Multimedia Mania/abacus-multimedia-mania.iso/dp/0053/00537.txt

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$Unique_ID{bob00537}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{United Kingdom
Nature Conservation}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC}
$Affiliation{Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC}
$Subject{pollution
control
waste
authorities
environment
land
noise
act
britain
disposal}
$Date{1990}
$Log{}
Title:       United Kingdom
Book:        Planning and the Environment in Britain
Author:      Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC
Affiliation: Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC
Date:        1990

Nature Conservation

     The official body responsible for nature conservation in Great Britain is
the Nature Conservancy Council, which has the functions of establishing,
maintaining and managing nature reserves, advising the Government, providing
general information and advice, and commissioning or supporting research.
There are 234 national nature reserves covering some 161,000 hectares
(398,000 acres). Some 5,000 sites of special scientific interest have been
listed for their flora, fauna or geological or physiographical features.

     The Forestry Commission has 344 `sites of special scientific interest'
on its land-covering 70,000 hectares (173,000 acres)-on which nature
conservation is a primary objective. Local authorities have declared about 150
local nature reserves. Voluntary nature conservation trusts and the Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds play an important part in protecting
wildlife, having established between them some 1,800 reserves. The trusts are
affiliated to a parent organisation, the Royal Society for Nature
Conservation. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, with over 440,000
members and 90,000 young ornithologists, is the largest voluntary wildlife
conservation body in Europe.

     In Northern Ireland the Committee for Nature Conservation advises the
Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland on nature conservation
matters including the establishment and management of terrestrial and marine
nature reserves and the declaration of areas of special scientific interest;
46 national nature reserves have been established and 18 areas of special
scientific interest declared.

     The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 extended the list of protected
species (further extended by Order in 1988), restricted the introduction into
the countryside of animals or plants not normally found in the wild, and
afforded greater protection for areas of special scientific interest and other
important habitats. In Northern Ireland two Orders, which became operative in
1985, have brought legislation into line with the rest of Britain on species
and habitat protection.

     Other conservation measures promoted by the Government have included a
ban (in conjunction with other European Community countries) on the import
of whale products and certain seal pup products, a system of licensing zoos to
ensure that captive animals are kept in suitable conditions, and stricter
controls for the protection of wild birds. Certain areas, of importance for
their landscape, historic and habitat value, are being designated
`environmentally sensitive areas' as a result of a change in European
Community regulations allowing governments to make special payments to farmers
to continue their traditional farming methods for the sake of preserving the
countryside and its wildlife. By mid-1988, 19 areas had been designated.

     Britain participated fully in the European Year of the Environment (from
March 1987 to March 1988), which aimed to raise public awareness of
environmental issues and of the individual's responsibility for the present
and future quality of the environment. Over 3,000 events held in Britain
highlighted nature conservation, the control of pollution and wastes, and the
improvement of the urban environment.

Land Reclamation and Use

     Derelict land is often concentrated in places associated with
nineteenth-century industrial development, but the restructuring of particular
industries over the past decade or so is continuing to add significantly to
this problem in certain areas. Dereliction can take various forms and includes
mineral waste tips, old mineral workings, and former industrial sites (such as
steelworks, disused railways and docks), many of which are contaminated sites.

     In England government grants are available under the Derelict Land Act
1982 to local authorities and to other public bodies, to the private sector
and to nationalised industries for the reclamation of such land in order to
bring it into beneficial use or to improve its appearance. The expenditure
provision for the derelict land reclamation programme in 1988-89 is 76 million
Pounds. The main priority is given to reclamation schemes in urban,
particularly inner city, areas that lead to development by the private sector
for industry, commerce and especially housing. Between 1 April 1979 and 31
March 1988 some 11,500 hectares (over 28,000 acres) of derelict land were
reclaimed in England with the aid of some 460 million Pounds of grant.

     In Scotland and Wales responsibility for derelict land reclamation rests
with the respective development agencies, which may acquire and reclaim land,
employ local authorities as their agents (in Scotland) or make grants to local
authorities for the purpose (in Wales). In Northern Ireland grants may be paid
to landowners who restore or improve derelict sites.

     To prevent new dereliction, planning controls require that when
permission is given for mineral working, various measures must be taken to
minimise the disturbance caused by the work and, where practicable, to secure
effective restoration to the former land use or to a new use.

     In Wales land use is additionally encouraged by the Land Authority for
Wales, a statutory body with powers to make land available for development in
circumstances where the private sector would find this difficult or
impossible.

Registers of Unused and Under-used Land

     In England the Government has instituted, and made available for
inspection, registers of unused and under-used land held by local authorities,
nationalised industries and other public bodies; some 64,000 hectares (159,000
acres) have been registered. Of this, some 28,000 hectares (70,000 acres) have
been deregistered mainly because the land has been sold to the private sector
or brought into use. There is power to direct a public body to dispose of
registered land; directions in respect of 73 sites had been issued by the end
of March 1988. Registers are also published for certain areas of Wales.

Environmental Improvement Scheme

     In 1986 the Government launched a new initiative to encourage a wide
range of local environmental improvement work. The initiative, called UK 2000,
brings together representatives of voluntary organisations and independent
members from business. It aims to improve the natural and built environment
and people's enjoyment of it, create jobs, and provide work and training for
the participants. Voluntary organisations promote programmes of work and
assist in the setting up of local projects such as creating parks, footpaths
and other areas of greenery in cities, conserving the industrial heritage and
the natural environment, recycling waste, and providing tourist information
and facilities.

Control of Pollution

     The Control of Pollution Act 1974, which applies to England, Scotland
and Wales, sets out a wide range of powers and duties for local and water
authorities, including control over wastes, air and water pollution and noise,
and contains important provisions on the release of information to the public
on environmental conditions. In particular, it introduced a new system for the
comprehensive planning of waste disposal operations so as to ensure that
disposal is carried out to satisfactory standards and that, where practicable,
waste materials are recovered and recycled. The Act also increased the
penalties for a large number of pollution offences. Similar legislation
applies in Northern Ireland.

Administration

     Executive responsibility for pollution control rests in general with
local and water authorities, although certain industrial processes are
controlled by central government agencies. Local authorities are responsible
for matters such as collection and disposal of domestic wastes; control of air
pollution from domestic and many industrial premises; and noise abatement
measures. The regional water authorities in England, the Welsh Water
Authority, the river purification boards and island councils in Scotland and
the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland are responsible for
control of water pollution. Sewerage and sewage treatment and disposal are the
responsibilities of regional water authorities in England and Wales, of local
authorities in Scotland and of the Department of the Environment in Northern
Ireland.

     An independent standing Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
advises the Government on national and international matters concerning the
pollution of the environment, on the adequacy of research and on the future
possibilities of danger to the environment. It has so far produced 12 reports
covering a wide range of topics.

     Central government is principally concerned with formulating policy,
exercising general budgetary control, promoting legislation, and advising
pollution control authorities on its implementation. The Secretary of State
for the Environment has general responsibility for co-ordinating the work of
the Government on environmental protection and in this is assisted by a
Central Directorate of Environmental Protection with in the Department. In
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland the respective Secretaries of State are
responsible for pollution control co-ordination in their countries. They are
assisted by the Scottish Development Department, the Water and Environmental
Protection Division of the Welsh Office, and the Department of the Environment
for Northern Ireland respectively. In 1987 the former Industrial Air
Pollution Inspectorate (of the Health and Safety Executive), the Radiochemical
Inspectorate and the Hazardous Waste Inspectorate were amalgamated in a single
unified inspectorate for England and Wales known as the Inspectorate of
Pollution.

     The Environmental Protection Technology Scheme, launched by the
Department of the Environment in 1988, aims to encourage the development of
cleaner industrial technologies.

The Land

     The main risks of land pollution lie in the indiscriminate dumping of
waste materials on land, careless disposal of pesticides and chemicals, and
the deposition of materials from the atmosphere and from flood-water. The
Control of Pollution Act places a duty on waste disposal authorities to
arrange for the disposal of controlled wastes. It requires them to draw up and
revise periodically a waste disposal plan and establishes a licensing system
for waste disposal sites, treatment plants and storage facilities receiving
controlled wastes. In addition, it provides for a more intensive control
system for certain especially hazardous or difficult wastes. The Inspectorate
of Pollution and the Hazardous Waste Inspectorate for Scotland advise local
authorities on how to improve their control of waste management and to work
towards environmentally acceptable standards for dealing with hazardous
wastes. In June 1988 the Government announced plans to strengthen legal
controls on waste management; proposed amendments to the Control of Pollution
Act will include provision for a statutory duty of care, to be imposed on both
producers and holders of waste.

     It is a criminal offence to leave litter in any public place in the open
air or to dump rubbish except in designated places. To help counteract the
problem of litter, financial support is given to the Tidy Britain Group, which
provides a comprehensive litter abatement programme in collaboration with
local authorities and secures sponsorship from industry to undertake litter
abatement promotions. In March 1988 the Government increased its annual grant
to the Tidy Britain Group from 0.6 million Pounds to 1.25 million Pounds; the
Group is to lead a new anti-litter initiative, involving a number of pilot
projects. The Group is also included in UK 2000 (see p 208).

Recycling and Materials Reclamation

     The Government encourages the reclamation and recycling of waste
materials wherever this is practicable and economic in order to reduce waste
disposal costs and to help to conserve natural resources. Industry already
makes considerable use of reclaimed waste material such as metals, paper and
textiles. Local authorities reclaim about 20,000 tonnes of waste paper and
about 30,000 tonnes of metals annually. In an increasing number of areas there
are `bottle banks' and `can banks' where the public can deposit used glass and
metal containers respectively. Voluntary organisations also arrange
collections of waste material. Waste disposal authorities have powers under
the Control of Pollution Act to take full account of opportunities for waste
reclamation and have a duty when drawing up their waste disposal plans to
include information on disposal methods which should be used, including
reclamation.

Water Pollution

     There has been a significant improvement in water quality since the
1950s: the level of pollution in the tidal Thames, for example, has been
reduced to a quarter of the 1950s' level and over 100 different kinds of fish
have been identified there since 1964. A major scheme has been launched to
clean up the Mersey, the largest British estuary still suffering from
pollution, and other major schemes are in progress, including programmes aimed
at improving water quality in the Tyne and Tees.

     There are comprehensive controls over discharges to rivers, estuaries,
coastal waters and underground waters. Information about consented discharges
and about water quality is publicly available on registers maintained by the
individual water authorities and by the river purification authorities in
Scotland. More than 95 per cent of the population is provided with main
drainage, and public authority sewage treatment works serve over four-fifths
of the population-a very high proportion by international standards.

Marine Pollution

     Control of marine pollution from ships is based largely on international
conventions drawn up under the auspices of the International Maritime
Organisation, a United Nations agency with headquarters in London, and
implemented for British ships by domestic legislation. The Merchant Shipping
(Prevention of Oil Pollution) Regulations 1983 and the Prevention of Oil
Pollution Act 1986 make it an offence for ships of any nationality to
discharge oil or oily mixtures into British territorial waters and for British
registered ships to make similar discharges anywhere into the sea, except in
accordance with the regulations.

     The Department of Transport's Marine Pollution Control Unit undertakes
operations at sea to counter pollution when oil (or other dangerous
substances) threatens major coastal pollution or is likely to harm important
fisheries or concentrations of sea birds. It maintains a national contingency
plan and dispersant spraying, cargo transfer and mechanical recovery
resources, including a remote sensing aircraft capable of detecting possible
illegal discharges and of quantifying oil pollution.

     Offshore operators must ensure that oil does not escape into the sea and
are required to have contingency plans for dealing with oil spilled
accidentally. Discharges containing oil are controlled under the Prevention of
Oil Pollution Act 1971. Discharges of chemicals are controlled and monitored
by a non-statutory Chemical Notification Scheme, administered by the
Department of Energy in consultation with fisheries departments.

     The Food and Environment Protection Act 1985 (which superseded the
Dumping at Sea Act 1974) tightened the controls over dumping at sea, the most
significant change being the introduction of specific controls on marine
incineration. Under the Act a licence has to be obtained for the permanent
deposit of any substance or article into tidal waters and the sea. Dumping at
sea is permitted on the basis of the scientific criteria set out in the
annexes to the Oslo Convention (International Convention for the Prevention of
Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft 1972) and the London
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other
Matter 1972.

     At the Second International Conference on the Protection of the North
Sea, held in London in November 1987, it was agreed to take action to protect
and enhance the quality of the North Sea and benefit the environment as a
whole. In February 1988 the Government issued guidance to the water industry
and other public utility and industrial interests on reducing inputs of
pollutants to the seas around Britain. Authorities are being required to
prepare plans to reduce inputs of dangerous substances into rivers and
estuaries, one of the major sources of such inputs to the North Sea, in order
to meet the agreed objectives by 1990. At the conference ministers agreed to
cease the dumping of harmful industrial waste by the end of 1989. The
conference also established a scientific task force to ensure better
coordination of North Sea research and monitoring and ministers also agreed to
hold a third conference, in the Netherlands, in early 1990 to review progress.

Clean Air

     Responsibility for clean air rests primarily with local authorities.
Under the Clean Air Acts 1956 and 1968 they may declare `smoke control areas'
within which the emission of smoke from chimneys constitutes an offence. About
two-thirds of the premises in conurbations are now covered by smoke control
orders. Emissions from most industrial premises are also subject to the
control of local authorities under the Clean Air Acts and the Public Health
Acts. The emission of dark smoke from any trade or industrial premises or from
the chimney of any building is in general prohibited, and new furnaces must be
capable as far as practicable of smokeless operation. Regulations prescribe
specific limits to the quantities of grit and dust which may be emitted from
certain furnaces. Industrial premises that have the greatest potential for
giving rise to noxious or offensive emissions are, in England and Wales, under
the control of the Inspectorate of Pollution. In Scotland this function is
discharged by the Industrial Pollution Inspectorate. The Inspectorates
require the best practicable means to be used to prevent emissions or render
them harmless. Similar legislation and controls apply in Northern Ireland.

     Strict controls are in force on emissions from motor vehicles, and
Britain has played a constructive role in European Community discussions on
tighter limits. The maximum permitted lead content of petrol in Britain was
reduced to 0.15 grammes per litre on 31 December 1985 and as a result the
amount of lead measured in the air in 1986 fell to less than half the 1985
figure. The European Community has adopted a directive which requires unleaded
petrol to be available throughout the Community by October 1989. The first
unleaded petrol in Britain went on sale at selected service stations in 1986,
and from 1 October 1990 most new cars in Britain will have to be able to run
on unleaded petrol. Britain is implementing new and tighter limits on exhaust
emissions from cars following agreement on a European Community directive (the
`Luxembourg' agreement) in December 1987. In June 1988 agreement was reached
in principle within the Community on new and tighter exhaust emission
standards for small cars. The overall effect will be to reduce by more than
half the emissions permitted from new cars.

     Considerable progress has been made towards the achievement of cleaner
air and a better environment, especially in the last 30 years or so. Total
emissions of smoke in the air have fallen by over 85 per cent since 1960. The
domestic smoke control programme has been particularly important in achieving
this result. London no longer has the dense smoke-laden `smogs' of the 1950s
and in central London winter sunshine has increased by about 50 per cent since
1958. Similar improvement has been achieved in other cities including Glasgow
and Sheffield.

     National sulphur dioxide emissions have fallen by about 40 per cent since
1970. The Government fully accepts the need for further reductions of both
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. Under a 1,000 million Pounds
programme, all new coal-fired power stations are to have equipment to remove
acid emissions; the equivalent of three Central Electricity Generating Board
power stations will be retrofitted with flue gas desulphurisation equipment,
and all 12 major coal-fired power stations with low nitrogen oxide burners. In
June 1988 agreement was reached on the European Community directive on the
control of emissions from large combustion plants, under which Britain
accepted a phased programme of reductions in sulphur dioxide emissions from
existing large combustion plants by 20 per cent of 1980 levels by 1993, 40 per
cent by 1998 and 60 per cent by 2003, and agreed to reduce nitrogen oxide
emissions by 15 per cent by 1993 and 30 per cent by 1998. The Government is
considering with the electricity supply industry how best to implement these
further reductions. Britain is supporting an extensive research programme into
the causes and effects of acid rain, and the likely results of possible
abatement technologies. It is also participating in international research
programmes and monitoring schemes.

     Britain is closely involved in international measures to prevent further
damage to the ozone layer of the atmosphere by chlorofluorocarbons, the
man-made gases in aerosols. In 1987 Britain signed the Montreal Protocol to
the Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which is expected
to come into force on 1 January 1989. Signatories to the Protocol have agreed
to reduce their consumption and production of the substances with the greatest
potential to deplete the ozone layer-chlorofluorocarbons and halons.

Noise

     The Control of Pollution Act 1974 (and similar legislation in Northern
Ireland) requires local authorities to inspect their areas for noise nuisance
and gives them the power to take action by serving a noise abatement notice on
a person responsible for it. It also enables them to designate `noise
abatement zones' within which registered levels of noise from certain premises
may not be increased without their permission. The Act contains specific
provisions to control noise from construction and demolition sites. It also
contains provisions enabling individuals to take action through the courts
against noise amounting to a nuisance.

     Transport is one of the main offenders in noise pollution, and control
measures are aimed at reducing noise at source, through requirements limiting
the noise that aircraft and motor vehicles may make, and at protecting people
from its effects. The Road Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations 1986
set out the permissible noise levels for various classes of new vehicles. More
stringent limits will be introduced for new vehicles between October 1988 and
October 1990.

     Under the Land Compensation Act 1973 and similar legislation in Scotland,
compensation is payable for loss in property values caused by physical factors
including noise arising from the use of new or improved public works such as
roads and airports. Regulations made under the Acts also enable highway
authorities to carry out or make grants for insulation of homes subject to
specified levels of increased noise caused by new or improved roads. Noise
insulation may also be provided where construction work for new roads is
likely to affect nearby homes seriously.

     Noise emission levels of almost all aircraft on the United Kingdom
Register are regulated in accordance with standards agreed by the
International Civil Aviation Organisation. Since 1986 all subsonic jets on the
United Kingdom Register have had to comply with these standards, and this
requirement was extended to overseas-registered aircraft from 1 January 1988.
Various operational restrictions have been introduced to reduce noise
disturbance further at Heathrow, Gatwick, and Stansted, where the Secretary of
State for Transport has assumed responsibility for noise abatement. These
measures include restriction on the type and number of aircraft which may
operate at night, the routing of departing aircraft on noise preferential
routes, and quite take-off and landing procedures.

Radioactivity

     Radiation resulting from industrial and other processes represents only a
small fraction of that to which the population is exposed from the natural
environment. Nevertheless, that fraction is subject to stringent control
because of possible effects on health or longer-term genetic effects. Under
the Radioactive Substances Act 1960 most users of radioactive materials other
than those subject to licence under the Nuclear Installations Act 1965 must
be registered by the appropriate department, and authorisation is also
required for the disposal of radioactive waste. The Health and Safety
Executive, through its Nuclear Installations Inspectorate, is the authority
concerned with the granting of nuclear site licences for commercial nuclear
installations. No installation may be constructed or operated without a
licence granted by the Executive. The National Radiological Protection
Board (NRPB), established under the Radiological Protection Act 1970,
provides an authoritative point of reference on radiological protection.
Following the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power station in the
Soviet Union in 1986, the Government is setting up a Radioactive Incident
Monitoring Network. More than 80 stations throughout Britain will
continuously monitor radiation in order to improve emergency arrangements in
the event of a nuclear accident overseas. In 1987 the Government announced a
series of measures to deal with the problem of naturally occurring radon gas
in houses, including a survey by the NRPB to identify houses with the highest
levels where remedial action would be necessary.

Radioactive Waste Disposal

     Radioactive wastes vary widely in nature and level of activity, and the
practices followed reflect this variation. Some wastes are dispersed safety
in the environment. The Nuclear Industry Radioactive Waste Executive (UK Nirex
Ltd) is responsible for developing and operating disposal facilities for solid
wastes with a low or intermediate level of activity and is seeking to identify
a suitable location for a deep multi-purpose facility. UK Nirex Ltd is
evaluating the relative merits of techniques of deep burial in a repository
on land, tunnelling under the sea-bed from the shore, and disposal into
the sea-bed from a sea-based rig. The Department of the Environment is also
sponsoring research, in collaboration with other countries, into disposal
of high-level wastes, but these will first be stored in vitrified form
for at least 50 years.

Addresses

     Department of the Environment, 2 Marsham Street, London SW1P 3EB.

     Northern Ireland Department of the Environment, Environmental Protection
Division and Conservation Services, Calvert House, 23 Castle Place, Belfast
BT1 1FY.

     Scottish Development Department, New St Andrew's House, Edinburgh
EH1 3SZ.

     Welsh Office, Cathays Park, Cardiff CF1 3NQ.

     Cadw: Welsh Historic Monuments, Brunel House, 2 Fitzalan Road, Cardiff
CF2 1UY.

     Civic Trust, 17 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5AW.

     Council for Environmental Conservation, 80 York Way, London N1 9AG.

     Countryside Commission, John Dower House, Crescent Place, Cheltenham,
Gloucestershire GL50 3RA.

     Countryside Commission for Scotland, Battleby, Redgorton, Perth PH1 3EW.

     English Heritage (Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for
England), Fortress House, 23 Savile Row, London W1X 2HE.

     Health and Safety Executive, St Hugh's House, Stanley Precinct, Bootle
L20 3QY.

     Housing Corporation, 149 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P OBN.

     National House Building Council, 58 Portland Place, London W1.

     National Trust, 36 Queen Anne's Gate, London SW1H 9AS.

     National Trust for Scotland, 5 Charlotte Square, Edinburgh EH2 4DU.

     Nature Conservancy Council, Northminster House, Peterborough PE1 1UA.

     Nuclear Industry Radioactive Waste Executive (NIREX), Harwell, Didcot,
Oxfordshire OX11 ORH.