Multimedia Mania/abacus-multimedia-mania.iso/dp/0053/00532.txt

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$Unique_ID{bob00532}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{United Kingdom
East-West Relations}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC}
$Affiliation{Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC}
$Subject{commonwealth
countries
community
trade
member
co-operation
states
africa
development
aid}
$Date{1990}
$Log{}
Title:       United Kingdom
Book:        Britain's Overseas Relations
Author:      Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC
Affiliation: Embassy of the United Kingdom, Washington DC
Date:        1990

East-West Relations

     Britain considers that the 12 member states should ensure that a
coherent Western European voice is heard in the management of East-West
relations. The Twelve have welcomed the treaty between the United States
and the Soviet Union on the removal of intermediate-range nuclear forces
(see p 89). They have also stressed the need for the Soviet Union to address
human rights issues seriously and to honour commitments made in the 1975
Helsinki Final Act (see p 87). At the current Vienna follow-up meeting, the
Twelve have pressed for a thorough review of how these commitments have been
complied with and for practical progress for the benefit of individual
citizens throughout Europe.

The Middle East

     In July 1980 the European Council's Venice Declaration stated that a
lasting solution to the problem of the Middle East required the mutual
acceptance of two basic principles-the right of all countries in the area,
including Israel, to secure existence within guaranteed borders and the right
of the Palestinian people to self-determination. The Twelve support the
proposal for an international peace conference on the Middle East. Member
states have repeatedly called on Israel to withdraw from territory occupied in
1967 and are opposed to Israeli measures aimed at altering the legal,
geographical and demographic structure of this territory. Member states are
also urging Israel to administer occupation in accordance with international
law and human rights standards. The Community has a development programme for
the occupied territories and has adopted measures to allow direct exports of
agricultural and industrial products from them to the Community market.

     The Twelve have also consistently emphasised the importance of the
complete withdrawal of foreign forces from Lebanon, except for those whose
presence is requested by the Lebanese Government, and of the obligation on
all parties to co-operate with the UN Interim Force in Lebanon. Member states
have consistently called for a ceasefire in the conflict between Iraq and
Iran, and support the United Nations Secretary-General's efforts to achieve
this.

Central America

     The Twelve firmly believe that the problems of Central America must be
solved by political and not military means and that such solutions must come
from within the region. They have therefore consistently supported the efforts
of the Contadora Group (Colombia, Mexico, Panama and Venezuela) to negotiate
a comprehensive and verifiable peace agreement, and have welcomed the Central
American Accord signed in Guatemala in August 1987 by the presidents of Costa
Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua designed to establish
a durable and lasting peace in Central America. The Community has a
co-operation agreement with the five Central American countries and Panama
providing for closer economic and aid links with the region.

Afghanistan

     Having consistently deplored the Soviet Union's occupation of Afghanistan
since 1980, member states have welcomed the agreement on Soviet withdrawal
reached in Geneva in April 1988 (see p 88); they now wish to see an overall
political settlement to the crisis and the installation of a representative
government by a genuine act of self-determination.

South Africa

     The Twelve have repeatedly called for a peaceful end to the system of
apartheid. They have adopted a wide range of measures in an attempt to bring
home to the South African Government the need for a genuine national dialogue
and to help the victims of apartheid. At the request of the European Council
the Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary, Sir Geoffrey Howe, visited Southern
Africa in late July 1986 in an attempt to build on the work of the
Commonwealth Group of Eminent Persons, to help create conditions in which
genuine dialogue could begin in South Africa and to explain the Twelve's
policy to South Africa's neighbours. In September 1986 the Twelve called on
the South African Government to take the necessary steps to facilitate
national dialogue and undertook to work towards a programme of political
action designed to promote the achievement of this objective. They also
emphasised the importance of strengthened and more effective co-ordination of
positive measures to assist the victims of apartheid and adopted a new package
of restrictive measures consisting of bans on new investments and on the
import of gold coins, iron and steel from South Africa. The Twelve continue to
work together to bring effective pressure to bear for peaceful fundamental
change.

Terrorism

     Because of the threat posed by international and other terrorism,
member states have sought to act jointly against it. They have agreed not to
export arms or other military equipment to countries clearly implicated in
supporting terrorist activity and to take steps to prevent such material
being diverted for terrorist purposes; in 1986, for instance, they agreed
measures against both Libya and Syria following evidence of their involvement
in terrorist activity. It is European Community policy that there should be no
concessions made under duress to terrorists or their sponsors; that there
should be solidarity between member states in their efforts to prevent
terrorism and to bring the guilty to justice; and that terrorist attacks
against any member state should be met with a concerted response. Among the
measures agreed by ministers responsible for countering terrorism are the
establishment of a secure communications link between police forces and
arrangements for regular assessments and analyses of terrorist threats to
member states.

Trade

     Under the Treaty of Rome, the European Commission is given explicit
powers to act on behalf of the Community vis-@a-vis third countries on matters
within Community competence such as the common commercial policy. The
Commission accordingly negotiates on behalf of the Community in major
international trade negotiations. As a single trade bloc it plays a major
role in seeking to preserve the world open trading system on which member
states depend for future growth and jobs, and in defending the interests of
its members against protectionist measures. One of the Community's priorities
is the successful conclusion of the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations
launched in 1986 under the auspices of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT). The first phase of the negotiations was completed on schedule at
the end of 1987. The negotiations seek to secure adherence to GATT rules; to
cover trade in services for the first time (accounting for about 20 per cent
of world trade); and to tackle agricultural trade problems. A major trade
development in 1986 was the renewal for a further five years of the
Multi-Fibre Arrangement governing world trade in textiles and the
consequential renegotiation of 29 bilateral textile agreements between the
Community and third-country suppliers. The Community has also agreed its
priorities for future co-operation with the European Free Trade Association.

     The Community has association and co-operation agreements with all
countries with a Mediterranean coastline (except Albania and Libya) and with
Jordan; these give preferential access to Community markets. Non-preferential
co-operation agreements have also been made with individual countries in
South Asia and Latin America as well as with China, the Association of South
East Asian Nations, the Andean Pact and the Central American states. Trade
relations with the developing countries of Africa, the Caribbean and the
Pacific are governed by the third Lom*e Convention (see below). Negotiations
on trade and economic co-operation agreements are taking place with Hungary,
Czechoslovakia and Romania. In June 1988 the Community established official
relations with the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) and signed
a trade and economic co-operation agreement with the Gulf Co-operation
Council.

     The Community's Generalised Scheme of Preferences is designed to help
developing countries by granting tariff-free access to the Community market
for most of their industrial goods and varying degrees of preferential access
for their agricultural produce and textiles. The 1988 scheme concentrates
benefits on the poorer producers and countries and certain categories of
exports from the more competitive producers are being excluded, in the
textiles sector for the first time.

Aid

     The third Lom*e Convention, which governs aid, trade and co-operation
between the Community and 66 developing countries in Africa, the Caribbean
and the Pacific (ACP), was signed in December 1984 and came into force in
May 1986. Over half the ACP countries are members of the Commonwealth. The
Convention, which runs from 1986 to 1990, provides for aid totalling over
5,000 million Pounds and a further 770 million Pounds in the form of loans
from the European Investment Bank; it also covers industrial and agricultural
co-operation, a scheme designed to help stabilise the commodity export
earnings of the ACP countries and assistance for ACP mineral producers whose
production and income suffer from temporary disruptions beyond their control.
In addition, it offers duty-free access to the Community for ACP exports of
all industrial and most agricultural goods, including privileged access for
sugar, bananas, rum and beef. Emphasis is being placed on food production and
on measures to prevent desertification. All British dependent territories
(with the exception of Bermuda, Gibraltar and Hong Kong), together with the
overseas territories of other Community members, are formally associated with
the Community under provisions parallel to those of the Lom*e Convention and
with similar aid and trade benefits.

     In 1987 the Council of Ministers approved a special Community programme
worth over 200 million Pounds to aid highly indebted low-income countries in
sub-Saharan Africa pursuing structural adjustment economic policies.

     Britain played a leading part in the Community's adoption of an aid
programme for developing countries in Asia and Latin America not covered by
the Lom*e Convention or having any other special relationship with the
Community. This has grown steadily since 1976 and was worth some 117 million
Pounds in 1987. Priority is given to rural development and agricultural
production in the poorest countries, most of which are in Asia.

     Co-operation and association agreements with individual countries and
regional groupings also include provision for development aid. In 1987, for
instance, new five-year financial protocols were agreed with most of the
Community's Mediterranean partners; these will provide for 430 million Pounds
of Community aid and 1,120 million Pounds in loans from the European
Investment Bank.

     The Community's food aid programme is designed to be an effective
instrument of development policy rather than a short-term expedient for the
disposal of unwanted food surpluses. In 1987 it spent some 282 million Pounds
on food aid, of which Britain's share was 60 million Pounds, much of which
went to Africa.

The Commonwealth

     The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 48 independent states
with a combined population of some 1,200 million, nearly a quarter of the
world total. Commonwealth members are a representative cross-section of
nations at all stages of social and economic development. They include some of
the richest and poorest members of the world community and also some of the
largest and smallest. Their peoples are drawn from practically all the world's
main races, from all continents and from many faiths. Britain participates
fully in all Commonwealth activities and values it as a means of consulting
and co-operating with peoples of widely different cultures and perspectives,
thereby increasing international understanding, stability and peace, and
contributing to more balanced global economic development.

     The members are Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh,
Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Britain, Brunei, Canada, Cyprus, Dominica, The
Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho,
Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria,
Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka,
Swaziland, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu,
Western Samoa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Nauru and Tuvalu are special members,
entitled to take part in all Commonwealth meetings and activities except
Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings. The Queen is recognised as head of
the Commonwealth; she is also head of State in 17 of these countries.

     The origin of the Commonwealth lies in the gradual granting of
self-government to the older-established British colonies (later known as the
Dominions) in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa where European
settlement had occurred on a large scale. Their fully independent status in
relation to Britain was legally formulated in the Statute of Westminster of
1931. The modern Commonwealth, comprising republics and national monarchies as
well as monarchies under the Queen, became possible when it was agreed in 1949
that India, on becoming a republic, could continue to be a member. Since then,
almost all of Britain's former dependent territories have attained their
independence and have voluntarily joined the Commonwealth.

Consultation

     As a member of the Commonwealth, Britain participates in a system of
mutual consultation and co-operation which benefits member countries and
contributes to international understanding. Consultation takes place through
diplomatic representatives known as high commissioners, meetings of heads of
Government, specialised conferences of other ministers and officials, expert
groups, and discussions at international conferences and the United Nations.
Trade and cultural exhibitions and conferences of professional and unofficial
medical, cultural, educational and economic organisations are other ways in
which frequent contacts are made.

     Heads of Government usually meet every two years, most recently in
Vancouver in 1987; they will next meet in Kuala Lumpur in 1989. Proceedings
are held in private, facilitating a frank and informal exchange of views. No
votes are taken, decisions being reached by consensus. These meetings allow
prime ministers and presidents to discuss international issues and decide on
collective initiatives. Common views on matters of major international concern
are formulated and reflected in the communiqu*es issued at the ends of the
meetings. Occasionally, separate declarations are made on particular issues.
These have included the 1971 Declaration of Commonwealth Principles; the 1977
Gleneagles Statement, which commits member governments to take every practical
step to discourage sporting contacts with South Africa; and the 1985
Commonwealth Accord on Southern Africa, which provides for measures designed
to impress on South Africa the urgency of dismantling the apartheid system.
The 1987 Okanagan Statement and Programme of Action on Southern Africa
committed member states to increased support for the front-line states
including a special technical assistance programme for Mozambique. The 1987
Vancouver Declaration on World Trade condemned protectionism and supported
trade liberalisation through the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade
negotiations (see p 82).

     Following the failure of Commonwealth and other attempts in 1986 to
encourage the evolution of a political dialogue leading to the establishment
of a non-racial and representative government, a summit of seven Commonwealth
leaders, meeting in London in August 1986, agreed on the need for further
measures against South Africa. Britain, while believing that mandatory
economic sanctions would not succeed in promoting peaceful change, agreed to
impose voluntary bans on new investment in, and the promotion of tourism to,
South Africa, as well as to implement European Community decisions to ban the
import of iron and steel (see p 81).

     With many small states among its members the Commonwealth has expressed
concern about their security and development. At Nassau in 1985 Commonwealth
leaders called for action which would reduce the vulnerability of small states
while not diminishing their status as independent, sovereign and equal members
of the world community. British policy is to co-operate with other member
states in order to increase the security of small nations by encouraging
regional co-operation and by providing economic aid and technical assistance.

     Finance ministers meet annually to discuss world economic problems, and
in recent years have paid particular attention to the problems of development
and the establishment of a fairer international economic order. Other meetings
include those of agriculture, education, health and law ministers which take
place every two or three years. Ministers of industry, labour and employment,
trade and women's affairs also meet.

The Commonwealth Secretariat

     The Commonwealth Secretariat, established in London in 1965 and financed
by member states, is the main agency for multilateral communication between
them. It is headed by a Secretary-General appointed by heads of Government
and responsible to member states collectively.

     The Secretariat promotes consultation, disseminates information on
matters of common concern, and organises meetings and conferences, including
those of heads of Government and of ministers. It co-ordinates many
Commonwealth activities related to international economic, social and
political affairs, including education, food production and rural development,
the role of women in development, human rights, youth programmes, management
development, science and technology, law and health. The Secretariat also
administers the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation.

     Because of its neutral position the Secretariat has been able to make its
good offices available in cases of dispute, and has carried out, on request,
special assignments requiring demonstrable impartiality.

Technical Co-operation

     Britain plays an active part in the work of the Commonwealth Fund for
Technical Co-operation, established within the Secretariat to provide
technical assistance for economic and social development in Commonwealth
developing countries, and contributes almost a third of its income. The Fund
provides experts to undertake advisory assignments or fill specific posts and
uses consultancy firms to make studies for governments. Its fellowships and
training programme is of particular help in raising levels of technical,
industrial, managerial and other skills, and makes wide use of training
facilities within developing member countries for the benefit of other
developing countries. It has a special programme to help countries develop
their exports, another on food production and rural development and a small
technical assistance group to give advice in key areas. An industrial
development unit, the main executive agency of the Commonwealth Action
Programme of Industrial Co-operation, investigates the feasibility of
establishing new industries in developing countries and helps to prepare and
initiate agreed projects.

     Expenditure by Britain on bilateral technical co-operation with
Commonwealth developing countries in 1987 was 138 million Pounds, the greater
part being spent on financing staff for service with Commonwealth governments
and in financing training places in Britain for people from Commonwealth
countries. In 1987 the British aid programme financed the study in Britain of
8,000 students from other Commonwealth countries. Other assistance includes
sending volunteers to serve overseas, consultancy services, the supply of
training and research equipment, and the provision of advice by British
scientific and technical institutions. (About 70 per cent of Britain's gross
bilateral aid in 1987 went to Commonwealth countries, including Britain's
remaining dependencies - see p 86.)

Commonwealth Organisations

     The Commonwealth Foundation was established in 1966 and reconstituted as
an international organisation in 1983. Financed by member governments, it
promotes closer co-operation among professional and other non-governmental
organisations within the Commonwealth. It has assisted over 30 Commonwealth
professional associations, and has helped in the creation and growth of many
national ones; it has also supported 16 multidisciplinary professional
centres. It promotes understanding of work carried out by non-governmental
organisations and is encouraging the strengthening of information links
through the establishment of liaison units in each Commonwealth country.

     The Commonwealth Institute in London promotes the Commonwealth, its
countries and its people to the British public. Funded mainly by the British
Government, it has three main galleries of permanent exhibitions and a
changing programme of temporary exhibitions, conferences and performances.
Its education service runs an extensive programme of teaching about the
Commonwealth in schools around Britain. The Institute is open to the public
every day without charge. The Royal Commonwealth Society, which is over 100
years old, is a centre for study and discussion, its library in London housing
one of the largest collections on the Commonwealth. The Society has branches
in many countries.

     In keeping with the fact that the Commonwealth is an association of
peoples as well as governments, many unofficial organisations, professional
bodies and voluntary societies provide machinery for co-operation.
Professional bodies include associations of architects, doctors, educators,
engineers, journalists, lawyers, librarians, magistrates, museum curators,
nurses, pharmacists, planners, surveyors and veterinary surgeons. Other
organisations include the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, which
organises an annual conference of parliamentarians, the Commonwealth Press
Union, the Association of Commonwealth Universities, he Commonwealth Games
Federation and the English Speaking Union of the Commonwealth.