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$Unique_ID{bob00429}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{Romania
Chapter 6A.   Artistic and Intellectual Expression}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{Eugene K. Keefe}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{art
romanian
cultural
artists
folk
century
expression
artistic
music
period}
$Date{1972}
$Log{}
Title:       Romania
Book:        Romania, A Country Study
Author:      Eugene K. Keefe
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date:        1972

Chapter 6A.   Artistic and Intellectual Expression

     The arts and intellectual activity reflect Romania's position as a
crossroads of Eastern and Western cultures. Elements of ancient Roman culture
from the second and third centuries mingle with Byzantine elements (dating
from the Middle Ages) and with Islamic elements (brought by the Turkish
conquest of the fifteenth century) (see ch. 2). In more recent times, these
were joined by elements of Western European culture. Underlying all these
influences from abroad are elements of a native peasant culture that can be
traced back to the Neolithic settlement found on the territory of the
Romanian state. The mixing of all the elements has produced a cultural mosaic
that, although it has much in common with the cultures of neighboring
countries, is purely Romanian.

     The Romanian people are very proud of their cultural heritage and of the
artistic and intellectual expression that it has inspired. Artists and
intellectuals have always occupied a favored position in society as
transmitters of the aspirations of the people. They continue to feel an
identity as the social class that is responsible for the spiritual well-being
of the nation.

     The communist government has promoted this pride in the cultural heritage
by devoting considerable funds and effort to the restoration and preservation
of antiquities. It has also fostered the preservation of folk art and folk
traditions through the establishment of the Village Museums in Bucharest and
Cluj and through the continued urging of contemporary artists to produce a
national art based on folk traditions.

     The various ethnic minorities have preserved their own cultural
traditions and forms of expression. Although these forms reflect the same
modern influences of foreign origins that have affected Romanian forms, they
show relatively little direct borrowing from each other or from the Romanian
majority.

     Because artistic and intellectual activity is a very effective means of
protest and social criticism and, therefore, opposition to the established
order, the communist leadership has tried to keep such expression under
control and to use it for its own purposes. The degree of cultural freedom and
the content of cultural output have been indicators of the political situation
in the country.

     Despite controls, artists and intellectuals continue to create. Not all
of their effort becomes public, and that which does is not necessarily sincere
or direct. Symbolism and allusion have been developed to a high degree and are
well understood by both the creator and his audience.

THE ROLE OF THE ARTS UNDER COMMUNISM

     Since the communists took control of the government in 1947, artistic and
intellectual expression has been dominated by the cultural policy of the
Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Communist Roman-PCR), which follows the
model developed by the Soviet Union. The policy is based on the concept known
as Socialist Realism, whereby an artist must strive to grasp the essence of
human and social relations and depict them truthfully in the light of
socialist ideals. Art must be directed toward the working man; therefore its
style must be simple and straightforward.

     Adherence to this concept in the formulation and execution of cultural
policy has varied, however, and generally reflects the political climate of
the time and the particular outlook of the men in power. During the 1950s,
which has come to be known as the Dogmatic Period of cultural life in
post-World War II Romania, the content of the arts and of intellectual
expression was strictly controlled and restricted. Socialist Realism was
interpreted to mean the presentation of the glories of communist ideals
through the various forms of art and the use of such forms to further these
ideals. All cultural effort, therefore, had to be directed to these goals, and
no deviation was tolerated. The merits of a book, painting, or play were
judged only by how well they fulfilled the propaganda function. Most
individuals entrusted with passing judgment on what was or was not acceptable
had no professional qualifications. As a result of all these factors, artistic
production that was made public during this period was, with few exceptions,
dull and mediocre.

     With the discrediting of Stalin and his policies in the mid-1950s,
dogmatism in artistic expression gave way to a more liberal interpretation of
what was considered appropriate. Emphasis on Socialist Realism was replaced
with emphasis on nationalistic and historical themes, as Romania strove to
gain greater political and economic independence from the Soviet Union. In
order to be acceptable to the administrators of cultural policy, artistic
expression no longer had to confine itself to the presentation of communist
ideals in traditional styles, but it could address itself to a variety of
themes and could experiment in innovative styles. Although artists were
criticized for submitting to so-called decadent bourgeois culture if they
moved too far away from the standards of Socialist Realism, they were not
punished or enjoined from further creative activity unless their work could be
interpreted as an attack on the regime or its policies.

     At the same time, expanding relations between Romania and the
noncommunist world brought artists and intellectuals into contact with
cultural developments elsewhere and stimulated Romanian creative expression.
Cultural exchanges with Western countries were often used by the government to
allow artists more freedom of expression than could be politically justified
at home. Artists were allowed to exhibit or perform abroad works that had been
highly criticized at home. The critical praise received abroad was proudly
publicized at home as an example of Romanian genius, at the same time that
these very works were being criticized for not meeting the desired standards
of artistic expression.

     The apparent inconsistency in the application of cultural policy in the
late 1960s was indicative of a widespread effort to determine what the role of
art and literature should be in a socialist society. By 1971 this had become a
much debated topic. Party ideologists, communist and noncommunist artists and
critics, and other members of the intellectual elite, including students,
aired their views through roundtable discussions, through polemics in the
press, and through other means. The debates appeared to be unrestricted and
lively, and the views expressed ranged from strict adherence to the concept of
Socialist Realism to a plea for "art for art's sake." The opinion of the
majority, however, seemed to be that art and literature in a socialist
society, as in any other society, have both an aesthetic and a social role.
Neither of these functions should overshadow the other; social and political
elements in a work of art or literature should be implicit and artistically
presented rather than the sole justification for the existence of the work.

     In July 1971 President Nicolae Ceausescu announced a tightening of
cultural reins in order to bring cultural and educational activity back toward
its socialist purpose. The statement was followed by the removal of some books
from publication schedules, the cancellation of some theatrical productions,
and the resignation or removal of several editors of literary and cultural
periodicals. Most observers, however, agreed that, despite some tightening of
controls, artistic and intellectual expression in Romania at the end of 1971
was far from returning to the restrictions of the Dogmatic Period of the
1950s.

     Cultural policy was administered in 1971 by the Council on Socialist
Culture and Education, which had replaced the State Committee for Culture
and Art. The council had the status of a ministry in the government, as had
the committee that preceded it (see ch. 8). The main overseers of cultural
policy and the principal organs of control on artistic and intellectual
expression, however, have been the various professional unions. The role of
the unions is to supervise and enforce established standards of creative
expression and to act as representatives for the members of their professions.
A close relationship exists between the union leadership and the communist
party, whose control of the unions and, thereby, of the members is exercised
through the party leadership (see ch. 9).

     Membership in the appropriate union is a prerequisite for effective
artistic and intellectual activity. Only members can be employed in their
professions and have their works published, performed, or exhibited. Deviation
from established cultural policy results in expulsion from the union and
consequent professional oblivion. Therefore, most artists and intellectuals
exercise self-censorship rather than risk punishment, even if such censorship
involves compromising principles and artistic standards.

ART, SCULPTURE, AND ARCHITECTURE

Folk Art

     A long heritage of decorative folk art, expressed in wood carving,
embroidery, weaving, pottery, and other forms, has been important as artistic
expression for the peasants and has served as inspiration for the more
sophisticated painters, sculptors, and architects. Regional differences in
styles and materials reflect the way of life of the people as well as their
needs and the resources available to them.

     Some of the typical forms and motifs used through the ages have been
found to date back to articles unearthed by archaeologists at Neolithic
settlements. In common with the folk art of other countries of Eastern
Europe, Romanian folk art uses mostly abstract and geometric designs. When
floral or animal forms are used, they are usually stylized.

     The carving of wood is a natural form of folk expression in the heavily
forested areas of the Carpathians and Transylvania. Pillars and frames of
houses and other buildings, farmyard gates, and furniture are decorated with
carved geometric designs. Wooden household utensils are also decorated with
carved designs, as are farm tools and other objects used in daily life.

     Elaborate embroidery decorates the traditional costumes of both men and
women. Those used on festive occasions are particularly richly embellished.
Designs and colors vary with the regions and make it possible to identify
specific costumes with specific parts of the country. Similar embroidery is
also used to decorate household linens.

     Particularly well known outside the country are the woven rugs,
tablecloths, and tapestries that decorate all rural homes and many urban ones.
Designs are mostly geometric, and particular designs and color combinations
are associated with particular regions. Well known for their unusual design
and warm colors are Oltenian textiles in which a central animal, human, or
floral design is surrounded by several frames of different colors. Muntenian
textiles, on the other hand, have small geometric designs spread over the
whole surface. Moldavian and Transylvanian textiles vary a great deal from one
location to another and include both geometric and figurative designs. At one
time, wool was used exclusively for weaving rugs and tapestries, but since the
mid-nineteenth century cotton or hemp warp has been used in combination with
wool. All-cotton and all-hemp rugs and wall hangings are also produced.

     Pottery of various kinds is made both as decorative objects and as
household utensils. Plates, pots, and jugs are used to serve and store food,
but they are also displayed on shelves along the walls of peasant houses,
making the interiors colorful and cheerful. The shapes, colors, and designs of
the pottery show the many cultural influences from Neolithic to modern West
European. Two distinct types of pottery are produced: a black pottery made by
incomplete firing of clay with much smoke, and the more common red pottery.
Black pottery, the origins of which date back to the Bronze Age or earlier, is
made mostly in Moldavia and eastern Transylvania. It has a highly polished
finish, which is achieved by the use of a special stone. The widely produced
red pottery may be glazed or unglazed and is usually decorated in some
fashion-by painting, scratching a design into the wet clay, or applying a
design in relief.

     Among the more unusual forms of folk art that continue to be practiced
are the decoration of Easter eggs and painting on glass. Easter is a special
time not only because of its religious significance but also because it
heralds the beginning of the growing season, and Easter eggs as a symbol of
fertility are an important element of the festivities. Eggs are decorated with
highly ornamental patterns in various ways and often become respected works of
art.

     Painting on glass was introduced into Transylvania in the seventeenth
century from Bohemia and was used for the production of religious icons. Icon
painting formed an important bridge between folk art and the fine arts in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is no longer widely practiced.

     A number of contemporary artists utilize the various forms of folk art
as their medium of artistic expression. Their designs include not only the
traditional but also elements of modern art styles, such as cubism and
abstraction.

Fine Arts

     The beginnings of fine art in Romania date back to the fourteenth century
when frescoes and other paintings were created to decorate the churches of the
period. All of the early art was created in connection with churches, although
not all of it was religious in content. Portraits of those responsible for
the building of churches or monasteries, and of their families, were often
included among the pictures of saints and biblical scenes that decorate the
interior and exterior walls of medieval religious buildings.

     Romanian church art of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is
recognized as some of the finest and most unusual of the later period of
Byzantine art. It differs somewhat in style from other examples of Byzantine
art of that period by reflecting the influence of folk art. Some of the finest
examples are found at the Moldavian monasteries of Putna, Sucevita, and
Voronet. They are unusual in that they were painted on the outside walls in
order to educate the peasants in church history and in elements of their
faith. The quality and imaginativeness of these frescoes has been termed one
of the great contributions to European religious art. Their freshness after
more than 400 years of exposure to the elements is remarkable.

     In addition to paintings, religious art of the medieval period also
included various objects, such as vestments, furniture, and vessels worked
in wood, gold, or silver and richly decorated. Collections of these objects
are preserved at the monasteries, the largest exhibits being at Sucevita and
Putna.

     During the seventeenth century a change in style took place in painting
and other decorative arts, although the subject matter remained religious.
Russian artists who had come to Moldavia and Walachia introduced the small,
detailed painting of Russian iconography, which became evident in the murals
and other painting of Romanian artists. At the same time, the simple, folk
art decorative forms were replaced by a more elaborate style showing both
Baroque and Oriental influences. A distinct Walachian style developed, and
schools emerged in Bucharest and other cities. The most notable achievements
of the Walachian school are the interior frescoes of the Hurez Monastery.

     A secular trend was introduced into art in the eighteenth century with
a greater involvement of merchants, craftsmen, and landowners as patrons.
Not until the nineteenth century, however, did a completely secular art come
into being, mostly through foreign influences. The earliest secular artists
reflect in their styles the training they had received as religious artists.

     In the early nineteenth century several foreign painters lived and worked
in Romania and exerted a strong influence on young Romanian artists who, in
turn, helped to train other artists of the nineteenth century. The spirit of
nationalism and revolution that was sweeping Europe during that century
involved Romanian artists as it did those in other countries under foreign
rule. Art was a medium for expressing nationalist sentiments and the fight for
self-determination. Most of the art of the period, therefore, represents
historic and heroic subjects. Foremost among the revolutionary artists were
Gheorghe Tattarescu and Theodor Aman, both extremely popular in their
lifetime. Together, they exerted a great influence on the development of fine
arts in Romania by founding the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest and by
training young artists. Aman, in particular, is considered the country's first
great modern painter.

     By far the most outstanding artist of the nineteenth century was Nicolae
Grigorescu. His work remains extremely popular among Romanians, and his
lyrical landscapes and scenes of Romanian life are well known abroad.

     The work of Stefan Luchian at the beginning of the twentieth century
introduced to Romania some of the avant-garde styles that were appearing in
European art elsewhere. Although he followed his predecessors in painting
landscapes and rural subjects, he opposed their conservative style and
introduced into his paintings a greater use of color than had been common.
He also introduced social themes into his paintings by depicting the misery
and poverty that were characteristic of the lives of most people. His best
paintings, however, are flower studies, which bring out his love of color
and of nature.

     Luchian's break with tradition and his use of color were followed by
a number of artists, the most celebrated of whom was Nicolae Tonitza. These
and other artists of the interwar period were greatly influenced by the
impressionist and postimpressionist painters in Paris and Munich, where they
studied. Their landscapes, flower studies, and portraits show the effective
use of bright colors, which is considered characteristic of Romanian art.

     Because landscapes, floral studies, and other neutral subjects have
traditionally been the main concern of Romanian painters, this form of
artistic expression was the least affected by the strict controls of the
first decade of communist rule. A number of interwar artists and several
younger ones continued to produce their canvases in the precommunist
tradition, but during the 1960s some young artists experimented with various
avant-garde techniques and styles that were then current in Western Europe.
Although the government disapproved of these works, it allowed the artists
to exhibit them abroad and win considerable acclaim for Romanian art. In the
late 1960s the PCR was disturbed by the extent to which abstract art had
blossomed despite party disapproval. Artists had been introducing cubism and
primitivism into their work under the guise of folk art, which is supposed to
serve as their main inspiration.

Sculpture

     Romanian sculpture has its origins in the tombstones and other grave
markets dating back to the Middle Ages. As a fine art, sculpture began to
develop in the mid-nineteenth century when the German sculptor Karl Storck
arrived in Bucharest to teach at the School of Fine Arts. Among the earliest
sculptors he trained were Ion Georgescu and his own son, Carol Storck, both
known for their statuary and busts. Stefan Ionescu Valbudea, also in that
group, was best known for his romantic statues and classical male figures in
movement.

     In the period between the two world wars, several sculptors produced
large monumental works visible in public places. Dimitrie Paciurea was the
first in this group. He was followed by his students Corneal Madrea, Ion
Jalea, and Oscar Han. In addition to his monumental sculptures, Jalea is also
known for his busts and bas-reliefs. Han is particularly known for his busts
and statutes of famous Romanians.

     Best known of all Romanian sculptors is Constantin Brancusi, who is
considered one of the great sculptors of the world. Brancusi studied in
Bucharest and in Paris. His earliest work, mostly busts, shows a strong
influence of Auguste Rodin. Gradually he broke with tradition and developed
a highly stylized and abstract style utilizing the simplest forms. His best
known works are found in important collections throughout the world.

     The work of contemporary sculptors included a wide range of styles and
mediums. Modernistic works in stone, wood, and various metals, some of them
completely abstract, can be seen in parks and other public places throughout
the country. A number of contemporary sculptors have taken inspiration from
folk art for their often massive works in wood.

Architecture

     Architecture, more than any other form of artistic expression, reflects
the many cultural influences that have been exerted on the people of Romania
over the ages. The abundance of architectural styles found in the country has
been a source of great pride for Romanians who have devoted much time and
money to preserve them.

     The simplest architectural forms are those of the peasant houses made
of wood and clay. The style and building technique of many of these houses
have been traced back to those used in Neolithic settlements.

     Vestiges of Roman architecture can be found in Dobruja, Walachia, and
Transylvania. The most important of these are the remains of the bridge built
by Emperor Trajan across the Danube at Turnu Severin. A large amphitheater has
been unearthed at the site of the Dacian-Roman capital of Sarmizegetusa at
the southwestern tip of the Transylvanian plain. Other Roman remains include
several monuments as well as sections of roads and aqueducts.

     The period of greatest architectural creativity is usually referred to
as the feudal period, dating from the tenth century to the beginning of the
nineteenth century. The oldest structures of that period are the fully
preserved Byzantine church at Densus, Transylvania, and the ruins of the
Prince's Court at Curtea de Arges. Beginning in the fourteenth century,
distinctive architectural styles developed in Walachia, Moldavia, and
Transylvania.

     The architecture of Walachia and Moldavia shows strong Byzantine
influences and includes all the special forms and decorative styles of the
several periods of Byzantine art. Specifically Romanian variations are the
exterior frescoes and the massive protecting walls of some of the churches and
monasteries.

     Transylvanian architecture of the feudal period reflects Western European
influences, including Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque styles.
The fortified churches and castles built by German and Hungarian settlers are
reminiscent of similar structures in central Europe but distinguished by their
massiveness and fortifications. The older architecture of several cities in
central Transylvania is completely Germanic or Hungarian in character,
contrasting sharply with that of Walachian and Moldavian cities. The typical
Romanian architecture found throughout the Transylvanian countryside is
particularly prominent in many rural wooden churches, which invariably feature
fine pointed spires.

     During the seventeenth century the Brancovan style of architecture was
developed in Walachia, the name being derived from that of the ruling Prince
Constantin Brincoveanu. It is characterized by the use of open porches
supported by large pillars. The pillars and door and window frames are usually
elaborately carved with floral designs. The exterior of the building is
usually ringed by a wide, carved wooden band. Outstanding examples of the
Brancovan style are the Hurez Monastery and the Mogosoaia Palace in Bucharest.
More recent adaptations of the style are seen in several public buildings and
private villas built in Bucharest before World War I.

     Starting in the nineteenth century, Byzantine influences began to
disappear from architecture. Most building after that period followed
contemporary European styles, although elements of Romanian folk art were
often incorporated in the decorative details. Modern architecture began to
develop in the period between the world wars and reached a high level of
accomplishment in the 1950s and 1960s with the construction of the seaside
resorts of Mangalia, Eforie Nord, and Mamaia. Most contemporary architecture,
however, is oversized and utilitarian. The needs for rapid and cheap
construction forced architects to disregard aesthetics and produce monotonous,
dreary structures.

MUSIC

     Romanians have the reputation of being a musical people. Song and dance
play an important role in their daily lives, particularly among the peasants.
A rich heritage of folk music, both vocal and instrumental, has been passed
down from generation to generation and has formed the background for serious
Romanian music that began to develop in the mid-nineteenth century.

     Folk music can be broadly classified as dance music, ballads and laments,
and pastoral music. Dance music is most frequently performed and is a major
component of any festivity. Dance tunes are generally lively to accompany the
fast and intricate steps of the dancers. Sometimes they are sung by the
dancers, but more often they are played by one or more of the traditional
instruments.

     The basic instrument in folk music is the violin. It is often accompanied
by the cobza, a large stringed instrument resembling the lute, or by a tambal,
a zither-like instrument played with small hammers. A variety of flutes are
also used both as solo instruments and in orchestras. The accordion is popular
as a solo accompaniment for singing or dancing.

     Folk musicians are known as lautari (lute players) and are often Gypsies.
Small orchestras are found at weddings and other celebrations in every village
and in the cities. Larger, specially formed folk ensembles perform on radio
and television and give concerts.

     Ballads and laments vary in style and subject matter from region to
region. Over the years, ballads have lost most of their importance as a
contemporary musical form, although they retain value as poetry. Laments,
however, continue to play an important role in the musical life of the people.
They reflect in song the hardships and problems of daily life and the trials
and tribulations of love. Some laments have a distinctly Oriental quality.

     Pastoral music was developed by the shepherds of the Carpathians as a
diversion for their long, lonely days in the mountains and as a means of
communication. The melodies are very simple, usually played on any of several
types of alphorns or on flutes. With the changing way of life in the
mountains, pastoral music has been disappearing as a musical form.

     In the early nineteenth century folklorist Anton Pann began to collect
Romanian folk music, to publish it, and to popularize it among educated
Romanians, who were more familiar with the classical music of Germany, Italy,
and France than with their own musical heritage. This resulted in the
emergence of a group of Romanian composers who utilized folk melodies in the
composition of operas, symphonies, and chamber music.

     The period between the two world wars saw several composers adding to the
repertoire of Romanian music. One who achieved international fame was Georghe
Enescu. Dinu Lipatti became well known as a pianist, although he was also a
composer.

     The music of the interwar composers showed the influence of German
romanticism and postromanticism and of modern French music. All of it,
however, had a strongly Romanian character attained through the use of
intonations and rhythms borrowed from folk music.

     Several of the interwar composers were still active in 1970, together
with new younger composers. Their music is regularly performed in Romania and
in some of the other communist countries, but it is not well known elsewhere.
Some of the young composers have experimented with avant-garde styles that
have not been well received by the guardians of cultural policy. Composers are
urged to use folklore as their source of inspiration and to write compositions
reflecting the cultural policies of the PCR.

THEATER

     Theater has always played a vital role in the life of the educated
Romanian, and regular attendance at plays, operas, and ballets is considered
an essential part of his cultural and intellectual life. The performing arts,
therefore, have had a faithful and critical audience in all urban centers,
which has stimulated playwrights and directors. In cities such as Cluj and
Brasov, which have sizable minority populations, Hungarian and German theaters
thrive beside the Romanian.

     Since the end of the rigid restrictions of the 1950s, the performing arts
have been flourishing with talented performers, directors, and writers. The
government has been promoting the presentation of Romanian plays, and Romanian
playwrights have striven to compete for audience favor with the best of
contemporary and classical foreign plays, which are regularly presented.

     Among contemporary playwrights who have achieved critical acclaim at home
and abroad are Paul Everac, D. R. Popescu, Horia Lovinescu, Iosif Naghiu, and
Paul Anghel. Eugene Ionesco, although Romanian by birth, is generally
considered a French playwright since he writes in French. Romanians, however,
proudly claim him as one of their own, even though his plays do not follow the
desired standards of form and content.

     Most contemporary plays have been categorized by critic as tribunal drama
in that they pass judgment on ideas or actions and follow a format where one
or more characters take the role of the accused and others act as prosecutors.
Some plays are in the form of confessions of wrongdoings or wrongthinking.
Both forms lend themselves well to imparting a message. Pure entertainment
plays are usually boulevard comedies. Historic themes seem to be popular and
safe topics, particularly if they promote Romanian nationalism. For the most
part, plays are of local rather than universal interest, for they deal with
matters limited in time and space. They usually arouse interest outside
Romania for what they reveal of the Romanian character and society rather than
for artistic merit.

     The tightening of cultural reins in July 1971 seems to have had a greater
effect on the theater than on any other form of artistic expression. The
management of several major theaters was changed in late 1971 following
admission by the replaced managers of having favored artistic merit over
ideological value in the selection of plays for their repertory. The new
managers pledged themselves to presenting plays that contain a clear-cut
message conforming to high political, ideological, and educational standards.
They also pledged themselves to encourage young playwrights to write such
plays. In the meantime, the plays selected for the 1971-72 season were
almost all true and tried classics, devoid of any political implications.
Romanian directors, nevertheless, have shown themselves in the past to be able
to impart to the audience a great deal of political meaning through their
interpretation of such seemingly innocuous plays.