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$Pretitle{}
$Title{Rwanda
Chapter 4.    Population, Including Ethnic Groups and Languages}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{The Director Foreign Area Studies}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{population
tutsi
hutu
percent
social
ch
twa
per
language
estimated
see
pictures
see
figures
see
tables
}
$Date{1990}
$Log{See Planting*0048201.scf
See Table 4.*0048201.tab
See Table 5.*0048202.tab
}
Title:       Rwanda
Book:        Area Handbook for Rwanda
Author:      The Director Foreign Area Studies
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date:        1990

Chapter 4.    Population, Including Ethnic Groups and Languages

     In early 1969 the population was estimated to be about 3.6 million, with
the highest population density in Africa, averaging nearly 360 inhabitants per
square mile. The population growth rate exceeded 3 percent per year and may
be as high as 3.6 percent. In 1969 over half the population was under 20 years
of age.

     The country is also overwhelmingly rural, with small family groups
dispersed in clusters throughout its hilly terrain. Urban centers and
villages are few, although small settlements have developed near the several
Christian mission stations.

     The African population is composed primarily of three distinct,
hereditary ethnic groups: the Twa, representing approximately 1 percent of the
population; the Hutu, about 88 percent of the population; and the Tutsi, less
than 10 percent of the population. These three groups are considered the
people of Rwanda, or Rwandans.

     A small number of Hima pastoral nomads wander throughout the country,
and there are an estimated 15,000 Congolese refugees. In addition, there are
approximately 5,000 Europeans and 3,000 Asians. The former are mostly
missionaries, teachers, and administrators in business or Government; the
latter are either small businessmen and traders or perform clerical and
technical tasks in business or Government.

     Population trends before independence in 1962 were heavily influenced by
periodic famines and by the migration of workers to the Belgian Congo (now the
Democratic Republic of the Congo-Kinshasa), Tanganyika (now Tanzania), or
Uganda. Since independence the emigration of Tutsi political refugees, the
growing pressure on the land because of a rapidly growing population, the
increasing land erosion, and the Government-sponsored programs for rural and
urban development and resettlement have altered the population distribution
somewhat.

     The national language is Kinyarwanda, a Bantu language. There are minor
regional variations in dialect and some differences in pronunciation among
the three ethnic groups, but the variations and differences do not prevent
mutual intelligibility. French, which was introduced by the Belgian
administrators and missionaries, is used in official documents, newspapers,
and radio broadcasts. The Rwandan Constitution designates both French and
Kinyarwanda as the country's official languages.

Ethnic Group Characteristics

     Although the three ethnic groups-the Twa, Hutu, and Tutsi-differ
markedly in physical characteristics and adhere to general dividing lines in
social relationships, they do share a common language. The Hutu and Tutsi are
organized in similar kinship and clan systems, agree on a common set of social
values, and share either animistic or Christian religious beliefs.
Positioning within the social structure for the Hutu and Tutsi was reversed
by the social and political events between 1959 and 1962, but many of the
essential features of their cultures have been retained.

     It is difficult to distinguish which cultural features were principally
Tutsi from those which were originally Hutu. Clan membership probably began
with the Tutsi, and the focus on cattle, which became the basis of the
society, evolved from the pastoral Tutsi tradition. On the other hand, the
common language, Kinyarwanda, is the Bantu language of the Hutu.

     For several centuries the Tutsi functioned as feudal lords, granting
cattle and land usage to Hutu cultivators in exchange for services and goods.
As part of the agreement, the Tutsi provided protection for their Hutu clients
against other feudal lords. The clientship agreement, ubuhake, could be
terminated at any time by either party, but it generally was continued by the
descendants of both the patron and the client. The relationship was
transferred to the deceased's patrilineal descendant. This feudal ubuhake
relationship was the dominant one in a whole system of dominant-subordinate
roles which existed throughout the society (see Social Structure, ch. 5).

     The Tutsi and Hutu share essentially the same kinship system and reckon
their descent patrilineally. The smallest unit in the patrilineal line is
called the inzu, or house. It includes all persons, both male and female,
who can trace their descent through four or five generations to one ancestor
who was the original forefather of the group. The inzu, after reaching
approximately seven generations, would segment, or subdivide, to form new
inzus (see Social Structure, ch. 5).

     The ubwoko is the largest kin group or patriclan organization. Persons
in this group recognize a common descent in a paternal line, but are unable
to identify a specific ancestor. In some cases the ancestor is a mythical
figure. Both Tutsi and Hutu can belong to the same clan. There are 13
ubwoko in Rwanda. The Abanyiginya was the most important in that it was the
royal clan from which the Bami (plural of Mwami-king) were selected. The
queens usually came from the Abega ubwoko.

     Marriages between Tutsi and Hutu occasionally occur, but marriages of
Tutsi or Hutu to Twa are very rare. Intermixing of the ethnic groups in the
past was most frequent when Tutsi males acquired Hutu concubines. It was rare
for a Hutu male to marry a Tutsi female but, when this occurred, the Hutu's
social and political status was elevated. A substantial brideprice of
livestock or a substitute was generally required for a marriage; local
exogamy, or out-group marriage, was most prevalent (see Family, ch. 5).

     The Hutu and Tutsi who have not been converted to Christianity share a
common, traditional, animistic religious belief. The dominant spirit or
creator-god is Imana, who is described as essentially good and very powerful.
Although he is referred to frequently, there are no rites of worship to him.
The term imana also refers to the force of good, a pervasive power which
causes fecundity, prosperity, joy, and peace.

     The spirit world also includes bazimu, or the spirits of dead ancestors.
They cause evil and difficulties for humans. Among the bazimu is a small
number of ancestors, the imandwa, who are very powerful and might be helpful
to an individual if he is initiated into the sect of Ryangombe. Apart from
the imandwa, all other spirits are malevolent toward human beings (see
Religion, ch. 5).

The Twa

     The Twa are a pygmoid subgroup of the larger group of Twide pygmies who
were the first known inhabitants of East and Central Africa. The Twa closely
resemble the pygmy type, but are larger in stature. The average male is 5 feet
1 inch in height and weighs 106 pounds. The Twa have wide noses, peppercorn
hair, and yellowish-colored body hair.

     The Twa are, by preference, forest dwellers with an economy based on food
gathering and hunting. Before the arrival of the Tutsi, the Twa retreated
before the agrarian Hutu, who systematically reduced the forest area. When the
Tutsi achieved political, economic, and social dominance, the Twa settled near
the courts of the Tutsi nobility, although small bands remained in the forest
areas along the western mountain ridges. During the several centuries of Tutsi
monarchy, the Twa served in the Tutsi courts as dancers, buffoons, guards, and
concubines and, on occasion, acted as spies and executioners.

     The Twa occupy an inferior social position, and many of their dietary
and hygenic customs are considered reprehensible by both the Tutsi and Hutu.
With the loss of power by the Tutsi and the disappearance of the Tutsi courts,
the Twa are even further outside the social structure. A few manage to subsist
in the remote forest regions, whereas those who have settled near the Hutu and
Tutsi work as potters and artisans.

The Hutu

     The Hutu are identified as the Rwandan cluster of the Bantu tribes of the
East and Central African lake region. This group also includes tribes in
Burundi, parts of Tanzania, Uganda, and Congo (Kinshasa). Little is
definitely known of their origin other than that they came from the northern
equatorial region.

     The average male is 5 feet 5 inches tall and weighs 131 pounds. The Hutu
are generally stocky with muscular frames, but because of considerable
intermixing with the Tutsi over the past 4 or 5 centuries, many of them have
the lighter skin and more slender body structure characteristic of the Tutsi.

     Traditionally, the Hutu are hoe cultivators, with little division of
labor by sex. Their principal crops include beans, peas, sorghum, cassava,
and maize (corn), and almost every household has a banana grove (see
Agriculture, ch 9). Work is highly valued, and the ideal man is one who is
prosperous, hardworking, and proud of his reputation, although he may not hold
an important position in the social structure (see Social Values, ch. 5).

     Before independence the Hutu were the social inferiors of the Tutsi
rulers and, in addition to forced contributions of agricultural produce, were
obligated to perform numerous menial services for the Tutsi overlords (see
Social Structure, ch. 5). Since the political uprising of 1959-61, however,
the Hutu have assumed control of the social and political systems. They are
still primarily agriculturalists, but they are beginning to develop trades and
skills and, with increased educational opportunities, have taken over more
significant positions throughout the Government and the economy (see Political
Dynamics and Values, ch 6).

The Tutsi

     The Tutsi are fairly tall, angular, small-boned, and relatively
light-skinned Nilotic people. Their average height is 5 feet 9 inches and
average weight is 126 pounds. Occasionally, a member of the court or a royal
dancer exceeded 6 feet 3 inches in height, but this was an exception.

     The Tutsi were pastoralists and filled the ranks of the warrior caste.
Before independence they regulated and controlled the society, which was
composed of Tutsi royalty and nobility and Hutu commoners, by means of a
clientship structure (see Social Structure, ch. 5). They occupied the dominant
positions in the sharply stratified society and constituted the ruling
aristocracy. This form of control was based upon the hierarchical arrangement
of Tutsi endogamous clans.

     The Tutsi preoccupation with cattle and herding was transmitted to the
Hutu agriculturalists. The skills of milking and caring for cattle were
spread, and livestock became an integral part of the society and took on
importance in the value system.

The Hima

     The Hima, a small tribe of Nilotic nomads, travel through the northern
and northeastern portions of Rwanda. They are considered bad omens by
Rwandans. Legend states that their ancestors lost the land because of illness
and evil behavior, and the settled inhabitants have little to do with them.

Language and Communications

     The language of the people is Kinyarwanda, part of the Bantu subgroup of
the central branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Kinyarwanda is closely
related to Kirundi, the language of Burundi; Kinyarwanda-Kirundi speakers
comprise the third largest group of all the Bantu languages.

     Kinyarwanda is noted for its great complexities. The language uses five
vowels, each having a long and short form. Intonation and tonality pervade
both the grammar and vocabulary. There are seven schemes of intonation in
addition to one low and three high forms of tonality.

     All Rwandans speak Kinyarwanda, but there is some variation in
pronunciation. The forms spoken by the Tutsi and Hutu are very similar,
whereas the variation used by the Twa has certain peculiarities. There are
also dialectical differences between regions. The modes of pronunciation
differentiating central and northern Rwanda can be distinguished easily.

     The focal points around which much of the vocabulary is built are
children and cattle, the latter predominating. Individual characteristics of
the cattle, their beauty, and the herds themselves are denoted by numerous
words. Much of the oral tradition revolves around their virtues (see
Artistic and Intellectual Expression, ch. 7). Metaphors and symbols are also
drawn from pastoral activities. The language is rich in nuances and double
meanings. The same term is used, for example, for a polygamous family and for
jealousy.

     In addition to Kinyarwanda, a small number of persons have adopted French
as a second language. The monthly periodical Rwanda Carrefour d'Afrique
(Crossroads of Africa) is published in French, and the country's one radio
station broadcasts in French (see Public Information, ch. 7). In some areas
Swahili is spoken.

Population Structure

[See Planting: Courtesy Embassy of Rwanda, Washington DC.]

     The figures on population are informed estimates. According to one
Government publication, the population increased from 2,988,509 in 1964 to
3,321,706 in 1966, an increase of over 5 percent annually. Other estimates
are that the population of approximately 3.6 million is increasing at a rate
of about 3.3 percent per year.

Demographic Factors

     In 1966, the most recent year for which estimates were available in early
1969, 56 percent of the population was under 20 years of age, and less than
8 percent was over 55 years of age. Those within the 5 to 14 age category
accounted for 28.8 percent of the total population. The sex ratio for the
total population is approximately 48 percent male and 52 percent female, with
sex ratios of all age categories relatively even (see table 4).

     Births registered for the year 1965 totaled 82,705. The rate indicated
by this figure is 26.6 per 1,000, but the estimated birth rate was 52 per
1,000. Failure to register births and high infant mortality account for the
discrepancy.

     Deaths registered during the same year totaled 14,822, a rate of 4.8
per 1,000. The estimated death rate, however, is higher at 13.7 per 1,000.
Comparative statistics of the constantly understated figures over several
years indicate, however, that the mortality rate has been declining. The
estimated crude death rate for 1952-53 was 19 per, 1,000 but had dropped by
1957 to 14 per 1,000. Treatment of disease in hospitals and increased
dispensary care presumably account for most of the decrease in deaths. In
1969 there were no official figures available on average life expectancy.
Forty years of age is a reasonable estimate.

[See Table 4.: Population of Rwanda by Sex and Age Groups, 1966 Estimates]

Population Distribution

     The population density was estimated in early 1969 to be about 360
persons per square mile, the highest population density of any African nation
and one of the highest in the world. The density varies from a high of 678
per square mile in Ruhengeri Prefecture in the northwest to a low of 141
persons per square mile in Kibungo Prefecture in the southeast (see table 5).

     A generally hilly to mountainous terrain, increasing land erosion, a
seriously excessive cattle population, and a lack of readily exploitable
mineral and other natural resources aggravate the problem of population
density. In 1969 it was estimated that there were about 1,140 persons per
square mile of arable land, one of the highest population densities in the
world (see Settlement Patterns and Living Conditions, ch. 3; Agriculture,
ch. 9).

     Although a few urban centers are developing, less than 2 percent of the
people live in small towns or larger villages. Extended families settle in
groups on the hills, with no direct relationship to a larger neighborhood or
village group. The pattern is one of rural dispersion with little or no
concentration.

[See Table 5.: Prefecture Population by Sex and Population Density in Rwanda,
1966 Estimates]

     The population is concentrated on hilltops and in plateau regions which
are between 4,900 and 6,500 feet in altitude. The lowest population density
occurs in areas which are below 4,900 feet. The climate below this height is
hot and humid, and the incidence of human and animal diseases is much greater
than at the higher altitudes.

Ethnic Group Statistics

     There has been no recent census of ethnic groups, Tutsi migration rates
are undetermined, and there are discrepancies in the estimates of the number
of Tutsi who were killed or who fled during the preindependence revolution.

     The Hutu outnumber other Rwandans in all regions. The regional
percentages of Tutsi vary from less than 5 percent to as much as 40 percent.
The central portion of the country near Nyanza, the traditional residence of
the former Mwami, has a large Tutsi population, with approximately 45 percent
of all Tutsi residing there.

Non-Rwandan Population Statistics

     The non-Rwandan inhabitants account for less than 1 percent of the total
population. Approximately 15,000 Africans, mostly Congolese, live in the
country. Europeans, mostly Belgians, account for 5,000 of the non-indigenous
population. There are about 3,000 Asians, including Pakistanis, Indians, and
Arabs, who round out the non-Rwandan population.

     Indians and Pakistanis constitute 34 percent of the non-African,
non-European population; Arabs, 20 percent; and other Asians, 2 percent. The
remaining 44 percent are descendants of mixed Asian, African, or European
ancestry, most of whom are of Asian-African descent. In general, the Indian
and Pakistani populations have grown rapidly, whereas the Arab population has
remained static. Arabs, Pakistanis, and Indians engage almost exclusively in
trade.

Population Dynamics

     Historically, the population has been greatly influenced by periodic
famines and by seasonal and permanent migration. In 1968 there had not been a
famine in the country for over 25 years. There had been a large exodus of
Tutsi between 1959 and 1965. The population increase since independence is
attributed primarily to an absence of famine, a sharp decrease in permanent
migration, and a notable increase in the availability of medical facilities.

Famines

     Between 1897 and 1943 famines occurred in several sections of the
country, partly because of the irregular distribution of food and population.
In 1928 central and western Rwanda had the worst famine recorded to that date:
deaths exceeded 300,000 and migration reached 100,000. During the famine of
1943-44, which was caused by severe drought and subsequent crop failure,
approximately 300,000 persons died or migrated.

     The Government's efforts to expand its transportation facilities and
roads so that food from other areas can be made available to a stricken area
and to resettle people from overpopulated areas have seemingly reduced the
dangers of extensive famine. In addition, the Agricultural Service is
inaugurating studies of micro-climates in an effort to develop a general
approach to the lacks and inadequacies of the country.

Migration Patterns

     In the past both seasonal and permanent migrations have been extensive.
The 1957 British East African census figures listed 35,000 migrants to
Tanganyika, and Uganda's 1966 Statistical Abstract listed 378,656 Rwandans as
permanent residents in 1959.

     Migration to neighboring countries before 1959 was economically
motivated. Periodic famines and chronic underemployment prompted numerous
Rwandans to leave, to become either contract workers in mines in the Belgian
Congo or agricultural workers in Uganda. Between 1959 and 1964, however, an
estimated 150,000 Tutsi political refugees fled to Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda,
and Congo (Kinshasa) (see Foreign Relations, ch. 6). Few have returned, and
each year an unknown number of Tutsi join friends and relatives outside the
country, usually on a permanent basis. Most of the estimated 15,000 Congolese
residing in Rwanda are political refugees from Congo (Kinshasa).

Development Programs and Population Changes

     A five-year plan, the Interim Emergency Plan adopted in 1967, focused on
the related needs of coping with the population growth, increasing
agricultural production, and developing stronger social and communal ties
among the rural population. The plan provides for an intensification of the
resettlement programs instituted by the Belgian Government in 1953 (see
Agriculture, ch. 9). Several thousand families have been moved from
overpopulated, badly eroded areas to those less densely populated. In early
1969 it was not possible to determine how successful the Government's attempts
had been to create new social and communal systems among the transferees.

     In 1968 Dr. Sixte Butera, Minister of Public Health, suggested that the
problem of population increase can be met only through a combination of
methods: eliminating polygamy, encouraging later marriages, augmenting food
production, and encouraging emigration. The religious, social, and economic
aspects of artificial birth control are under official consideration.

Urban and Village Centers

     The number of persons living in urban or village areas is less than 2
percent. The urban populations are largely composed of Europeans, Indians,
Pakistanis, and Arabs. Before 1962 there were only six principal urban
centers with a total population of less than 15,000. By 1969, however, the
capital city of Kigali had an estimated population of 15,000. It is estimated
that, by 1987, its population will have exceeded 70,000.

     Other larger centers include Gisenyi, a residential and tourist center;
Butare; Nyabisindu; and Gitarama. For the most part, towns were located,
planned, and built by the Belgians.