banking functions include building
 and loan associations, mortgage companies, finance companies, brokers or
 dealers in securities, CREDIT UNIONS, and investment bankers. By the
 early 1980s, sweeping changes brought about by improved communications
 and computers enabled the nation's 29,000 nonbank financial institutions
 to pose a serious challenge to the traditional banks. The sharp rise of
 MONEY-MARKET FUNDS, the widespread use of COMMERCIAL PAPER for loans, and
 the creation of financial conglomerates siphoned off billions of dollars
 of banking business.

   Bank of the United States

 Bank of the United States, name of two national banks created by the U.S.
 Congress. The first bank (1791-1811), proposed by Alexander HAMILTON and
 the Federalists, aroused opposition, especially from the West, for its
 conservative policies. Its charter was allowed to expire. Difficulties in
 financing the WAR OF 1812 caused the creation of a second bank (1816-36).
 It prospered under the management of Nicholas BIDDLE, but was viewed as a
 tool of Eastern commercial interests by the Jacksonians. Pres. JACKSON
 vetoed its rechartering and in 1833 began depositing government funds in
 state banks.

   bankruptcy

 bankruptcy, legal proceeding to deal with the liabilities of an insolvent
 debtor (individual or business). Its purpose is to distribute the
 bankrupt's assets equitably among the creditors and, in most cases, to
 free the bankrupt from further liability. Bankruptcy may be instituted by
 the debtor (voluntary) or by the creditors (involuntary). In the U.S.,
 bankruptcy is governed by federal laws.

   Banks, Sir Joseph

 Banks, Sir Joseph, 1743-1820, English naturalist and patron of the
 sciences. He accompanied Capt. James COOK on his voyage (1768-71) around
 the world, collecting biological specimens, most previously unclassified.
 He was chiefly responsible for making Kew Gardens an important botanical
 center and was president (1778-1820) of the Royal Society.

   Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert)

 Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert), 1929-, British athlete. He was the first
 man to run the mile in under 4 min, clocking 3 min 59.4 sec at Oxford,
 England, in 1954. He was knighted in 1975.

   Banting, Sir Frederick Grant

 Banting, Sir Frederick Grant, 1891-1941, Canadian physician. He and John
 MACLEOD won the 1923 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for isolating
 (1921), together with Charles BEST, the pancreatic hormone later called
 INSULIN. He made valuable studies of the cortex of the adrenal glands, of
 cancer, and of silicosis. He was knighted in 1934.

   Bantu

 Bantu, ethnic and linguistic group of Africa, numbering about 70 million.
 They inhabit most of Africa S of the Congo R., except the extreme
 southwest. The classification is primarily linguistic, and there are
 almost 100 Bantu languages, including Luganda, Zulu, and Swahili. Few
 cultural generalizations concerning the Bantu can be made. There were
 some highly developed Bantu states, and several Bantu confederations were
 formed in the 19th cent., e.g., the Zulu and the Basuto. Other Bantu
 tribes include the Matabele and the Mashona. In South Africa the term
 Bantu is commonly used to refer to the native African population, which
 is subject to the policies of APARTHEID.

   Bantu languages

 Bantu languages, group of African languages forming a subdivision of the
 Benue-Niger division of the Niger-Congo branch of the Niger-Kordofanian
 language family. See AFRICAN LANGUAGES .

   bantustan

 bantustan, territory set aside by the Union of South Africa for blacks
 and given nominal independence in stages. The 10 bantustans, covering 14%
 of the country's land, were created from the former "native reserves."
 Four of them have been proclaimed independent: TRANSKEI (1976),
 BOPHUTHATSWANA (1977), VENDA (1979), and CISKEI (1981). No foreign
 government has recognized the new "states," and the policy has been
 condemned as an extension of APARTHEID because blacks in the independent
 bantustans (8 million thus far) lose their limited rights as South
 African citizens.

   baobab

 baobab, huge tree (Adansonia digitata) of the BOMBAX family, native to
 India and Africa. The trunk diameter of this relatively short tree is
 exceeded only by that of the SEQUOIA, and the trunks of living trees are
 hollowed out for dwellings. The bark is used for rope and cloth, the
 leaves yield condiments and medicines, and the gourdlike fruit
 (monkeybread) is eaten.

   Bao Dai

 Bao Dai, 1913-, emperor (1926-45) of ANNAM. He was emperor under French
 colonial rule and cooperated with the Japanese in World War II. He
 abdicated (1945) but returned (1949) as chief of state of VIETNAM. Bao
 Dai was ousted (1955) by Ngo Dinh DIEM, who became president of South
 Vietnam.

   baptism

 baptism [Gr.,=dipping], in most Christian churches a SACRAMENT. Usually
 required for membership in a church, it is a rite of purification by
 water, invoking the grace of God to regenerate a person and cleanse him
 or her of sin. Formal baptism is performed by immersion (as among the
 BAPTISTS) or by pouring or sprinkling water on the person to be baptized.
 Some churches baptize infants; others withhold baptism until a relatively
 mature age.

   baptistery

 baptistery, part of a church, or a separate connected building, used for
 administering BAPTISM. At first it was simply a pool or basin set in the
 floor. Later a separate structure was set aside for the ceremony; the
 earliest extant is in the Lateran basilica at Rome. Most early
 baptisteries, found in Italy and in Asia Minor, were circular or
 octagonal. When immersion was no longer practiced, standing fonts took
 their place. In Italy separate baptisteries continued to be built, e.g.,
 at Florence, in the 12th to 15th cent.

   Baptists

 Baptists, denomination of Protestant Christians holding that baptism is
 only for believers and solely by immersion. Begun (c.1608) by English
 SEPARATISTS in Amsterdam, it now has a membership of over 31 million
 worldwide. The first American congregation was founded (1639) by Roger
 WILLIAMS in Providence, R.I. The churches are congregational, with
 nongoverning general associations, e.g., the Southern Baptist Convention
 and the National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc.

   Bar, Confederation of

 Bar, Confederation of (1768-72), union formed at Bar, Podolia (now W
 Ukraine, USSR), by a faction of Polish nobles and the Roman Catholic
 clergy for the purpose of defending Polish independence and Roman
 Catholicism, and of opposing Russian interference in Polish affairs. It
 also opposed the Russian-backed king, STANISLAUS II. In 1772 the
 confederation fought a bitter war against Russia; it ended with the
 dissolution of the confederation and the First Partition of Poland.

   Barabbas

 Barabbas, bandit whose release was granted to the mob by PONTIUS PILATE
 instead of JESUS. Mat. 27.15-18; Mark 15.6-15; Luke 23.13-25; John 18.39,
 40.

   Baraka, Imamu Amiri

 Baraka, Imamu Amiri, 1934-, black American author and political activist;
 b. Newark, N.J., as LeRoi Jones. His works often express the black man's
 hatred for white society. Among his plays are Dutchman, The Toilet, and
 The Slave (all: 1964). He has also published a volume of selected poetry,
 another of plays and prose (both 1979), and an autobiography (1984)

   Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich

 Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich, 1747-1819, Russian trader. He governed
 (1800-1818) operations in Alaska for the Russian American Company. His
 dogged determination kept Russian activity in Alaska prosperous despite
 British and U.S. competition.

   Barbados

 Barbados, island state (1985 pop. 253,055), 166 sq mi (430 sq km), WEST
 INDIES, E of St. Vincent in the Windward Islands. The capital is
 Bridgetown. The easternmost of the major islands in the Windward chain,
 Barbados is generally low-lying, rising to no more than 1,104 ft (336 m),
 with no rivers, but ample rainfall from June to December. The porous soil
 and moderate warmth are ideal for the growing of sugarcane, traditionally
 the island's major occupation. Rum and molasses are exported, there is
 commercial fishing, and some light industry was introduced in the 1970s
 and early 1980s. However, the largest source of foreign exchange is
 tourism, the island having long been a favorite resort area. The
 population is mostly rural and about 95% of black African origin. The
 Portuguese probably discovered and named Barbados, but it was settled in
 the early 1600s by the British. The sugar economy that they introduced
 survived the abolition of slavery in 1834, and for a time Barbados served
 as the administrative capital of the Windward Islands. It became a
 separate colony of Britain in 1885 and an independent associated state of
 the Commonwealth in 1966.

   Barbarossa

 Barbarossa, c.1483-1546, Turkish corsair. He and his brother Aruj seized
 Algiers from Spain in 1518, and placed it and the other BARBARY STATES
 under Turkish suzerainty. As admiral of the Turkish fleet under SULAYMAN
 I, he twice defeated (1533, 1544) the Italian admiral DORIA and ravaged
 the coasts of Greece, Italy, and Spain.

   Barbarossa, Frederick

 Barbarossa, Frederick: see frederick i under FREDERICK, rulers of the
 Holy Roman Empire.

   Barbary States

 Barbary States, term historically applied to the North African states of
 Tripolitania, TUNISIA, ALGERIA and MOROCCO. In the 16th cent., led by the
 corsair BARBAROSSA, they came under Turkish suzerainty despite efforts by
 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to defeat the Turks. As Turkish hold on them
 weakened, they became the home base for pirates who demanded booty,
 ransom, and slaves from raids on Mediterranean (and occasionally
 Atlantic) shipping and ports. The major European naval powers in general
 found it more convenient to pay tribute to the Barbary States than to try
 to destroy them. By the 19th cent., however, opposition to them was
 strong, and the TRIPOLITAN WAR reflected U.S. opposition. In 1830 France
 captured Algiers, and c.1835 Morocco was forced to abandon plans to
 rebuild its fleet-in effect ending Barbary Coast piracy.

   Barber, Samuel

 Barber, Samuel, 1910-81, American composer; b. West Chester, Pa. His
 music is lyrical and generally tonal. Among his major compositions are
 Adagio for Strings (1936); Knoxville: Summer of 1915 (1947), for soprano
 and orchestra; and the operas Vanessa (1956; Pulitzer) and Antony and
 Cleopatra (1966), commissioned to open the new METROPOLITAN OPERA House,
 at LINCOLN CENTER (N.Y.C.).

   Barbie, Klaus

 Barbie, Klaus, 1913-87, Nazi war criminal known as the "Butcher of
 Lyons." Gestapo chief in Lyons (1942-44), he was responsible for the
 deaths of French Resistance members and thousands of Jews. After the war
 he secretly served as a U.S. army agent in Germany. In 1951, he escaped
 and settled in Bolivia. When a civilian government took power, he was
 extradited to France (1983), found guilty of crimes against humanity, and
 sentenced to life imprisonment.

   Barbirolli, Sir John

 Barbirolli, Sir John, 1899-1970, English conductor and cellist. He
 succeeded TOSCANINI as conductor of the New York Philharmonic (1937-42)
 and later conducted (1960-67) the Houston Symphony Orchestra (see
 ORCHESTRA, ).

   barbiturate

 barbiturate, any depressant drug derived from barbituric acid. In low
 doses, barbiturates have a tranquilizing effect. Increased doses are
 hypnotic or sleep-inducing, and still larger doses act as anticonvulsants
 and anesthetics. Barbiturates are commonly taken as sleeping pills; such
 use may lead to psychological dependency, physiological tolerance, and
 even death by overdose (see DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE). Barbiturates
 do not relieve pain.

   Barbizon school

 Barbizon school, an informal association of French landscape painters
 that flourished c.1830-c.1870. Its name derives from the village of
 Barbizon, a favorite residence of members of the group. Theodore ROUSSEAU
 led the group, which also included Jules Dupre, Narciso Diaz de la Pena,
 Constant Troyon, and Charles DAUBIGNY. They rendered landscape from
 direct observation of nature, in a straightforward, anticlassical manner
 much influenced by 17th-cent. Dutch masters, including RUISDAEL and
 HOBBEMA. COROT and MILLET, although often linked with the group, stand
 outside its main line of development. The Barbizon school influenced
 late-19th- and early-20th-cent. American LANDSCAPE PAINTING.

   Barbuda

 Barbuda: see ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA.

   Barca

 Barca, surname of members of a powerful Carthaginian family: see HAMILCAR
 BARCA; HANNIBAL; HASDRUBAL.

   Barcelona

 Barcelona, city (1981 pop. 1,754,900), capital of Barcelona prov. and the
 chief city of CATALONIA, NE Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea. It is
 Spain's second largest city and largest port. Among its manufactures are
 textiles and machinery. Founded by settlers from CARTHAGE, it was held by
 the Romans and Visigoths; fell to the MOORS (8th cent.) and to
 CHARLEMAGNE (801); and was ruled from the 9th cent. by the counts of
 Barcelona. It reached its peak c.1400 as a center of trade, banking, and
 cloth-making. The center of the Catalan revolt against Spain (1640-52),
 it was the capital of the Catalan autonomous government (1932-39) and the
 seat of the Spanish Loyalist government (1938-39). Barcelona is a modern
 city with striking new buildings. Notable older structures include the
 Cathedral of Santa Eulalia (14th-15th cent.) and the Church of the
 Sagrada Familia (begun 1882), designed by Antonio GAUDI. The 1992 summer
 Olympic games are scheduled to be held in Barcelona.

   bar code

 bar code, an input/output device that identifies food and other products.
 It is an identifying code (it does not provide pricing information). The
 most common is the Universal Product Code (UPS), which provides for 12
 numeric characters, each of which consists of two dark bars and two light
 bars. Bar codes are decoded by scanning the symbol optically in an
 X-shaped pattern.

   Bardeen, John

 Bardeen, John, 1908-, American physicist; b. Madison, Wis. He is known
 for his studies of semiconductivity and other aspects of SOLID-STATE
 PHYSICS. The first to win a Nobel Prize twice in the same field, Bardeen
 shared the 1956 physics prize with Walter Brattain and William Shockley,
 for work in developing the TRANSISTOR, and the 1972 physics prize with
 Leon Cooper and John Schreiffer, for their theory of SUPERCONDUCTIVITY.

   Barenboim, Daniel

 Barenboim, Daniel, 1942-, Israeli pianist and conductor; b. Argentina. He
 made his debut in Buenos Aires at seven. In 1967 he married the English
 cellist Jacqueline du Pre. He has played CHAMBER MUSIC and recorded
 widely. He was music director of the Orchestre de Paris from 1975 until
 1989, when he disagreed with a public official about the orchestra.

   Barents Sea

 Barents Sea, arm of the Arctic Ocean, off N Norway and E USSR, partially
 enclosed by Franz Josef Land (N), Novaya Zemlya (E), and Svalbard (W).
 Remnants of the North Atlantic Drift, a continuation of the GULF STREAM,
 keep its ports, including MURMANSK and Vardo, ice-free throughout the
 year.

   Barentz

 Barentz or Barents, Willem,d. 1597, Dutch navigator. He made three
 expeditions to the arctic (1594, 1595, 1596-97) in search of the
 NORTHWEST PASSAGE. His importance lies in the extent of his explorations
 and the accuracy of his charts.

   Bar Harbor

 Bar Harbor, town (1986 est. pop. 4,120), SE Me., on Mount Desert Island
 and Frenchman Bay; settled 1763, inc. 1796. One of the most famous
 19th-cent. resorts, it is near Acadia National Park (see NATIONAL PARKS,
 ) and has summer ferry service to Nova Scotia. A 1947 fire destroyed much
 of Bar Harbor. The renowned Jackson Laboratory for biological research
 (est. 1929) is located there.

   barite, barytes

 barite, barytes, or heavy spar,white, yellow, blue, red, or colorless
 barium sulfate mineral (BaSO4). Abundant worldwide in tabular crystals or
 in granular or massive form, barite is used as a commercial source of the
 element BARIUM, as a filler in the manufacture of linoleum, oilcloth,
 rubber, and plastics, and as a mud for sealing oil wells during drilling.

   baritone

 baritone: see VOICE.

   barium

 barium (Ba), metallic element, isolated by electrolysis in 1808 by Sir
 Humphry DAVY. It is a soft, silver-white ALKALINE-EARTH METAL. Its
 principal ore is BARITE. Various barium compounds are used as paint
 pigments, rat poison, a drying agent, and a water softener, and in
 pyrotechnics. See ELEMENT ; PERIODIC TABLE.

   bark

 bark, outer covering of the STEM of woody plants, composed of waterproof
 CORK cells (the outer bark) protecting a layer of food-conducting tissue
 (the inner bark or phloem). As the stem grows in size (see CAMBIUM), the
 outer bark gives way by splitting, shredding, or peeling in patterns
 typical of the species. Various barks are sources of textile fibers
 (e.g., HEMP, FLAX, and JUTE), tannin, cork, dyes, flavorings (e.g.,
 CINNAMON), and drugs (e.g., QUININE).

   Barker, Harley Granville-

 Barker, Harley Granville-: see GRANVILLE-BARKER.

   Bar Kokba, Simon

 Bar Kokba, Simon, d. AD 135, Hebrew hero and leader of a major but
 unsuccessful revolt against Rome (AD132-135). In recent excavations at
 MASADA, Israeli archaeologists have found letters in his handwriting.

   Barlach, Ernst

 Barlach, Ernst, 1870-1938, pioneer German expressionist sculptor, graphic
 artist, and writer. He produced compact, angular sculptures and WOODCUTS
 that convey intense emotion and compassion. The NAZIS destroyed much of
 his work. He illustrated his own poems and plays.

   barley

 barley, annual cereal plant (Hordeum vulgare) of the GRASS family, widely
 cultivated except in hot and humid climates. Barley was known to the
 ancients and was the chief bread grain in Europe as late as the 16th
 cent. Today, each of the many varieties grown has a special purpose,
 e.g., for stock feed, for malting, as a minor source of flour, and in
 soups.

   Barlow, Joel

 Barlow, Joel, 1754-1812, American writer and diplomat; b. Redding, Conn.
 A CONNECTICUT WIT, he is known for his verse epic The Vision of Columbus
 (1787; rev. ed., The Columbiad, 1807) and his mock heroic eulogy The
 Hasty-Pudding (1793). His prose works include Advice to the Privileged
 Orders (1792) and a critique of the French Constitution of 1791. Barlow
 served as U.S. consul to Algiers, where he negotiated several treaties.
 He was killed during Napoleon I's retreat from Moscow.

   bar mitzvah

 bar mitzvah, Jewish ceremony in which a young male (traditionally at age
 13) is initiated into the religious community and performs his first act
 as an adult, reading in the synagogue from the weekly portion of the
 TORAH. The bat (or bas) mitzvah is a comparable 20th-cent. ceremony for
 girls of 12 or 13.

   Barnabas, Saint

 Barnabas, Saint, Cypriot Christian apostle, relative of St. MARK;
 companion of St. PAUL on his first missionary journey. An epistle
 attributed to him is in the pseudepigrapha.

   barnacle

 barnacle, sedentary marine animal (subclass Cirripedia), a CRUSTACEAN.
 Barnacles permanently attach themselves to a substrate by means of an
 adhesive cement. They secrete a calcareous shell around themselves and
 form conspicuous encrusting colonies on rocks, pilings, boats, and some
 marine animals (e.g., whales, turtles). The attached end of the animal is
 the head; jointed legs (cirri) sweep food particles through the shell
 opening to the mouth. Some barnacles lack shells and are PARASITES of
 other invertebrates.

   Barnard, Christiaan Neethling

 Barnard, Christiaan Neethling, 1923-, South African surgeon. In 1958 he
 was appointed director of surgical research at Groote Schuur Hospital,
 Cape Town, where on Dec. 3, 1967, he completed the first human heart
 transplant. Barnard has designed artificial heart valves and developed
 surgical procedures for organ transplants.

   Barnard, Edward Emerson

 Barnard, Edward Emerson, 1857-1923, American astronomer; b. Nashville. An
 astronomer at Lick and Yerkes observatories, he discovered 16 comets,
 Jupiter's satellite Amalthea (1892), and Barnard's star (1916), a star
 having the largest observed proper motion. He took important photographs
 of comets, planets, nebulae, and the Milky Way.

   Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter

 Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter, 1809-89, American educator; b.
 Sheffield, Mass. While president (1864-89) of Columbia College (now
 Columbia Univ.) Barnard expanded the curriculum, added departments, and
 increased the enrollment from 150 to 1,500 students, turning a small
 undergraduate college into what would become (1896) a great university.
 He advocated equal education for men and women, and wrote extensively on
 education and other topics. He encouraged N.M. BUTLER in the founding of
 Teachers College, Columbia. Barnard College, for undergraduate women, is
 named for him.

   Barnard, Henry

 Barnard, Henry, 1811-1900, American educator; b. Hartford, Conn. As a
 member (1837-39) of the Connecticut legislature he secured passage in
 1838 of an act providing better supervision of the common schools. He and
 Horace MANN became leaders in the reform of the country's common schools,
 and Barnard did pioneer work in school inspection, recommendation of
 textbooks, and organization of teachers' institutes and parent-teacher
 associations. The first U.S. commissioner of education (1867-70), he
 edited and published the American Journal of Education (31 vol.,
 1855-81).

   Barnard College

 Barnard College: see COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.

   Barnburners

 Barnburners, radical element in the New York state Democratic party
 (1842-48), opposed to the conservative HUNKERS. The name derives from a
 fabled Dutchman who burned his barn to kill the rats; by implication,
 Barnburners favored destroying corporations and public works to rid them
 of abuses. They opposed the extension of slavery. Among their number were
 Martin VAN BUREN and S.J. TILDEN. After 1848 some Barnburners joined the
 FREE-SOIL PARTY.

   Barnes, Djuna

 Barnes, Djuna, 1892-1982, American author; b. Cornwall, N.Y. She is best
 known for Nightwood (1936), a novel marked by horror and decay. Other
 works include poetry, short stories, and a verse tragedy, Antiphon
 (1958).

   Barneveldt, Johan van Olden

 Barneveldt, Johan van Olden: see OLDENBARNEVELDT, JOHAN VAN.

   Barnum, P(hineas) T(aylor)

 Barnum, P(hineas) T(aylor), 1810-91, American showman; b. Bethel, Conn.
 In 1842 he opened his American Museum in New York City and immediately
 became famous for his extravagant advertising and his exhibits of freaks,
 including "Gen. TOM THUMB" and the original SIAMESE TWINS. Barnum managed
 the hugely successful U.S. tour of the Swedish singer Jenny LIND in 1850.
 In 1871 (after a brief political career) he opened his famous circus,
 "The Greatest Show on Earth." Merged with its chief competitor in 1881,
 it continued as Barnum & Bailey.

   Barocchio, Giacomo

 Barocchio, Giacomo: see VIGNOLA, GIACOMO DA.

   Baroja y Nessi, Pio

 Baroja y Nessi, Pio, 1879-1956, Spanish novelist from the BASQUE
 PROVINCES. His popular cyclical works include The Struggle for Existence
 (3 vol., 1904), about the Madrid underworld, and Memoirs of a Man of
 Action (22 vol., 1913-34), about 19th-cent. Spain.

   barometer

 barometer, instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. The mercurial
 barometer consists of a mercury-filled glass tube that is sealed at one
 end and inverted in a cup of mercury. Pressure on the surface of the
 mercury in the cup supports the mercury in the tube, which varies in
 height depending on variations in atmospheric pressure. At 32 deg F (0
 deg C), standard sea-level pressure (1 standard atmosphere) is 14.7
 lb/in.2 (1,030 g/cm2), which is equivalent to a column of mercury 29.92
 in. (76 cm) in height. The aneroid barometer contains a sealed, partially
 evacuated metallic box. As the air pressure on it varies, one of its
 surfaces expands or contracts; this motion is transmitted by a train of
 levers to a pointer, which shows the pressure on a graduated scale. In
 WEATHER forecasting, a rising barometer usually indicates fair weather; a
 rapidly falling barometer, stormy weather.

   Baron, Salo Wittmayer

 Baron, Salo Wittmayer, 1895-, American Jewish historian and educator; b.
 Galicia, Austria-Hungary. He taught at Columbia from 1930 to 1963,
 holding the first professorship of Jewish history in a U.S. university.
 His major work is the monumental Social and Religious History of the Jews
 (vol. I-XVII, 2d ed., 1952-80).

   Barons' War

 Barons' War, in English history, war of 1263-67 between HENRY III and his
 barons. In 1261 Henry reasserted his power and renounced the PROVISIONS
 OF OXFORD. Led by Simon de MONTFORT, the barons resorted to arms. They
 failed to establish control over the crown but helped prepare for the
 constitutional developments in the reign of EDWARD I.

   baroque

 baroque, in art and architecture, style developed in Europe, England, and
 Latin America during the 17th and 18th cent. Its essential characteristic
 is an emphasis on unity, a balance among diverse parts. Architecture took
 on the plastic aspects of sculpture and, along with sculpture, was
 enhanced by the chiaroscuro (high-contrast) effects of painting. Works in
 all media were produced on a grand scale. Illusionism increased an
 unequaled sense of drama, energy, and mobility of form. Baroque
 buildings, e.g., VERSAILLES, Christopher WREN'S churches, compelled order
 upon overwhelming multiple forms. Throughout Europe undulating facades
 and complex ground plans abounded. Fountains burst forth as joyous
 geysers and cascades. Deep PERSPECTIVE was developed in painting, e.g.,
 by RUISDAEL and de HOOCH. Chiaroscuro intensified the works of
 CARAVAGGIO, ZURBARAN, Georges de LA TOUR, and REMBRANDT. Color was
 superbly exploited to diverse effect by VERMEER, RUBENS, CLAUDE LORRAIN,
 and Pietro da CORTONA. Sculptors used multiple materials for a single
 work, e.g., BERNINI'S Ecstasy of St. Theresa, which also exemplifies the
 baroque fascination with intense emotional states. Landscape subjects
 were ennobled by the CARRACCI, Ruisdael, HOBBEMA, Rembrandt, Salvator
 ROSA and Claude Lorrain, and GENRE and STILL LIFE by Vermeer, STEEN, de
 Hooch, and the LE NAINS. In the Early Baroque (c.1590-c.1625), the Roman
 artists Caravaggio, the Carracci, DOMENICHINO, and Guido RENI were





 position to France. Painters such as MURILLO used lighter colors and
 softer forms, and the baroque style gradually gave way to the ROCOCO.

   baroque

 baroque, in music, the period and style of composition and performance
 prevailing from the last decades of the 16th cent. to the beginning of
 the 18th cent. The 16th-cent. revolt against the POLYPHONY of the
 Renaissance gave rise to an emphasis on the character of individual
 voices and instruments and also on the use of HARMONY in composition. Use
 of the older church modes was replaced by major and minor TONALITY as the
 basis of composition. Principal forms of vocal writing of the period
 included the OPERA, ORATORIO, and CANTATA; instrumental writing included
 the SONATA, CONCERTO, and OVERTURE







 Barozzi, Giacomo: see VIGNOLA, GIACOMO DA.

   barracuda

 barracuda, slender, elongated, ferocious FISH (family Sphyraenidae) with
 a long snout and projecting lower jaw edged with large, sharp teeth.
 Found in tropical seas, barracudas will strike at anything that gleams
 and are excellent game fish. The great barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda),
 up to 10 ft (3 m) in length, is dangerous to swimmers.

   Barranquilla

 Barranquilla, city (1985 pop. 920,695), N Colombia, on the Magdalena R.,
 8 mi (12.9 km) from the Caribbean Sea. Founded in 1629, it developed as a
 port in the mid-19th cent., with the advent of steam navigation, and is
 now Colombia's principal port. Manufactures include aluminum sheets,





 Barrie, Sir J(ames) M(atthew), 1860-1937, Scottish playwright and
 novelist. Best remembered for his play Peter Pan (1904), a fantasy about
 a boy who refused to grow up, Barrie was a journalist and published
 Scottish sketches before the success of his novel The Little Minister
 (1891). Its dramatization (1897) established him as a playwright.

   Barron, James

 Barron, James, 1769-1851, U.S. naval officer; b. Hampton, Va. He was
 court-martialed for failing to clear his ship, the Chesapeake, for action
 during an 1807 incident with the British ship Leopard. In 1820 he
 mortally wounded Stephen DECATUR in a duel.

   Barrow, Sir John

 Barrow, Sir John, 1764-1848, British geographer. As second secretary of
 the admiralty, he promoted scientific voyages and instigated arctic
 expeditions by John ROSS and William Parry. He helped found (1830) the
 Royal Geographical Society. Point Barrow, Cape Barrow, and Barrow Strait
 bear his name.

   Barrow

 Barrow, city (1980 pop. 2,207), N Alaska, inc. 1958. The main trade
 center of N Alaska, it has government and military facilities. The
 population is predominantly ESKIMO, and the area has been inhabited for
 centuries. Hunting, fishing and whaling, and Eskimo crafts are important.
 North Slope oil production is beginning to affect the local economy.

   barrow

 barrow, in archaeology, burial mound, built usually of earth and stone or
 timber, perhaps to simulate cave burial. In W Europe long barrows date
 from the New STONE AGE and round barrows from the BRONZE AGE. More recent
 Asian round barrows (STUPAS) usually house Buddhist relics. See also
 MOUND BUILDERS.

   Barry, Philip

 Barry, Philip, 1896-1949, American playwright; b. Rochester, N.Y. He is
 primarily known for his satirical comedies, e.g., Holiday (1928),
 Tomorrow and Tomorrow (1931), The Animal Kingdom (1932), and The
 Philadelphia Story (1939).

   Barrymore

 Barrymore, Anglo-American family of actors. The first of the name,
 Maurice Barrymore, 1847-1905, was an Englishman; b. India as Herbert
 Blythe. A handsome leading man, he came to the U.S. in 1875 to appear
 with Augustin Daly's company. His wife, Georgiana Drew Barrymore,
 1856-93, b. Philadelphia, was a great comedienne. She began her career
 with the company of her parents, Louisa and John DREW, and acted with her
 husband in Mme Modjeska's troupe. Their elder son, Lionel Barrymore,
 1878-1954, b. Philadelphia, was a much admired character actor remembered
 for his film roles in A Free Soul (1931; Academy Award) and Dinner at
 Eight (1933), and for his annual radio portrayal of Scrooge in A
 Christmas Carol. His sister, Ethel Barrymore, 1879-1959, an actress of
 dignity and warmth, achieved success in Captain Jinks of the Horse
 Marines (1901) and is remembered for The Corn Is Green (1940) and the
 film None but the Lonely Heart (1944; Academy Award). Their brother, John
 Barrymore, 1882-1942, a tempestuous matinee idol, was also a
 distinguished actor, famous for his electrifying Hamlet (1922). His films
 include Grand Hotel (1932) and Twentieth Century (1934).

   Barth, Karl

 Barth, Karl, 1886-1968, Swiss Protestant theologian, one of the leading
 thinkers of 20th-cent. Protestantism. A Swiss minister, he became a
 professor (1921-35) in Germany, and opposed the Nazi regime. Deported to
 Switzerland, he later taught at Basel, where he continued to expound his
 views, known as dialectical theology or theology of the word. Barth
 sought to reassert the principles of the Reformation. He saw the central
 concern of theology as the word of God and His revelation in Jesus
 Christ, which he thought was the only means for God to reveal Himself to
 humans, who must listen in awe, trust, and obedience. Among his many
 works is his Church Dogmatics (vol. I-IV, 1932-62).

   Barthelme, Donald

 Barthelme, Donald, 1931-, American writer; b. Philadelphia. He uses
 idiosyncratic language and symbol to fit his vision of an absurd reality.
 His work includes the novels Snow White (1967) and The Dead Father (1975)
 and the short-story collections City Life (1971) and Sixty Stories
 (1981).

   Barthes, Roland

 Barthes, Roland, 1915-80, French literary critic, the major theorist of
 semiology (see SEMIOTICS; STRUCTURALISM). In Writing Degree Zero (1953)
 he attempted to distinguish "scription," the act of writing, from
 conventional categories of language and style. He followed that work with
 controversial studies of aspects of French culture. In Elements of
 Semiology (1964), Barthes systematized the study of signs proposed
 earlier by Ferdinand de SAUSSURE. In his other works he applied his
 linguistic theories to cliches of national culture, the work of
 individual writers, photography, and other topics.

   Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste

 Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste, 1834-1904, French sculptor; b. Alsace. He
 produced numerous monumental sculptures, including the Lion of Belfort
 and his most famous work, Liberty Enlightening the World, on Liberty
 Island, New York Bay (see LIBERTY, STATUE OF).

   Bartholomew, Saint

 Bartholomew, Saint, one of the Twelve Disciples; identified with
 NATHANAEL. By tradition he was a missionary in India.

   Bartok, Bela

 Bartok, Bela, 1881-1945, Hungarian composer and collector of folk music.
 Utilizing folk elements, ATONALITY, and traditional techniques, he
 achieved an original modern style that has had great influence on
 20th-cent. music. Bartok became known for his compositions for piano,
 e.g., Mikrokosmos (1926-27); for violin, e.g., Music for Strings,
 Percussion, and Celesta (1936), and for orchestra, e.g., Concerto for
 Orchestra (1943). In 1940 he emigrated to the U.S. and was commissioned
 by Columbia Univ. to transcribe a large collection of Yugoslav folk
 melodies.

   Barton, Clara

 Barton, Clara, 1821-1912, American humanitarian; b. Oxford, Mass. Called
 the Angel of the Battlefield, she set up a supply service during the
 CIVIL WAR, was nurse in army camps and on battlefields, and led searches
 for the missing. After working behind German lines for the International
 Red Cross in the FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, she organized (1881) the American
 RED CROSS, which she headed until 1904.

   Bartram, John

 Bartram, John, 1699-1777, pioneer American botanist; b. near Darby, Pa.
 He planted the first botanical garden in the U.S. His exchange of many
 plants with the great European botanists introduced many American plants
 into Europe and established some European species in the New World. In
 search of new plants he made many journeys around the North American
 continent, including trips to the Alleghenies, the Catskills, the
 Carolinas, and Florida.

   Baruch, Bernard Mannes

 Baruch, Bernard Mannes, 1870-1965, U.S. financier and government adviser;
 b. Camden, S.C. An industrial and economic adviser to the government
 during both world wars, Baruch was U.S. representative (1946) to the UN
 Atomic Energy Commission.

   Baruch

 Baruch, book included in the OLD TESTAMENT of the Western canon and the
 Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible, and placed in the APOCRYPHA in
 the Authorized Version. Named for a Jewish prince, Baruch (fl. 600 BC), a
 friend of the prophet JEREMIAH and the editor of his book, it includes a
 message from exiled Jews to those still at home, a famous messianic
 allusion, a consolation, and a letter of Jeremiah.

   baryon

 baryon: see ELEMENTARY PARTICLES.

   Baryshnikov, Mikhail

 Baryshnikov, Mikhail (mi'khail bariy'shnikak'v) 1948-, Russian-American
 dancer and choreographer; b. Riga, Latvia. He studied in Riga and
 performed with the KIROV BALLET (1966-74). He defected (1974) to the
 West, danced with the AMERICAN BALLET THEATRE (1974-78) and the NEW YORK
 CITY BALLET (1978-79), and became director of the ABT. He acted in the
 movie The Turning Point (1977).

   barytes

 barytes: see BARITE.

   Barzun, Jacques

 Barzun, Jacques, 1907-, American scholar; b. France. He began teaching
 history at Columbia Univ. in 1928. Later he was dean of the graduate
 faculties (1955-58) and dean of faculties and provost (1958-67). He has
 written on a variety of subjects, e.g., Darwin, Marx, Wagner (1941).

   basal metabolism

 basal metabolism: see METABOLISM.

   basalt

 basalt, fine-grained igneous ROCK of volcanic origin, with a high
 percentage of iron and magnesium, in a range of dark colors. Its texture
 varies depending on conditions of cooling. Most of the world's great LAVA
 flows (e.g., the COLUMBIA PLATEAU in the NW U.S.) are basalt. It
 underlies the sediment cover in the world's oceans and is believed to
 underlie the CONTINENTS as well. Many of the lunar rocks obtained by the
 Apollo astronauts are basalt.

   base

 base, in chemistry: see ACIDS AND BASES.

   baseball

 baseball, the "national game" of the U.S., popular also in Japan and in
 Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and other Latin American countries. It derives
 its name from the four bases, spaced 90 ft (27.43 m) apart on the inner
 playing field (the diamond). Cowhide-covered hard balls, wooden bats, and
 padded gloves constitute the basic equipment. A game is played by two
 opposing teams of nine players each-a pitcher, a catcher, four
 infielders, and three outfielders. To win, a team must score more runs in
 nine innings than its opponent, a run being a complete circuit of the
 bases. Extra innings are played to resolve ties. A form of baseball,
 doubtless derived from the English games of CRICKET and rounders, was
 played in the early 19th cent. The belief that Abner Doubleday invented
 the modern game in 1839 has been largely refuted. In the U.S., two main
 professional associations form the major leagues. The National League
 (organized in 1876) and the American League (1900) comprise a total of 26
 teams representing U.S. and two Canadian cities. Champions of each league
 meet annually in the World Series. Major-league baseball became truly
 national in scope with the westward migration of several franchises,
 beginning in 1953, when the Boston Braves moved to Milwaukee. During the
 1960s the number of clubs expanded from 16 to 24, with two divisions in
 each league. The game's greatest figures are elected to the National
 Baseball Hall of Fame, at Cooperstown, N.Y. (opened 1939). Baseball is
 also played by minor-league professional clubs and by semiprofessional,
 amateur, college, and school teams.

   Basel

 Baselor Basle, city (1985 est. pop. 174,600), N Switzerland, divided by
 the Rhine R. A river port and financial center, it is the seat of the
 Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Founded by the Romans, it
 became (7th cent.) an episcopal see and (11th cent.) a free imperial
 city. It was the residence of prince-bishops, expelled after Basel
 accepted (1523) the Reformation. Its university attracted ERASMUS (who is
 buried in the 11th-cent. cathedral), HOLBEIN the Younger, John CALVIN,
 and NIETZSCHE. The city houses a valuable collection of Holbein's work.

   Basel, Council of

 Basel, Council of, 1431-49, council of the Roman Catholic Church. Called
 primarily to discuss the HUSSITE heresy it accepted the conciliar theory
 that ultimate authority in the church rests in the council and not with
 the pope. After being denounced (1437) by Pope EUGENE IV, the council
 deposed him and elected (1439) AMADEUS VIII (antipope Felix V). Lacking
 support, Felix resigned (1449); the council then recognized Eugene's
 successor and dissolved.

   basenji

 basenji, medium-sized HOUND; shoulder height, c.17 in. (43.2 cm); weight,
 c.23 lb (10.4 kg). Its short, silky coat is chestnut, red, black, or
 black and tan, with white markings. Bred in ancient Africa and at the
 courts of Egypt's pharaohs, it whines rather than barks and cleans itself
 like a cat.

   Basho

 Basho, 1644-94, usually considered the foremost Japanese HAIKU poet. He
 did not in fact write haiku but composed stanzas of haikai no renga (a
 sequence of linked verses, usually by a group of poets). The 17-syllable
 opening, and most important, stanza (hokku) was later separated as the
 verse form haiku. A master of both hokku and the integration of verses in
 a sequence, Basho imbued what was formerly a social pastime with the
 spirit of ZEN BUDDHISM, attending to the often lowly details of everyday
 life in the context of the eternal.

   BASIC

 BASIC: see PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE.

   Basie, Count

 Basie, Count (William Basie), 1904-84, black American JAZZ pianist and
 bandleader; b. Red Bank, N.J. He worked in New York City and Kansas City,
 where he formed (1935) a highly influential band that continues to
 present a powerful yet relaxed style of music featuring his own laconic
 piano.

   Basil

 Basil, Byzantine emperors. Basil I (the Macedonian), c.813-86 (r.867-86),
 was the favorite of and co-ruler (866) with MICHAEL III, whose murder
 (867) he ordered. Basil reformed finance and law, protected the poor, and
 restored the empire's military prestige. Art and architecture flourished
 during his rule. He tried to prevent an open break between the Eastern
 and Western churches. Basil II, c.958-1025 (r.976-1025), followed the
 usurpers NICEPHORUS II and JOHN I as co-ruler with his debauched brother,
 Constantine VIII. Basil suppressed rebellious landowners and strengthened
 the laws against them. He annexed (1018) Bulgaria and extended the empire
 east to the Caucasus. The schism between the Eastern and Western churches
 increased during his reign.

   basil

 basil, tender herb or small shrub (genus Ocimum) of the MINT family,
 cultivated for the aromatic leaves. Common, or sweet, basil (O.
 basilicum) is used for seasoning. Holy basil and bush basil are related
 plants.

   basilica

 basilica, large Roman building used to transact business and legal
 matters. Often rectangular, with a roofed hall, it usually had an
 interior colonnade, with an APSE at one or both ends. The wide central
 aisle was usually higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could
 penetrate through the clerestory windows. Early examples are in Rome and
 Pompeii. In the 4th cent. Christians began to build places of worship
 related in form in Europe and the Middle East, e.g., the Church of the
 Nativity at Bethlehem (6th cent.). The massive Romanesque churches still
 retained the fundamental plan of the basilica.

   Baskerville, John

 Baskerville, John, 1706-75, English printer and, with CASLON, one of two
 great 18th-cent. English TYPE designers. His type faces introduced the
 modern pseudoclassical style, emphasizing the contrast of light and heavy
 lines. His books are typically large, with wide margins, and made with
 excellent paper and ink. Printer for Cambridge Univ. after 1758, he
 produced a famous folio Bible (1763).

   basketball

 basketball, game played generally indoors by two opposing teams of five
 players each. At each end of the court-usually about 92 ft (28 m) long
 and 50 ft (15 m) wide-is a bottomless basket made of cord net and
 suspended from a metal ring attached 10 ft (3.05 m) above the floor to a
 backboard. The ball may be passed, batted, or dribbled (bounced), but the
 players may not run with it. Players of one team attempt to shoot the
 ball through one basket while seeking to keep the opposition from scoring
 through the other basket. Each field goal, or basket, scores two points
 (sometimes three points in professional basketball); foul shots, awarded
 mostly for illegal body contact, count one point. Overtime periods are
 played to break ties. Basketball was originated (1891) in Springfield,
 Mass., by Dr. James Naismith of the YMCA. It quickly grew into a leading
 U.S. school and college sport and spread throughout the world, becoming
 (1936) a part of the OLYMPIC GAMES. Professional basketball gained great
 popularity in the U.S. after the formation (1949) of the National
 Basketball Association (NBA). U.S. women's basketball developed rapidly
 in the 1970s on professional, collegiate, and high school levels.

   basketry

 basketry, art of weaving or coiling flexible materials to form utensils
 for the preparation, storage, or serving of food; boats; huts; traps;
 apparel; and other objects. Twigs, roots, hide, bamboo, cane, raffia,
 grass, or straw are used. In antiquity, Egyptians (4000-5000 BC) used
 baskets for storing grain, and North American Indians of the Southwest
 (c.1500 BC) covered baskets with clay and baked them to create fireproof
 cooking vessels, anticipating pottery. In some parts of the world pottery
 preceded basketry.

   Baskin, Leonard

 Baskin, Leonard, 1922-, American artist; b. New Brunswick, N.J. Known for
 his powerful figurative graphics and sculpture, e.g., Man with a Dead
 Bird (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.), Baskin is also an influential teacher.

   Basque Provinces

 Basque Provinces, comprising the provinces of Alava, Guipuzcoa, and
 Vizcaya, N Spain, on the Bay of Biscay, bordering France in the
 northeast. In Alava and Guipuzcoa the major occupations are the mining of
 iron, lead, copper, and zinc; shipbuilding; metalworking; and fishing.
 Alava is largely agricultural. Nationalism is strong among the BASQUES,
 and in 1980 the provinces were granted regional autonomy. Basque
 terrorists, however, continue to press for total independence.

   Basques

 Basques, people of N Spain and SW France, numbering 2 million. Probably
 the oldest ethnic group in Europe, they preserve their ancient, unique
 language, and their customs and traditions. Since Paleolithic times the
 Basques have been genetically and culturally distinct. Mostly peasants,
 shepherds, fishermen, navigators, miners, and metalworkers, they have
 produced such famous figures as St. IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA and St. FRANCIS
 XAVIER. The Basques accepted Christianity late (3d-5th cent.). In the 6th
 cent. they expanded northward into Gascony, to which they gave their
 name. The kingdom of NAVARRE, founded in 824, united almost all Basques,
 but after its conquest (1512) by CASTILE Basque prosperity declined. Of
 the Basque provinces, only Navarre supported the Franco forces in the
 SPANISH CIVIL WAR (1936-39). Basque nationalism in Spain, often involving
 violent incidents, continued into the 1980s.

   Basra

 Basra, city (1970 est. pop. 333,684), SE Iraq, on the SHATT AL ARAB.
 Iraq's only port, it has a commercially advantageous location near oil
 fields and 75 mi (121 km) from the PERSIAN GULF. Since 1948 many oil
 refineries have been built in the city. Basra was founded (AD 636) by the
 caliph Umar I and was a cultural center under HARUN AR-RASHID. In 1982
 the area around Basra was the scene of heavy fighting in the IRAN-IRAQ
 WAR.

   bass

 bass, any of various FISHES of the families Serranidae (sea basses) and
 Centrarchidae (black basses and sunfishes). Sea basses, a large, diverse
 family of fishes with oblong, rather compressed bodies, inhabit warm and
 temperate seas worldwide and are highly valued as food and game fish. The
 largest sea basses are GROUPERS. Sunfishes, spiny-finned, freshwater
 fishes with flattened bodies, are found in North America. Black basses,
 averaging 2 to 3 lb (.9 to 1.4 kg), are the most valuable American
 freshwater game fishes.

   bass

 bass: see VOICE.

   Bassano, Jacopo

 Bassano, Jacopo, c.1515-1592, Venetian mannerist painter (see MANNERISM);
 b. Jacopo da Ponte. Primarily a painter of biblical themes, he introduced
 vignettes of country life into his works, e.g., Annunciation to the
 Shepherds (National Gall., Wash., D.C.). His sons Francesco Bassano,
 1549-92, and Leandro Bassano, 1558-1623, were also painters.

   basset hound

 basset hound, short-legged, long-bodied HOUND; shoulder height, 12-15 in.
 (30.1-38.1 cm); weight, 25-50 lb (11.3-22.7 kg). Its short, dense coat is
 black, tan, or white, or a combination. The breed was developed centuries
 ago in France to hunt game in heavy ground cover.

   bassoon

 bassoon: see WIND INSTRUMENT.

   basswood

 basswood: see LINDEN.

   Bastille

 Bastille, fortress and prison in Paris, begun c.1369, now demolished. The
 Bastille became a hated symbol of absolutism because it was used for
 arbitrary and secret imprisonment by the crown. On July 14, 1789, a
 Parisian mob stormed the prison, hoping to seize its store of ammunition,
 but found only seven prisoners. This marked the start of lower-class
 participation in the FRENCH REVOLUTION. July 14-Bastille Day-became a
 national holiday in France.

   bat

 bat, the only MAMMAL (order Chiroptera) capable of true flight. Numbering
 between 1,000 and 2,000 species, bats range in size from less than 1 in.
 (2.5 cm) to 15 in. (45 cm), with a wingspan of from less than 2 in. (5
 cm) to 5 ft (150 cm). The body is furry and mouselike, with the forelimbs
 and extensions of the skin of the back and belly modified to form wings.
 Bats are most abundant in the tropics, and temperate species often
 hibernate or migrate to warmer areas in the winter. Most species frequent
 crevices, caves, or buildings, and are active at night or twilight; they
 roost during the day, often in large numbers and usually hanging by their
 feet. Most bats see well but depend on echolocation to navigate in the
 dark. Bats are fruit-eaters (fruit, nectar, pollen) or insect-eaters
 (fruit, insects, small animals, and fish); one species, the South
 American vampire bat, feeds exclusively on the blood of living animals,
 chiefly mammals.

   Bataan

 Bataan, peninsula and province (1981 pop. 321,860), W Luzon, the
 Philippines, between Manila Bay and the South China Sea. The capital is
 Batanga. A mountainous jungle region with bamboo forests, Bataan has a
 pulp and paper mill, fertilizer plant, and oil refinery. Subsistence
 farming is also carried on. U.S. and Filipino troops captured on Bataan
 (April 1942) by the Japanese in WORLD WAR II underwent a brutal "death
 march" to a prison camp; thousands died.

   Batavian Republic

 Batavian Republic, name for the United Provinces of the Netherlands
 (1795-1806) after their conquest by the French in the FRENCH
 REVOLUTIONARY WARS. In 1806 NAPOLEON I made Batavia into the kingdom of
 Holland under his brother Louis Bonaparte (see BONAPARTE family).

   Bates, Henry Walter

 Bates, Henry Walter, 1825-92, English naturalist and explorer. His
 pioneering theory of mimicry, explaining similarity among species, was
 used by Charles DARWIN as a proof of his theory of natural selection.
 During travels (1848-59) along the upper Amazon R., he collected
 specimens of nearly 15,000 animal species (mostly insects), more than
 8,000 previously unclassified.

   Bath

 Bath, city (1986 est. pop. 84,400), Avon, SW England. In the 1st cent. AD
 the Romans built elaborate baths at the natural hot springs. Bath became
 England's most fashionable spa in the 18th cent., and the Georgian
 architecture and Roman baths remain tourist attractions.

   Bath, Order of the

 Bath, Order of the: see DECORATIONS, CIVIL AND MILITARY.

   batholith

 batholith, enormous mass of igneous ROCK, granitic in composition, with
 steep walls and without visible floors. Batholiths commonly extend over
 thousands of square miles. Their method of formation is controversial;
 most appear to have moved up through the earth's crust in a molten state,
 shattering and incorporating the overlying country rock.

   Bathory

 Bathory, Hungarian noble family. Stephen Bathory, 1477-1534, a supporter
 of JOHN I of Hungary, was made (1529) voivode governor of Transylvania.
 His younger son, STEPHEN BATHORY, became (1575) king of Poland and was
 succeeded as prince of Transylvania by his brother, Christopher Bathory,
 1530-81. Christopher's son and successor, Sigismund Bathory, 1572-1613,
 was mentally unbalanced. He abdicated (1597, 1599) for brief periods, and
 finally in 1602. Other family members included Elizabeth Bathory, d.
 1614, who was reputed to be a werewolf. To renew her youth, she is said
 to have slaughtered virgins and bathed in their blood. Gabriel Bathory,
 1589-1613, became (1608) prince of Transylvania and was killed in a
 revolt by nobles against his rule.

   Bath-sheba

 Bath-sheba, in the BIBLE, wife of Uriah the Hittite. DAVID seduced her,
 effected the death of her husband, and married her. She was the mother of
 SOLOMON. 2 Sam. 11;12; I Kings 1-2.

   batik

 batik, method of decorating fabric used for centuries in Indonesia. With
 melted wax, a design is applied to the cloth (cotton or, sometimes,
 silk), which is then dipped in cool vegetable dye. Areas covered by wax
 do not receive the dye and display a light pattern on the colored ground.
 The process may be repeated several times. When the design is complete,
 the wax is removed in hot water. A crackling effect occurs if dye has
 seeped into cracks of hardened wax. The same or similar patterns have
 been used for c.1,000 years. Batik was brought to Europe by Dutch
 traders, was adopted in the 19th cent. by Western craftsmen, and is still
 widely used.

   Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio

 Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio, 1901-73, Cuban dictator (1933-44,
 1952-59). An army sergeant, he took part in the 1933 military coup and,
 as army chief of staff, became de facto ruler of CUBA and its elected
 president (1940-44). He accepted his candidate's defeat in 1944, but in
 1952 he seized power and had himself elected president (1954, 1958). His
 corrupt rule caused popular discontent, and he fled (1959) the country
 during the CASTRO revolution.

   bat mitzvah

 bat mitzvah: see under BAR MITZVAH.

   Baton Rouge

 Baton Rouge [Fr., = red stick], city (1986 est. pop. 369,250), state
 capital and seat of East Baton Rouge parish, SE La., on the Mississippi
 R.; inc. 1817. A deepwater port and trade hub, it is a major center of
 petrochemical production with large refineries and machine shops. The
 city was founded in 1719 and was alternately French, English, and
 Spanish. Acquired by the U.S. in 1815, it became state capital in 1849.
 The old (1882) and new (1932) capitols, many antebellum homes, and
 Louisiana State Univ. are among the points of interest.

   Batory

 Batory: see STEPHEN BATHORY and BATHORY, family.

   Battenberg

 Battenberg, German princely family, issued from the morganatic union of
 Alexander, a younger son of Louis II, grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, and
 countess Julia von Hauke, who was created princess of Battenberg in 1858.
 Their oldest son, Louis (1854-1921), an admiral in the British navy, was
 created marquess of Milford Haven and married a granddaughter of Queen
 VICTORIA. During World War I, he anglicized his name to Mountbatten. He
 was the father of Louis MOUNTBATTEN and the grandfather of Philip, duke
 of EDINBURGH. Alexander's second son was Prince Alexander of Bulgaria. A
 third son, Henry, married Beatrice, daughter of Queen Victoria; their
 daughter, Victoria, married ALFONSO XIII of Spain.

   battery, electric

 battery, electric: see CELL, in electricity.

   Battle above the Clouds

 Battle above the Clouds: see CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN.

   Battle of Britain

 Battle of Britain: see WORLD WAR II.

   baud

 baud, a measure of the speed with which a signal travels over a
 telecommunications link. It is expressed in terms of the number of events
 that take place in one second, e.g., in COMPUTER input/output, one baud
 is equal to one bit per second.

   Baudelaire, Charles

 Baudelaire, Charles, 1821-67, French poet whose work has been a major
 influence on Western poetry. His poems, classical in form, introduced
 symbolism (see SYMBOLISTS). Baudelaire was moody and rebellious, imbued
 with an intense religious mysticism, and his work reflects an unremitting
 inner despair. His main theme is the inseparable nature of beauty and
 corruption. His major work, The Flowers of Evil (1857), originally
 condemned as obscene, is recognized as a masterpiece, especially
 remarkable for the brilliant phrasing, rhythm, and expressiveness of its
 lyrics.

   Baudouin

 Baudouin, 1930-, king of the Belgians (1951-). He joined his father,
 LEOPOLD III, in exile (1945-50) in Switzerland and became king when
 Leopold abdicated.

   Bauhaus

 Bauhaus, school of art and architecture in Germany. It was founded at
 Weimar in 1919 and headed by Walter GROPIUS; its faculty included Paul
 KLEE, Lyonel FEININGER, Wassily KANDINSKY, Laszlo MOHOLY-NAGY, and Marcel
 BREUER. The teaching concentrated on functional craftsmanship applied to
 industrial problems of mass production. Bauhaus style was characterized
 by severely economic, geometric design and by respect for materials.
 Enormously controversial and unpopular, the school moved in 1925 to
 Dessau. Gropius resigned in 1928 and was succeeded by Johannes Meyer, who
 was replaced in 1930 by MIES VAN DER ROHE. The Bauhaus moved again to
 Berlin in 1932 and was closed by the NAZIS in 1933. Its influence in
 design of architecture, furniture, typography, and weaving found
 international acclaim and continued to flourish in the U.S., especially
 at the Chicago Institute of Design, founded by Moholy-Nagy.

   Baum, L(yman) Frank

 Baum, L(yman) Frank, 1856-1919, American journalist, playwright, and
 author of juvenile stories; b. Chittenango, N.Y. His most famous work is
 The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900), which was made into a movie in 1938.
 Baum published 13 more Oz books.

   bauxite

 bauxite, mixture of hydrated aluminum oxides usually containing oxides of
 iron and silicon. A noncrystalline substance formerly thought to be a
 mineral, bauxite is claylike, ranging from white to brown or red in
 color, and is the chief source of ALUMINUM and its compounds. It is
 widely distributed, with important deposits in Africa, South America,
 France, the USSR, the West Indies, and the U.S.

   Bavaria

 Bavaria, Ger. Bayern, state (1986 pop. 10,993,400), 27,239 sq mi (70,549
 sq km), S West Germany. It is the largest state of West Germany. Forestry
 and agriculture are important occupations, and much of its industry is
 centered in MUNICH, the capital. The region, whose boundaries have often
 varied, was conquered (15 BC) by the Romans and invaded (6th cent. AD) by
 the Baiuoarii, who set up a duchy. In 788 CHARLEMAGNE added Bavaria to
 his empire. It was ruled (788-911) by the CAROLINGIANS and in 1070 passed
 to the GUELPH family. In 1180 the Holy Roman Emperor bestowed the duchy
 on the WITTELSBACH family, who ruled it until 1918. In 1806 it became a
 kingdom. Bavaria joined the German Empire in 1871 and became the chief
 German state after Prussia. The monarchy was overthrown in 1918, and
 Bavaria later joined the Weimar Republic. Following World War II, Bavaria
 became (1949) part of West Germany.

   Bavarian Succession, War of the

 Bavarian Succession, War of the, between Austria and PRUSSIA, 1778-79. In
 1777 Charles Theodore, the duke of Bavaria, in a secret treaty with
 JOSEPH II, the Holy Roman emperor, ceded Lower BAVARIA to Austria. The
 Bavarian heir apparent, advised by FREDERICK II of Prussia, protested the
 transfer. The resulting war, with no significant engagements, ended with
 Austria's renunciation of all but a small portion of Lower Bavaria.

   Bax, Sir Arnold Edward Trevor

 Bax, Sir Arnold Edward Trevor, 1883-1953, English composer. He studied
 piano at the Royal Academy of Music. Known for his symphonic poems, The
 Garden of Fand (1916) and Tintagel (1917), he also wrote seven
 symphonies, each dedicated to a favorite composer. He became (1941)
 Master of the King's Music. Influenced by Irish folklore, he wrote poetry
 and prose in Ireland under the name Dermot O'Byrne.

   Bayamon

 Bayamon, city (1980 pop. 185,087), NE Puerto Rico, a residential and
 industrial suburb of San Juan. Bayamon was established in 1772. Fruit is
 a major product; manufactures include clothing, furniture, and metal
 products.

   bayberry

 bayberry, common name for the Myricaceae, a family of chiefly temperate
 and subtropical aromatic trees and shrubs. The waxy gray berries of some
 species (mainly Myrica cerifera) are used to make bayberry candles,
 scented soap, and sealing wax. Sweet gale (M. gale) yields tannic acid;
 sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina) is used for medicines and tea.

   Bayeux tapestry

 Bayeux tapestry, an embroidery chronicling the Norman conquest of England
 (see under WILLIAM, kings of England). It is a strip of linen, 230 ft by
 20 in. (70 m by 51 cm) in the Bayeux Museum, France. Attributed to
 William's wife, Queen Matilda, it is a valuable document on the history
 and costumes of the time.

   Baykal

 Baykalor Baikal, lake, SE Siberian USSR. Nearly 400 mi (650 km) long, it
 is the largest (12,160 sq mi/31,494 sq km) freshwater lake in Eurasia. It
 is also believed to be the deepest lake in the world, its maximum known
 depth being 5,714 ft (1,742 m). The lake is in danger of pollution
 because of recent industrial development near its shores.

   Bay of Pigs Invasion

 Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961, unsuccessful invasion of Cuba by U.S.-backed
 Cuban exiles. On Apr. 17, 1961, about 1,500 Cuban exiles landed in the
 Bahia de Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) with the aim of ousting the Communist
 regime of Fidel CASTRO. They had been trained in Guatemala by the CIA,
 supplied with U.S. arms. Most were captured or killed by the Cuban army.
 The U.S. government was severely criticized for the attack at home and
 abroad. In December 1962, Cuba traded 1,113 captured rebels for $53
 million in food and medicine raised by private donations in the U.S.

   Bayreuth Festival

 Bayreuth Festival: see MUSIC FESTIVAL .

   bazooka

 bazooka, military weapon consisting of a portable, lightweight tube that
 serves as a rocket launcher, usually operated by two men. Developed by
 the U.S. as an INFANTRY weapon for use against TANKS, pillboxes, and
 bunkers, it was widely employed during World War II and the Korean War
 but was later superseded by more powerful, accurate weapons, notably
 recoilless weapons and antitank missiles.

   Be

 Be, chemical symbol of the element BERYLLIUM.

   Beach, Moses Yale

 Beach, Moses Yale, 1800-1868, American journalist; b. Wallingford, Conn.
 As owner of the New York Sun, Beach vied with his chief competitor, James
 Gordon BENNETT of the Herald, in employing ingenious means of getting
 news fast, e.g., carrier pigeons. Rising costs led to the formation of
 the New York Associated Press, partly at Beach's instigation (see NEWS
 AGENCY). His weekly American Sun was the first European edition of an
 American paper.

   Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of

 Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of: see DISRAELI, BENJAMIN.

   Beadle, George Wells

 Beadle, George Wells, 1903-, American geneticist; b. Wahoo, Nebr. For
 their work on the bread mold Neurospora crassa, which showed that genes
 control cellular production of enzymes and thus the basic chemistry of
 cells, Beadle and Edward TATUM shared the 1958 Noble Prize in physiology
 or medicine with Joshua LEDERBERG.

   beagle

 beagle, small, compact HOUND; shoulder height, 10-15 in. (25.4-38.1 cm);
 weight, 20-40 lb (9.1-18.1 kg). Its short, close-lying, harsh coat is
 usually black, tan, and white. Developed in England to hunt hares, it was
 introduced into the U.S. in the 1870s.

   bean

 bean, name for seeds of trees and shrubs of the PULSE family, and for
 various plants of the family having edible seeds or seed pods. True beans
 are in the genus Phaseolus. The COWPEA, CAROB, and CHICK-PEA are
 sometimes considered beans. Cultivated worldwide, beans are an important
 food staple. They are high in protein and often used as a meat
 substitute.

   bear

 bear, large MAMMAL of the family Ursidae, found almost exclusively in the
 Northern Hemisphere. Bears have large heads, bulky bodies, short,
 powerful, clawed limbs, and coarse, thick fur; almost all are omnivorous.
 In cold climates, bears do not hibernate (see HIBERNATION) but sleep most
 of the winter; their metabolism remains normal, and they may wake and
 emerge during warm spells. North American brown bears include the Kodiak
 bear and the grizzly. The Kodiak, the largest bear, sometimes stands 9 ft
 (2.7 m) high and weighs over 1,600 lb (730 kg). The grizzly,
 characterized by silver-tipped (grizzled) fur, is more highly carnivorous
 than most bears and preys on large mammals such as deer. The most
 widespread North American bear is the black bear, smaller than the brown
 bears and ranging in color from light brown to black. The large, white
 polar bear is an arctic species. A solitary, fearless hunter, it is a
 powerful swimmer and feeds mostly on marine animals.

   Beard, Charles A(ustin)

 Beard, Charles A(ustin), 1874-1948, American historian; b. near
 Knightstown, Ind. As a professor at Columbia Univ. he taught that history
 encompasses all aspects of civilization. He was particularly interested
 in the relationship of economics and politics and in 1913 published An
 Economic Interpretation of the Constitution. Beard helped to found the
 New School for Social Research. With his wife, Mary Ritter Beard
 (1876-1958), he wrote The Rise of American Civilization (2 vol., 1927)
 and its sequels (vol. 3 and vol. 4),America in Midpassage (1939) and The
 American Spirit (1943).

   Bearden, Romare

 Bearden, Romare, 1914-88, American painter; b. Charlotte, N.C., raised in
 Harlem. Rendered in vibrant, flat planes, often with collage, his works
 deal with the black experience in America. His work appears in many
 museum collections.

   Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent

 Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent, 1872-98, English illustrator and writer. His
 unique, largely self-taught work was influenced by Greek vase painting,
 Japanese woodcuts, and the French ROCOCO. He developed a superbly
 artificial, flat, linear, black-and-white style, illustrating macabre,
 often erotic themes for books, e.g., Oscar WILDE'S Salome (1894), and
 periodicals, e.g., The Yellow Book (1894-96), for which he was art
 editor. He died at 26 of tuberculosis.

   bearing

 bearing, machine part used to reduce FRICTION between moving surfaces and
 to support moving loads. There are two principal types. A plain, or
 journal, bearing is a cylinder that supports a rotating shaft such as a
 motor shaft; its inner lining, the bushing, is usually made of a metal
 softer than that of the shaft, so that any slight misalignment of the
 shaft can be adjusted by an equivalent wearing of the bushing. An
 antifriction bearing is a cylinder containing a movable inner ring of
 small steel balls (the ball bearings used primarily in light machinery)
 or larger cylindrical rollers. The rotating machine part fits into a
 center of the ring, which takes up the motion of the rotating part,
 distributing and reducing friction through the movement of its bearings.

   beat frequency

 beat frequency, half of the difference of the frequencies of two sets of
 waves traveling in the same direction. Sets of waves combine to form a
 beat, which has a varying amplitude and a fixed frequency. The number of
 beats occurring in one second is equal to twice the beat frequency. Beats
 are an example of interference, and, in sound waves, can be used for
 practical purposes, such as piano tuning.

   beat generation

 beat generation, certain American artists and writers popular in the
 1950s. Influenced by Eastern religions, e.g., ZEN BUDDHISM, and the
 rhythms of "progressive" JAZZ, they rejected traditional forms and sought
 expression in intense experiences and beatific illumination. Novelists in
 the movement included William Burroughs and Jack KEROUAC. Among the
 "beat" poets were Allen GINSBERG and Lawrence FERLINGHETTI.

   Beatitudes

 Beatitudes, eight blessings spoken by Jesus at the beginning of the
 Sermon on the Mount (Mat. 5.3-12). Luke 6.20-26, a parallel passage,
 names four blessings and four woes.

   Beatles, The

 Beatles, The, English rock music group (1959-69). Members were John
 Lennon (1940-80), Paul McCartney (1942-), George Harrison (1943-), and
 Ringo Starr (Richard Starkey) (1940-). Influenced by Americans like Elvis
 PRESLEY, the Beatles dominated ROCK MUSIC in the 1960s with their wit,
 stage presence, and music that evolved from tight rhythm and blues to
 allusive lyricism. The lyrics and music for their songs were written
 mostly by Lennon and McCartney. The group recorded numerous albums, made
 films, and toured widely.

   Beaton, Sir Cecil

 Beaton, Sir Cecil, 1904-80, English stage and costume designer,
 photographer, writer, and painter. His credits include the designs for
 the Broadway shows My Fair Lady (1956) and Coco (1969), and photographic
 portraits of many famous people.

   Beatrice Portinari

 Beatrice Portinari, 1266-90, Florentine woman thought to be the Beatrice
 of DANTE'S Divine Comedy and Vita nuova.

   Beatrix