Multimedia Mania/abacus-multimedia-mania.iso/dp/0037/00370.txt

Text File | 1993-07-27 | 21KB | 382 lines

$Unique_ID{bob00370}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{Japan
Visual Arts}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{International Society for Educational Information, Inc.}
$Affiliation{Embassy of Japan, Washington DC}
$Subject{japanese
period
style
architecture
japan
art
tea
century
influence
flower}
$Date{1989}
$Log{}
Title:       Japan
Book:        The Japan of Today
Author:      International Society for Educational Information, Inc.
Affiliation: Embassy of Japan, Washington DC
Date:        1989

Visual Arts

Fine arts

     The oldest surviving objects of Japanese art are earthen images dating
from the Stone Age and crude stone figures of a somewhat later period. A yet
later development was mortuary clay images called haniwa, which have been
excavated from ancient mausoleums. These show some technical advance and are
highly prized today as examples of primitive art.

Influence of Buddhism

     The introduction of Buddhism in A.D. 538 led to a cultural period of
sudden artistic flowering that reached its height in the Asuka cultural period
(538-645), when the arts were encouraged under imperial patronage. Many
Buddhist temples were built, including the celebrated Horyuji Temple near
Nara, which is believed to be the oldest wooden building in the world. The
Buddhist influence is particularly evident in figurative sculpture, which
flourished in this period. The emphasis was on solemnity and sublimity, and
features were idealized.

     The Hakuho, or so-called early Nara (645-710) cultural period, which
followed the Asuka period, was a time of strong Chinese and Indian influence.
The flatness of form and stiffness of expression in the sculpture of the Asuka
period were replaced by grace and vigor. The Tempyo, or so-called late Nara
(710-94) cultural period, was the golden age of Buddhism and Buddhist
sculpture in Japan. Some of the great works of this period may be seen in and
around Nara today. They reflect a great realism, combined with a rare
serenity.

     An idealized style of expression returned in the following Konin-Jogan
era (794-899), when the mystical teachings of the esoteric Shingon Buddhist
sect influenced the sculpture of the time. The statues of this era are
massive in form and mystic in expression. The Konin-Jogan era marked the first
century of the Heian period, which continued until 1192. The Fujiwara family
held sway, and the characteristics of the sculpture of this period are
elegance and beauty, sometimes at the expense of strength.

     Contact with China had been broken and the influences previously
introduced from abroad were now assimilated to evolve a new type of Japanese
art. Delicacy and exquisiteness of form mark the new artistic taste that
evolved at that time. These characteristics are also seen in the unique
architecture of the period.

     Painting assumed an important position during this period, almost for
the first time. It was in this era that the type of painting known as
yamatoe (Japanese-style painting) and the art of emakimono (illustrated
scrolls) developed.

Influence of Zen

     The austerity of the warrior-class regime and of Zen Buddhism was
reflected in the subsequent Kamakura period (1192-1338), when sculpture became
extremely realistic in style and vigorous in expression. The Zen influence was
reflected in the purity and simplicity of the architecture of the period.
Traces of the influence of the tradition established in the Kamakura period
can be found in Japanese architecture even today. Illustrated scrolls and
portrait painting were also in vogue during this period.

     Sumie, the delicate style of brush painting with black ink, was
developed in the Muromachi period (1338-1573). It originated with the
Buddhists of the Zen sect who were familiar with the art of the Chinese Sung
dynasty.

     The Azuchi-Momoyama period (1573-1603), which followed, was a time of
transition. It was also a period of great artistic sophistication. Artists
expressed themselves in bright colors and elaborate designs. Gorgeous folding
screens were introduced. Castles and temples were decorated with elaborate
wood carvings. Masks of great artistic refinement began to be worn in the noh
dramas.

     The most famous single artistic form in the Edo period (1603-1868) was
perhaps the ukiyoe genre print, which won immense popularity among the general
public. The influence of ukiyoe on European art in the latter half of the
nineteenth century is well known. Sculpture declined during the Edo period,
but considerable advances were made in handicrafts.

Western influence

     The second half of the nineteenth century was a period when Western
influences made themselves felt in Japanese art. Today Western forms and
traditional Japanese styles exist side by side and sometimes mingle with each
other in a new process of mutual assimilation and reinvigoration. The Japanese
show a deep interest in artistic developments, both as spectators and as
practitioners. Painting and drawing are unusually popular spare-time pursuits.
A large number of art exhibitions are held at all times of the year in the
main cities and draw large crowds. Japan's oldest and most impressive annual
art show is the comprehensive Nitten Art Exhibition; to be selected for
display there is one of the nation's highest art honors.

     Since the war there has been brisk international artistic exchange. Many
Japanese paintings and other works of art have been shown abroad and numerous
exhibitions of foreign works are held in Japan. Besides the Japan
International Art Exhibition, which is also called the "Tokyo Biennale," the
International Biennial Exhibition of Prints, held in Tokyo and Kyoto, is well
known throughout the world.

Architecture

     Wood has long served as the basis of Japanese architecture. Though a
relatively small country, Japan is blessed with abundant forest resources,
and wood is most suitable for Japan's hot and humid climate. Stone is
unsuitable for construction in Japan for reasons of both supply and economy
and has been used for little more than castle escarpments.

     A notable feature of Japanese architecture is the coexistence of
everything from traditional styles that have been handed down from generation
to generation to modern structures employing the most advanced engineering
techniques.

Traditional architectural styles

     Shrine architecture: One of the oldest architectural forms extant in
Japan today is shrine architecture. The Ise Jingu Shrine at Ise in Mie
Prefecture, the origins of which are unknown, is an especially important
architectural monument that is reconstructed every 20 years using the
original building techniques, the next rebuilding being scheduled for 1993.
The simple construction of unpainted Japanese cypress reflects the appearance
and spirit of ancient Japanese architecture, which is designed to blend
harmoniously with the surrounding environment.

     The influence of Buddhism: Buddhism, which reached Japan from China in
the sixth century, exerted a major influence on Japanese architecture.
Buddhist temple architecture, with its grand construction materials and
architectural scale, conveyed a magnificent image of the continent. The hall
housing the Daibutsu (Great Buddha) statue at Todaiji Temple in Nara,
completed in the eighth century, is the world's largest wooden structure.

     Both Nara and Kyoto, Japan's ancient capitals built in the eighth
century, were designed according to the Chinese method of urban planning,
which arranged streets in a checkerboard pattern. Modern Kyoto retains the
form it had at that time.

     The development of indigenous Japanese styles: In the Heian period
(794-1192), Buddhism underwent a gradual Japanization. Shinden-zukuri, the
architectural style employed in the mansions and homes of the nobility, is
representative of the residential architecture of this period. A roof
thatched with Japanese cypress tree bark rested on wooden pillars and beams;
the interior had wooden floors without fixed room dividers; and the use of
single-leaf and folding screens, tatami, and other light materials made it
possible to define the living space freely. The Kyoto Gosho (Imperial Palace),
home to generations of Emperors, still exemplifies this arrangement well. Some
features of the external appearance, such as the construction materials, the
steeply pitched roof, and the wide eves can be seen in some Japanese housing
today.

     Another characteristic of the Heian period was the appearance of gardens
with ponds and fishing pavilions.

     The influence of Zen: In the Kamakura period (1192-1338), the samurai
came to the fore, displacing the nobility as the dominant class in society.
The arrival of Zen Buddhism from China in this era gave rise to Tangstyle
architecture in the temples and monasteries of Kyoto and Kamakura. Eventually
this developed into the multistoried architecture of temples like Kinkakuji
(Temple of the Golden Pavilion) and Ginkakuji (Temple of the Silver Pavilion)
in Kyoto. Dry landscape gardens, in which sand, stones, and shrubbery are used
to symbolize mountains and water, became popular. While all of these were
highly extravagant means for samurai and nobility to display their power,
they also resulted in the flowering of a uniquely Japanese artistic culture.

     Tea, which was transmitted to Japan from China, became popular among the
upper classes in the Muromachi era (1338-1573). The spirit of the tea house,
which was built especially for the tea ceremony, eventually influenced
residential architecture, and an architectural style called sukiya-zukuri,
or the tea-ceremony cottage style, developed. Kyoto's Katsura Rikyu, formerly
an imperial villa, is the prime example of this style. Built in the early part
of the Edo period (1603-1868), the structure is famous for its superb harmony
and rare simplicity. The garden is considered one of the finest examples of
Japanese landscape gardening.

     The construction of castles: Many castles were built in Japan in the
sixteenth century, when the warrior spirit dominated Japanese society. Though
they were constructed as military bases, castles also fulfilled an important
peacetime role as the symbol of a lord's prestige and the center of
administration. For this reason, they were designed not only for military
purposes but also with aesthetics in mind. A number of castles survive
in cities around the country today. Perhaps the most outstanding of them is
Himeji Castle, which is often likened to a white heron because of its
balanced beauty.

The development of modern architecture

     With the Meiji Restoration in 1868 Japan entered a period of
modernization and Westernization, and construction techniques using stone and
brick were introduced. The new style spread throughout the country and was
adopted for many government-run factories and government offices.

     Office buildings and residences incorporating Western designs became
increasingly common. Stone and brick structures built by conventional methods,
however, failed to stand up to the great earthquake of 1923, which reduced
Tokyo to rubble. Subsequently progress was made in research on
earthquake-proof construction methods, and reinforced-concrete architecture
came to the force at about the same time as it did in Western Europe.

     Postwar developments: Overcoming the heavy blow of World War II, Japan
entered a period of rapid economic growth in which architectural engineering
using steel and concrete attained one of the highest levels in the world. A
number of buildings have been designed that have made a significant
contribution to architecture internationally. Recently there has been a trend
toward expressing traditional Japanese forms using modern technology and
materials.

     The Yoyogi National Stadium, constructed for the Tokyo Olympics in 1964,
and the  various types of architecture seen at the World Exposition in Osaka
in 1970 exemplify one result of Japan's postwar economic growth that it can be
proud of. Recently original architectural forms and postmodern trends created
by young architects who are active overseas as well as in Japan have been
attracting attention.

     A number of large-scale housing projects, such as Osaka's Senri New Town,
have sprung up to meet the demand for housing brought on by increases in the
country's population, and in major cities, where land is scarce, ultra-high
rise architectural engineering has made notable progress to meet the great
demand for office space. A block of skyscrapers in Shinjuku in western central
Tokyo, dubbed the capital's subcenter, stands as a symbol of Japan's economic
status.

     A recent spectacular trend has been urban redevelopment in central
Tokyo, focusing on smart buildings like the Ark Hills complex, to meet the
needs of an internationalized and information-intensive city. Smart buildings
are connected to the world's most advanced telecommunications networks and
are managed automatically.

Design

Craft design

     In the field of craft design, various implements, tools, eating utensils,
and other items suited to modern living are being fashioned on the basis of
traditional Japanese crafts, such as lacquerware, woodwork, pottery,
metalwork, casting, chasing, weaving, and dyeing. These craft products, the
outgrowth of Japan's unique climate and culture, are gaining popularity as
modern folkcrafts.

Fashion design

     In the field of fashion, Japanese designers have been winning particular
acclaim internationally in recent years. When Japanese designers first began
to be noticed abroad, interest stemmed from curiosity about Japanese taste and
Japanese style, but today the spotlight focuses on the character of individual
designers. Following in the steps of the pioneering Mori Hanae, there have
been Ashida Jun, Kawakubo Rei, Miyake Issei, Takada Kenzo, and Yamamoto Yoji.
The Westernization of the Japanese style of living has left little
opportunity to use the traditional kimono, but a new sense of values and new
designs are now leading to a reevaluation of the kimono and of ways of wearing
it.

Traditional Arts

Tea ceremony

     The tea ceremony, or chanoyu, is an aesthetic pastime unique to Japan
that features the serving and drinking of matcha, a powdered green tea. Though
tea had been introduced into Japan from China around the eighth century,
matcha did not reach the country until the end of the twelfth century. The
practice of holding social gatherings to drink matcha spread among the upper
class from about the fourteenth century. Gradually one of the main purposes of
these gatherings, which took place in a shoin (study), became the appreciation
of paintings and crafts from China in a serene atmosphere.

     Under the influence of the formalities and manners that regulated the
daily life of the samurai, who were then the dominant class in Japanese
society, there developed certain rules and procedures that the participants in
these tea parties were required to follow. This was the origin of the tea
ceremony. The form of chanoyu that is practiced today was established in the
second half of the sixteenth century, during the Momoyama period, by the tea
master Sen no Rikyu.
0
     Chanoyu involves more than merely enjoying a cup of tea in a stylized
manner. The ceremony developed under the influence of Zen Buddhism, the aim of
which is, in simple terms, to purify the soul by becoming one with nature. The
true spirit of the tea ceremony has been described by such terms as calmness,
rusticity, gracefulness, and the "aestheticism of austere simplicity and
refined poverty." The strict canons of chanoyu etiquette, which at first
glance may appear to be burdensome and meticulous, are in fact carefully
calculated to achieve the highest possible economy of movement. When
performed by an experienced master, they are a delight to watch.

     Chanoyu has played an important role in the artistic life of the Japanese
people. As an aesthetic pursuit, the tea ceremony involves the appreciation
of the room in which it is held, the garden attached to the room, the utensils
used in serving the tea, and the decor of the setting, such as a hanging
scroll or a flower arrangement. Japanese architecture, landscape gardening,
ceramics, and flower arranging all owe a great deal to the tea ceremony. It
was the spirit of chanoyu, representing the beauty of studied simplicity and
harmony with nature, that molded the basis of these traditional forms of
Japanese culture. Moreover, the kind of formalities observed in the tea
ceremony have influenced the development of the manners of the Japanese in a
fundamental way.

     After the death of Sen no Rikyu in 1591, his teachings were handed down
from generation to generation by his descendants and disciples. Different
schools were established and have continued to be active to the present day.
Among them, the Urasenke School is the most active and has the largest
following. These schools differ from one another in the details of their
rules, but they maintain the essence of the ceremony that the great master
developed. This essence has continued to the present day unchallenged, and
respect for the founder is one element that all schools possess in common.

Flower arrangement

     In contrast to the purely decorative form of flower arranging popular in
Western countries, the art of ikebana, or Japanese flower arrangement, seeks
to create a harmony of linear construction, rhythm, and color. While
Westerners tend to emphasize the quantity and colors of the flowers, devoting
their attention mainly to the beauty of the blossoms, the Japanese emphasize
the linear aspects of the arrangement and have developed the art to include
the vase, stems, leaves, and branches, as well as the flowers. The entire
structure of a Japanese flower arrangement is based on three main lines that
symbolize heaven, earth, and humankind.

Classical arrangement

     The origins of ikebana can be traced back to ritual flower offerings in
Buddhist temples, which began in the sixth century. In these rather crude
arrangements, both the flowers and the branches were made to point toward
heaven as an indication of faith.

     A more sophisticated style of flower arrangement, called rikka (standing
flowers), emerged in the fifteenth century. The rikka style, which seeks to
reflect the magnificence of nature, stipulates that flowers should be arranged
to depict Mount Sumeru, a mythical mountain of Buddhist cosmology and a symbol
of the universe. This style involves much symbolism. For example, pine
branches symbolize rocks and stones, and white chrysanthemums symbolize a
river or small stream. The rikka style enjoyed its heyday in the seventeenth
century. Today it is regarded as an antiquated form of flower arrangement.
Once considered a suitable decoration for ceremonial and festive occasions,
the rikka style has lost its hold on people and is rarely practiced anymore.

Naturalistic arrangement

     The most significant changes in the history of ikebana took place during
the fifteenth century, when the Muromachi shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436-
1490) ruled Japan. The large buildings and small houses that Yoshimasa had
built expressed his love for simplicity. These small houses contained a
tokonoma, or alcove, where people could place objects of art and flower
arrangements. It was during this period that the rules of ikebana were
simplified so that people of all classes could enjoy the art.

     Another major development took place in the late sixteenth century, when
a more austere and simple style of flower arrangement called nageire (meaning
to throw in or fling in) emerged as part and parcel of the tea ceremony.
According to this style, flowers should be arranged in a vase as naturally as
possible, no matter what the materials used may be.

Modern ikebana

     In the 1890s, shortly after the Meiji Restoration, which ushered in a
period of modernization and Westernization in Japan, there developed a new
style of ikebana called moribana (piled-up flowers). This style appeared in
response partly to the introduction of Western flowers and partly to the
Westernization of Japanese living. The moribana style, which inaugurated a new
freedom in flower arranging, seeks to reproduce in miniature the appearance of
a landscape or a garden scene. It is a style that can be enjoyed wherever it
is displayed and can be adapted to both formal and informal situations.