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$Unique_ID{bob00405}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{Nepal
Chapter 3B.   Climate}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{George L. Harris}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{tarai
katmandu
valley
miles
nepal
area
feet
areas
population
villages
see
tables
}
$Date{1973}
$Log{See Table 1.*0040501.tab
}
Title:       Nepal
Book:        Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, An Area Study: Nepal
Author:      George L. Harris
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date:        1973

Chapter 3B.   Climate

     Comprehensive information about the highly varied climate is lacking. The
latitude of Nepal is about that of Florida, but great differences in altitude
within the relatively small area of the country and the monsoonal alternation
of wet and dry seasons make for sharp climatic contrasts between neighboring
localities. Within a space of 100 miles from north to south are approximated
most of the world's climatic zones, from Arctic Tundras in the northern
portions of the Eastern and Western Mountains and the high deserts in the
extreme northwest to the tropical jungles in the lowlands along the Indian
boundary.

     The complex arrangement of the mountain ridges, resulting in differences
in exposure to sunlight and to the moisture-laden monsoon winds, also produces
significant climatic differences in adjacent areas. In general, however,
annual temperatures decrease with increases in altitude, and annual rainfall
decreases from east to west. Violent thunderstorms and destructive hailstorms
are common, particularly in the foothills and in the mountain areas. Since
elevations are highest in the north and progressively decline southward, the
country can be divided from north to south into four climatic zones: the
Mountains, the Foothills the Katmandu Valley and the Tarai.

The Mountains

     The Mountain zone includes the upper part of the Himalayan range, with
altitudes varying from 10,000 to 29,000 feet. Winters are long and severe;
summers are short and cool; and permanent frosts prevail. The snowline is
between 12,000 and 14,000 feet and may be higher in dry regions. The tree line
is at about the same altitude but is lower in the dry areas. Precipitation
varies markedly from one place to another but reportedly averages about 20
inches annually.

The Foothills

     The Foothills zone include the Mahabharat Lekh range and high-lying
valleys up to 10,000 feet. Rainfall and temperature data are not available,
but the climate may be classified as temperate, with warm, rainy summers and
winters ranging from moderately cool to severe.

Katmandu Valley

     The Katmandu Valley has a distinctive climate, which may be divided
roughly into three seasons: rainy, hot and cold-the latter two being
relatively dry. Rains usually begin in June and last through September, with
the average annual fall approximating 60 inches. The cold season is from
mid-October to mid-April, with temperatures in January, the coldest month,
ranging between a daily average minimum of 36F. and a maximum of 64F. Snow
and freezing temperatures are rare. In the hot months, May and June, the
temperature seldom exceeds 90F. at noon.

The Tarai

     The Tarai zone includes the plains area along the boundary with India and
the lower hills up to about 4,000 feet. The climate is usually hot and humid,
during the period of heaviest rainfall from June to mid-October. From
mid-October through February the climate is moderately cool with scattered
showers. In the dry season, from March through June, the vegetation turns
brown under a scorching sun. About 80 percent of the precipitation occurs
between mid-June and mid-September. Average summer temperatures range from
approximately 80F. in the east to 90F. in the west, and winter temperature
from 60F. in the east to 55F. in the west.

Soil, Minerals, Vegetation and Animal Life

Soils

     The soils are diverse in composition and distribution. Scientific soil
studies are lacking, but an analysis of samples from various parts of the
country indicates, in general, a high iron content and a deficiency in humus,
nitrogen and phosphate.

     The alluvial soils of the Tarai are quite fertile except for occasional
pockets of infertile sand and gravel. Composed mainly of brown clays and loam
permeated with limestone, they respond readily to fertilizer and, if provided
with a dependable water supply, are well suited to intensive agriculture.

     In the Mahabharat Lekh and Siwalik ranges, soils are generally less
fertile than those of the Tarai plains to the south. Brown or gray varieties
appear in the conifer forests at the temperate higher altitudes, while shallow
red and yellow soils prevail under the damp, subtropical vegetation at lower
elevations. Among the southern base of these ranges a belt of sand, gravel
and boulders deposited during the monsoon freshets averages about 8 miles in
width. This belt, called the Bhabar, is of special importance because its soil
supports a forest cover which collects the detritus washed down the mountain
slopes, thus protecting the Tarai lowlands from an annual cover of infertile
sand and gravel. In many places water from mountain streams disappears in this
porous material and emerges again as springs in the Tarai.

     In the Mountain Region, the soils at lower elevations are thin and stony
in most places. However, soils suitable for sustaining meadows and forests
appear in the valley beds and on the more moderate slopes. At higher altitudes
much of the surface consists of naked rock, and the scanty soils consist
mainly of sandstone, clay and limestone formed from basic parent material.

     Soil erosion is widespread. Even in the cultivated plains of the Tarai,
vast areas of croplands are lost or damaged annually by the monsoon floods.
In eastern Nepal, particularly in the valleys of the Tamur, Arun and Sun
Kodi Rivers, much forest land has been cleared for farming. Although the major
portion of the area is still covered by forests, they are being depleted by
erosion, indiscriminate cutting or burning, and by excessive grazing. Erosion
accelerates as they retreat.

Minerals

     Deposits of various minerals, among them coal, cobalt, copper, gold,
iron, lignite, limestone, marble and mica, have been found. Their discovery,
however, has been largely accidental, and the area covered by systematic
geological surveys is very small (see ch. 19, Industry and Trade).

     Coal outcroppings have been found along the Sapt Kosi River in Eastern
Tarai and just north of the Midwestern Tarai near the base of the Mahabharat
Lekh range. Cobalt deposits, some relatively large, are present in the
Baglung-Gulmi area about 140 miles west of Katmandu and 50 miles north of the
Indian border. Deposits also have been found in eastern Nepal near Dhankuta in
the Tamur River valley.

     Copper ore has been mined on a small scale in an area some 60 miles west
of Katmandu, near the confluence of the Kali Gandaki and Narayani Rivers.
Deposits of undetermined importance have also been worked at several other
sites, such as Sikpasor Khani (khani means mine in Nepali), Wapsa Khani and
Jantra Khani, all some 50 to 80 miles eastward from Nepal Valley, along the
northern tributaries of the Sun Kosi River.

     Gold is present some 20 to 60 miles west of Katmandu in the gravels of
streambeds in the Kali Gandaki and Trisuli River valleys. Alluvial deposits
also have been found west of the Dhaulagiri massif, along the upper reaches
of the Bheri River. Some geologists believe that the source lodes are near
the Tibetan border, particularly near Mustang in the upper Kali Gandaki
Valley.

     Iron ore deposits have been noted at various places in Katmandu Valley.
Those southwest of Katmandu have been investigated by geologists attached to
the United States Agency for International Development Mission in Nepal, but
the geological structure of the area indicates that quantities are small.
Deposits have been noted also in the Western Mountains near Nuwakot, south
of Pokhara; in the Rapti Valley about 45 miles southwest of Katmandu; and in
the Sun Kosi Valley at Khotang, some 100 miles southeast of Katmandu.

     Findings of other commercially usable minerals have been made in widely
separated areas. Small lead deposits have been found just south of Katmandu
and lignite about 12 miles north of the city in the Baghmati Nadi Valley.
Limestone is present in northwestern Nepal near Baglung in the Kali Gandaki
Valley south of the Annapurna massif, near Jumla in the Karnali Valley west of
the Dhaulagiri massif, and near Hitaura about 25 miles southwest of Katmandu.
Marble formations occur near Godavari on the southern edge of Katmandu Valley.
Some mica deposits are found near the northern edge of the valley and in the
upper reaches of the Dudh Kosi River, just southwest of Mount Everest.

Vegetation

     Forests cover more than a third of the country's total area. The
deciduous trees which prevail in the moist Tarai are mixed with pines, firs
and spruce at higher altitudes. On the heights of the extreme north,
rhododendron bushes, stunted birches and junipers survive for short distances
above the tree line, which is between 13,000 and 14,000 feet.

     The forests of the Tarai contain an abundance of locally useful or
commercially valuable species of rattans, palms and bamboo (also found at
elevations up to 11,000 feet). Other valuable trees include: the khair, a
species of acacia, from which a resinous gum is extracted and chewed with
betel nut; sissoo, valuable for furniture making; karma, also used for
furniture making and for veneer; and semal, used for plywood, matches and
paper pulp (see ch. 17, Agriculture).

     The Siwalik and Mahabharat Lekh ranges at altitudes of 1,000 to 4,000
feet support forests composed mainly of sal trees, the wood of which
resembles teak and is used for construction timber and railroad ties. The
coarse sabai grass of the area is marketed in India as a constituent of
paper pulp. Above 3,000 feet the sal trees give way to pines intermingled
with some oaks; between 5,000 to 10,000 feet on the Mahabharat Lekh range,
walnuts, horse chestnuts, maples, wild cherry, birches, rhododendrons,
larches, firs and some bamboos make their appearance.

     On moist, southern slopes of the Mountain Region, oaks tend to replace
the conifers, while on the shady, drier, northern slopes, both species
are usually found. At altitudes of 7,000 to 11,000 feet, oaks are generally
mixed with maple, spruce, fir and bamboo. Fir, rhododendron and birch
predominate between 11,000 and 12,000 feet, and in drier areas, as on
the Dhaulagiri massif, juniper, oak and ash are found. Birch continue to
appear up to the tree line, at 13,000 to 14,000 feet. In some areas just
below the snowline, at 12,000 to 14,000 feet, various grasses often provide
good grazing grounds in sheltered spots during the short summers. Above
12,000 feet the stunted vegetation becomes increasingly thin until finally
only lichens and mosses clinging to bare rocks remain.

Wild Life

     Nepal has a wide variety of wild animals and bird life. The jungles of
the Tarai are known as one of the best big-game areas in the world, and in
the winter months guests of the ruling family are on occasion entertained
there in elaborate hunting camps. The list of game animals includes
tigers, leopards, panthers, black bears, elephants, rhinoceroses, buffaloes,
wolves, hyenas, jackals and many species of deer. Reptiles, most numerous
in the Tarai Region, include crocodiles and many species of snakes, including
cobras and vipers.

People

Demographic Data

     The population, according to the official preliminary census report of
1961, was 9,756,390. Accepting that figure and the total of 8,743,478 reported
in the 1952-54 census, the annual rate of growth over the 7-year period,
1954-61, would have been about 1.9 percent. Actually no complete population
count has ever been made in Nepal, and all population estimates must be taken
as subject to an unknown degree of error. The preliminary report, however,
represents the latest and best information available, and its figures are
generally consistent with other recent estimates for various regions.

     The average population density as calculated from the 1961 census
was about 180 per square mile (table 1). Comparative figures in 1961 were
259 for Pakistan, 347 for India and 82 for Burma. The lowest density
was in the Far Western Mountain Region, where it was estimated to be
approximately 94 per square mile. The highest density, given as 2,163,
was in the Katmandu Valley, where 3 of the country's 4 largest towns are
situated. The density in the rural section of the valley is also high-about
1,150 per square mile. In general the heaviest concentrations outside the
valley are found in areas endowed with fertile soil and adequate rainfall,
as in the Eastern Tarai Region, where the average density reportedly is 434
per square mile. These advantages may be offset in some areas, however, by
other unfavorable factors, as in the fertile but malarial and pest-ridden
Center Inner Tarai Region.

[See Table 1.: Areas, Population and Average Population Densities of
Geographic Regions in Nepal, 1961]

     Since only about 10 percent of the total land area is cultivated, average
density for the country as a whole is less significant than average density
per cultivated square mile, which is approximately 1,500 (see ch. 17,
Agriculture). Extraordinarily high concentrations are crowded onto the slopes
of many of the narrow, fertile stream valleys (see fig. 6).

     The 1961 census lists 147,715 more females than males in the total
population, or 103 females for every 100 males. Statistics on age distribution
and birth and death rates are not available, but estimates based on the
1952-54 census indicate that about 39 percent of the total population is under
the age of 15, and 59 percent is between the ages of 15 and 59. The 1952-54
census statistics also show the excess of females over males to be greatest
in the Eastern Mountain Region, where reportedly there were 107 females for
every 100 males, while in the Far Western Tarai statistics showed only 91
females for every 100 males. It is explained in the 1952-54 census report
that the reason for this disparity in the Eastern Mountains was that many men
left the area for 6 months or more every year to seek employment or engage in
trade. The imbalance in the Far Western Tarai, on the other hand, is
attributed to the allegedly greater care given to male than to female infants
in this region.

Settlement Patterns

     Almost all Nepalese live in villages or in small market towns. According
to the 1961 census there were only 264,038 urban dwellers, or less than 3
percent of the total population. Based on official estimates of approximately
29,120 villages in the country, average village size would be about 335
inhabitants. The size and types of rural settlements vary widely, however,
since they are determined largely by the availability of space, configuration
of the terrain and fertility of the soil. In the fertile Tarai plains, many
villages have 500 or more houses, whereas on the precipitous slopes of the
hills and on the rocky slopes of the mountains most settlements probably do
not comprise more than 25 dwellings (see ch. 4, Ethnic Groups and Languages).

     Ethnic and local distinctiveness make it difficult to generalize, but at
least three settlement types are present-compact, dispersed and clustered.
Compact settlements predominate in the Tarai plains; dispersed settlements are
found mainly in the mountain regions at elevations up to 9,000 or 10,000 feet;
clustered settlements, consisting of a number of house clusters, are limited
largely to the narrow valleys and gorges at elevations above 10,000 feet,
along the boundary with Tibet. Some clustered types also appear in limited
areas at lower altitudes.

Tarai

     The compact villages of the Tarai lowlands, inhabited mostly by the Tharu
and Indian ethnic groups, resemble those of neighboring India (see ch. 4,
Ethnic Groups and Languages). The houses are usually rectangular, one story in
height, and with rather steeply pitched, thatched gable roofs. The walls are
of wattle (woven of twigs or coarse grass), but the dwellings of prosperous
villagers may have tile roofs and walls of mud mixed with straw.

Mountain

     In the mountains, house types vary considerably with local setting and
ethnic group. The Limbu, who inhabit the area near the boundary with Sikkim,
live in dispersed settlements. Their houses, regarded as the best in rural
Nepal, are wooden, two-story structures, the ground floors being used for
storerooms and the second floors for living quarters. The gable roofs usually
are of thatch, and thatch-covered verandas open off the living rooms. The
walls are usually decorated with elaborate carvings and painted in bright
colors.

     The Tamang villages, north and west of Katmandu Valley, are built in
compact clusters usually situated in the central part of a terraced slope,
convenient to the cultivated plots. The houses are usually of two stories,
with wide-angled gables paralleling the terrace walls.

     The Gurung, on the south flank of Annapurna, at elevations around 10,000
feet, live in loosely clustered villages composed of neatly constructed
rectangular houses of two stories. The walls are of dry stone; the gable roofs
of slate. Farther south in the Pokhara area the Gurung villages are composed
of elliptical or oval dwellings with neatly whitewashed walls and conical
roofs covered with thatch or slate. Some houses have roofed verandas on the
south side.

     The Magar, on the western and southern flanks of the Dhaulagiri massif,
also live in clustered villages. Their houses are extraordinarily large, with
two stories and flat or hipped roofs.

     The Sherpa, in the high mountains west of Mount Everest, live in
dispersed villages which contrast with the clustered settlements of most of
the other groups farther west in the Tibetan border region. Sherpa houses are
usually two-story structures with white, plastered walls and low, pitched,
gable roofs covered with slate shingles or wooden planks. The ground floor is
used to shelter farm tools, and the family lives above in one large room with
the hearth in a corner.

     The Bhote villages, north of the Annapurna massif, are frequently
situated on or near the alluvial fans of glacier-fed streams which provide a
dependable water supply for irrigating the terraced cropland. Perched on
shelves on sides of deep canyons, the villages typically consist of a tight
cluster of tall stone and mortar houses. Adjacent dwellings frequently have a
common wall, and the general effect of the village complex is that of a
fortress. Families use the flat roofs to take advantage of sunlight during the
day.

     In the extreme northwestern part of the country, villages consist of
clusters of houses built of stone or wood slabs. The flat roofs are reached
by outside ladders instead of stairs.

Urban

     The country's only towns are situated in the Katmandu Valley and in the
Tarai. In the Katmandu Valley they were built originally as the capitals
of local kingdoms. For security reasons they were surrounded by walls
enclosing a group of tightly clustered houses, with centrally located pagodas.
In the Tarai the larger towns developed from commercial centers at the termini
of railroads or roads leading to the area from India. Most of them retain the
appearance of overgrown villages centered around a marketplace, and perhaps a
few government buildings and a business section.

Mobility

     Notwithstanding the terrain and the fact that travel in much of the
country is over narrow and precipitous trails, many Nepalese are on the move
during the dry season. Some work as porters; others trek to market to sell
their produce or seek employment; and still others go on pilgrimages.
Statistics are not available on interregional movement, hence estimates and
conclusions on the subject are based on fragmentary observations and general
impressions.

     In some areas of central Nepal the inhabitants of certain communities
live in twin villages: one, usually in a valley bottom, is occupied in the
winter and early summer months; the other, at a higher altitude, is used
during the late summer and early fall by all or part of the villagers, who
take their animals to the higher pastures. Some villagers may plant crops on
the south slope early in the season and then move over the ridge to their
twin village on the north slope to plant another crop to be harvested later
in the season (see ch. 17, Agriculture).

     Traders are constantly on the move between market towns in India and
areas throughout the country. Others reportedly travel through the passes on
the boundary with Tibet (see ch. 19, Industry and Trade). Many Magar living
in areas south and west of the Dhaulagiri massif are said to migrate each
winter to the Tarai, where they make bamboo mats, baskets and other articles
to sell in market towns along the Indian border.

     The British and Indian Armies continue to attract numerous Nepalese
volunteers: these men, accepted only from the mountain regions, account for a
certain amount of the going and coming across the Indian frontier. Still
others are attracted to India for long or short periods by employment
opportunities.

     The 1961 census indicates that approximately 369,000 persons-almost 4
percent of the population-were away from home when the census was taken. Of
this number, about 85 percent were reported to be outside the country.
According to comparable statistics in the 1952-54 census, almost 80 percent
of those living abroad were in India; the remainder were mostly in Malaya and
Burma. About two-thirds of the absentees were from the mountain regions; the
smallest proportion of absentees were from the Tarai.

Major Towns

Katmandu

     Katmandu, centrally situated in the valley of the same name, is the
historic capital of the kingdom. With a population of approximately 122,500,
comprising about 20,500 families, it is by far the largest town in the
country. Its nucleus is the old place surrounded by numerous Buddhist shrines
and by many elaborately constructed Hindu temples with ornate images of
animals such as bulls and elephants. Contributing to its religious importance
is Katmandu's position astride the Baghmati Nadi, a sacred stream. In the
northeast section of town the Baghmati curves around a hill surmounted by a
large Hindu temple which is regarded as the holiest in the land.

     Expansion has been mostly to the east along the 3-mile road leading to
Gauchar Airport. The residential section on the east edge of town is known as
Delhi Bazar. Adjacent to the old part of Katmandu is the newer business
section. Its four- or five-story red brick buildings contain retail shops on
the ground floors and living quarters above. Most of them are decorated with
elaborately carved latticework on the balconies and around the windows. Just
southeast of the old section is the Singha Durbar, once the chief palace of
the Rana rulers and now a maze of government offices. To the north is a wide,
tree-lined avenue called the King's Way, along which are several large palaces
and a foreign embassy, most of them with their own gardens. This section
includes the Royal Palace (Narayan Hiti), as well as the homes of a few
wealthy Ranas.

Patan

     Patan (Lalitpur in Sanskrit) is situated 3 miles southeast of the center
of Katmandu. With a population of approximately 48,800, comprising about
8,500 families, it is the second largest urban center in Nepal. The main
entrance into town is through a gate in the ancient wall, sections of which
are still standing. Temples crowd its central square and no factories or
modern business establishments alter its medieval appearance. A handicraft
center, Patan is known especially for weaving and metalwork. Buildings are
typically of four or five stories, with walls of red brick; windows and doors
are trimmed with carved wood, usually painted black. Most of these structures
stand wall to wall around square compounds, each about the size of a small
city block. Several compounds may be connected by arched passages, the complex
including a large temple. Each compound is usually occupied by a separate
clan. Buildings in certain parts of the town are provided with individual
wells, but in the poorer sections families obtain water from common wells or
from pipe-fed tanks. The streets are of cobble-stones, and most are too narrow
for transport vehicles.

Biratnagar

     Biratnagar, the most important industrial center in the country and the
principal commercial town in the Eastern Tarai, is situated about 6 miles from
Jogbani, an Indian railroad terminus on the Nepalese border. With a population
of approximately 33,300, or about 6,670 families, it ranks third in size in
the country. The business area, known as the bazaar, is surrounded by
residential sections, which are interspersed with retail shops and small
industrial enterprises. The town's economy is sustained largely by trade with
India.

Bhadgaon

     Bhadgaon (Bhaktapur in Sanskrit) is situated 8 miles east of Katmandu,
with which it is connected by a 2-lane macadam road. Its population of
approximately 33,000-some 6,130 families-makes it the fourth largest town in
Nepal. It is built around an open area called Durbar Square, which is in front
of the historic royal palace of the Malla kings. Bhadgaon's ancient temples
and shrines and its many religious festivals attract visitors from all over
Nepal and northern India.

Nepalganj

     Nepalganj is situated in Far Western Tarai about 4 miles from an Indian
railroad branch line terminus on the Nepalese border. With a reported
population of approximately 15,800, or about 3,300 families, it is the largest
town in western Nepal. Its importance as a trading center is enhanced by road
connections with Nepalese border villages to the west, by a trail leading
northward to Tibet and by a nearby airfield.

Birganj

     Birganj is a market town about 55 miles southwest of Katmandu, opposite
the Indian border town of Raxaul, which is one of the terminal points of the
narrow-gauge (30-inch) Royal Nepal Government Railway and is also served by a
spur of the meter-gauge Indian North-Eastern Railway. The former runs
northward about 30 miles to Amlekhganj, where cargo can be transferred to the
ropeway leading to Katmandu.

     Birganj has a population of some 10,800, or about 1,800 families. The
people dress in Indian fashion and Hindi is the common language. The town's
importance will probably increase because a sugar factory is being built there
with Soviet aid. The Tilawe Nadi irrigation dam, sponsored by United States
aid, is underway about 10 miles to the north, and a road, paralleling the
railroad to Amlekhganj, is also being reconstructed and improved with both
United States and Indian aid. There is an airfield at Simra, near the railroad
terminus.