Multimedia Mania/abacus-multimedia-mania.iso/dp/0020/00202.txt

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$Title{Indonesia
Front Matter}
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$Author{Frederica M. Bunge}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{government
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$Date{1982}
$Log{See Global Map*0020202.scf
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Title:       Indonesia
Book:        Indonesia, A Country Study
Author:      Frederica M. Bunge
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date:        1982

Front Matter

Foreword

     This volume is one of a continuing series of books written by Foreign
Area Studies, The American University, under the Area Handbook Program. Its
title, format and substance reflect modifications introduced into the series
in 1978. The last page of this book provides a listing of other country
studies published. Each book in the series deals with a particular foreign
country, describing and analyzing its economic, national security, political,
and social systems and institutions and examining the interrelationships of
those systems and institutions and the ways that they are shaped by cultural
factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social
scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic insight and understanding of
the society under observation, striving for a dynamic rather than a static
portrayal of it. The study focuses on historical antecedents and on the
cultural, political, and socioeconomic characteristics that contribute to
cohesion and cleavage within the society. Particular attention is given to the
origins and traditions of the people who make up the society, their dominant
beliefs and values, their community of interests and the issues on which they
are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with the national
institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward the social
system and political order within which they live.

     The contents of the book represent the views, opinions and findings
of Foreign Areas Studies and should not be construed as an official
Department of the Army position, policy, or decision, unless so designated
by other official documentation. The authors have sought to adhere to
accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Such corrections, additions, and
suggestions for factual or other changes that readers may have will be
welcomed for use in future revisions.

William Evans-Smith
Director, Foreign Area Studies
The American University
Washington, D.C. 20016

Acknowledgments

     The authors are grateful to numerous individuals in the international
community, in various agencies of the United States government, and in
private organizations in Washington, D.C., who gave of their time, research
materials, and special knowledge to provide data and perspective for this
study. The authors also thank members of the Foreign Area Studies staff
who contributed directly to the preparation of the manuscript. These
include Kathryn R. Stafford, Dorothy M. Lohmann, and Andrea T. Merrill, who
edited the manuscript and the accompanying figures and tables; Harriett R.
Blood and Farah Ahannavard, who prepared the graphics; and Gilda V. Nimer,
librarian. The team appreciates as well the assistance provided by Ernest
A. Will, publications manager, and Eloise W. Brandt, administrative assistant.
Margaret Quinn typed the manuscript and gave valuable help in various phases
of production. Special thanks are owed to Marty Ittner, who designed the
illustrations for the cover of this volume and for the title pages of the
chapters.

Preface

     Since the time that research and writing were completed in May 1974 for
the Area Handbook for Indonesia, of which this study is a revision, the
form and substance of Soeharto's New Order have become increasingly manifest.
By the close of 1982 a number of structural patterns could be ascertained, and
various persistent problems and areas of progress could be usefully examined.
In so doing, the purpose of the authors has been to provide a concise,
balanced, and objective description and analysis of dominant social, military,
political, and economic aspects of the society and to identify dynamic forces
and major trends, in order to give the reader an understanding of the aims
and values of the Indonesian people.

     For the reader's benefit a number of points on Indonesian usage in this
text should be noted. Of many possible variants reflecting ethnic diversity
and local custom, place-names used in the study conform to official standard
names approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names contained in
Gazetteer No. 13: Indonesia and Portuguese Timor (2d ed.), prepared by the
Office of Geography, United States Department of the Interior and published
in January 1968, and the Gazetteer Supplement: Asia, published in April
1972. (Political changes since publication of these documents require certain
exceptions, of course, as in the case of Portuguese Timor, now the Indonesian
province of East Timor, and West Irian, now the Indonesian province of Irian
Jaya.) An effort has been made to re-spell all the place-names in accordance
with the new orthography introduced in 1972. In some cases, an alternative
place-name is offered in parentheses, as in Sulawesi (Celebes), where
international usage may make a conventional name better known. Personal
names may use various styles of spelling, in some cases reflecting individual
preference.

     A legacy from the Sukarno era is the popular use of acronyms and
contractions, which may sometimes be a source of frustration for the reader.
These terms in effect became Indonesian words in their own right and are
heard and read in everyday use in the country. For the sake of brevity,
the text does not include the Indonesian words from which the acronyms or
contractions derive; but for the reader's convenience the Indonesian forms
of some of those more commonly encountered are provided in a separate table
at the end of this section (see table A). As will be obvious, acronyms are
given in capital letters, while contractions-usually formed from the first
syllables of the component words of the organization, institution, or
agency-are lowercased with an initial capital letter.

     A bibliography appears at the end of the book. Brief comments on some
of the more valuable sources as possible further reading appear at the end
of each chapter.

     Measurements are given in the metric system. A conversion table is
provided to assist those readers who are unfamiliar with metric measurements
(see table 1, Appendix).

[See Table A.: Selected Acronyms and Contractions]

Country Profile

[See Global Map: Map of Indonesia on the globe.]

Country

     Formal Name: Republic of Indonesia.

     Term for Citizens: Indonesians.

     Capital: Jakarta.

Geography

     Size: Island chain along equator. Extends some 5,120 kilometers east to
west. More than 13,000 islands, from small reefs to areas about size of
France. Together, Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan (the southern portion of Borneo),
Sulawesi, Maluku Islands, and Irian Jaya (the western portion of New Guinea)
make up most of national territory.

     Topography: Mountainous topography and some active volcanoes; many lakes,
rivers, and swamplands. Much of territory consists of thick, tropical rain
forest. Irian Jaya especially rugged; covered in great part by rain forest,
vast swamps, and towering nonvolcanic mountains.

     Climate: Tropical climate marked by heavy rainfall, low winds, and high
humidity. Two seasons, wet and dry, determined by monsoon conditions.

Society

     Population: Estimated in 1980 at 147.5 million. Fifth largest population
in world after China, India, Soviet Union, and United States, in descending
order. Of the various regions, Java had greatest number of people, estimated
at 91 million in preliminary 1980 census reports. Density ranged from about
700 persons per square kilometer in Java to somewhat over four persons per
square kilometer in Irian Jaya. In 1980 urban population 20.2 percent of
total.

     Languages: Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia), form of Malay, official
language. Others include Javanese, Sundanese, and Malay.

     Religion: About 90 percent Muslims, majority nominal adherents. Others
include Hindu, Buddhist, and Christian. Eclecticism and fundamental belief in
mysticism widespread. Constitution guarantees religious freedom.

     Health: Malaria and tuberculosis widespread; endemic diseases include
cholera, smallpox, typhus, and typhoid. Control complicated by inadequate
sanitation and housing shortage.

     Education: Literacy rate estimated at 60 percent. System of public
education from primary to university level as well as private schools. Total
enrollment 32 million in 1980-81 school year.

Economy

     General Trends: Gross national product (GNP) equivalent to US$63 billion
in 1980 (US$430 per capita); gross domestic product (GDP) equivalent to
US$69.8 billion. Real GDP growth rate averaged 3.9 percent per year during
1960-70 period and 7.6 percent per year during 1970-80 period, one of fastest
in developing world. Investment about 22 percent of GDP in 1980 compared with
only 8 percent in 1960. Exports of oil and natural gas products responsible
for most growth and investment.

     Resources: Abundance of petroleum and natural gas, as well as tropical
hard-woods, tin, nickel, bauxite, copper, coal, and iron sands. Excellent,
though undeveloped, hydroelectric potential. Extensive agricultural holdings
of tree crops and irrigated rice paddies. Potentially lucrative fishing
resources.

     Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing: Employ majority of population,
although many leaving sector, which contributed less than one-third of GDP in
1980. Principal crops: rice (irrigated and dryland), cassava, sweet potatoes,
peanuts, and soybeans for food; rubber, coffee, sugarcane, oil palm, coconut,
and spices for commercial markets and exports. Considerable variation from
island to island; irrigated rice cultivation concentrated on Java, Madura, and
Bali; dryfield and tree-crop farming on other islands. Livestock and fishing
important but not modernized; forestry industry among largest in world,
although dominated by foreign companies.

     Industry: Dominated by oil and gas production. Emphasis on building
downstream industries, such as refining, fertilizer, and other chemical
plants, to use nation's oil production. Extraction and processing of basic
minerals, such as tin, bauxite, and ingredients for cement, also important.
Wood processing and finishing becoming important as government restricts raw
timber exports. Machine manufacturing mostly assembly of imported components.
Construction and utilities receiving increased government support.

     Services: Important employment sector, especially for low-income groups,
but also for skilled and educated in cities. Tendency for large government and
private enterprises to monopolize most lucrative commerce. Many small-scale
shopkeepers and street vendors still flourish in urban and rural areas.
Chinese ethnic groups control much of private trading networks.

     Exports: Chiefly oil and liquefied natural gas; also rubber, coffee,
copra, palm oil and kernel, tea, tobacco, tin, nickel, and some textiles.

     Imports: Capital goods and raw materials for industry predominate.
Consumer goods, including food, decreasing as share but still important.

     Balance of Payments: Current account balance usually in surplus, although
occasional deficits depending on international prices for oil and agricultural
commodities. Worldwide recession of 1982 causing crisis for exports and
government revenue. Substantial inflow of foreign capital, especially for
government projects approved by foreign aid agencies. Total disbursed external
public debt about 59 percent of GDP at end of 1980; debt service about 8
percent of exports. Direct private investment, particularly outside oil
industry, declining because of government regulations.

     Exchange Rate: Rp675 (for value of rupiah-see Glossary) to US1 (October
1982) and devaluing in face of reduced demand for Indonesian exports.
Government, which controls rate, denied rumors of major devaluation, as had
occurred in 1978.

     Highways: Increasingly important to economy. In 1979 some 88,710
kilometers of district roads, 28,610 kilometers of provincial roads, 11,573
kilometers of national highways, latter mostly asphalt and in best repair.
About 200,000 kilometers of mostly unpaved village roads. Java and Sumatra
account for most of road network.

     Railroads: Declined in importance until after 1976, following renewed
government investment. Restricted to Java (including Madura) and Sumatra,
having 4,700 and 2,000 kilometers of track, respectively.

     Ports: Major ports at Jakarta, Surabaya, Belawan, Ujung Pandang; 12 other
significant ports and some 300 registered ports overall. Sea trade essential
to transportation of bulk items and international trade. Oceangoing merchant
fleet totaled 668,000 deadweight tons in fiscal year (FY) 1980; interisland
fleet of 379,000 deadweight tons.

     Airports: Two international (at Jakarta and at Denpasar on Bali), five
others capable of handling wide-bodied jets, and 27 other important airports.
Rapidly expanding air travel important for government and business executives.

Government and Politics

     Government: Republic based on separation of powers into executive,
legislative, and judicial. Power centralized in presidency; mandate renewed
every five years in indirect election. President head of state, head of
government, and supreme commander in chief of armed forces. Cabinet top
executive body; chaired by president. Most positions at highest echelons held
by senior officers of armed forces. Legislative authority divided between
People's Consultative Assembly and House of People's Representatives. Supreme
Court highest court of land, but power of judicial review circumscribed.

     Administrative Divisions: Twenty-four provinces (propinsi) and three
provincial-level special territories-Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Aceh. These
divisions subdivided into districts, or regencies (kabupaten), and
municipalities. Below these are subdistricts (kecamatan) and villages. All
local administrative divisions continue to serve as extensions of central
government.

     Politics: Emphasis on consensus, unity, and controlled political
development. Competitive politics based on parochial interests or any
political creed other than state ideology, pancasila (see Glossary),
officially discouraged. All political groups identified with three legal
political organizations: Golkar, government surrogate party; and two
opposition parties, Muslim group known as Development Unity Party and
secularist Indonesian Democratic Party. Political activities taking place
outside this tripartite arrangement considered illegal. Since creation of
this arrangement in 1973, Golkar has captured absolute majority of seats in
parliamentary elections held every five years; electoral success aided
substantially by advantage of solid support received from state bureaucracy.

     Foreign Policy: Nonaligned and maintains relations with all major
countries of world. Notable exceptions China, with which relations suspended
since 1967, and Portugal, which broke off relations in 1975 after Indonesian
invasion of East Timor. Active regionally as member of Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in non-military areas.

National Security

     Armed Forces: Total personnel on active duty in 1982 approximately
444,000. Component services: army, 195,000; navy, 37,800, of which 13,000 are
marines; air force, 25,000; and police, 111,800. Figures do not include some
30,000 who have entered pre-retirement status or some 40,000 in nonmilitary
positions.

     Major Tactical Military Units: In 1982 army had one armored cavalry
brigade, 13 infantry brigades, two airborne infantry brigades, one field
artillery regiment, one antiaircraft artillery regiment, four special warfare
groups, two construction engineer regiments, eight field engineer battalions,
and 37 independent infantry, artillery, and engineer battalions. Army aviation
had one composite squadron and one helicopter squadron. Navy had one fleet
command with major craft, including four submarines, 10 frigates, 15 large
patrol craft, and seven fast attack craft. Naval air had marine reconnaissance
and transport and liaison squadrons. Marines had six infantry battalions,
one close support regiment, three amphibious assault battalions, one artillery
battalion, and one antiaircraft artillery battalion. Air force had two fighter
squadrons, one interceptor squadron, one counterinsurgency squadron, three
transport squadrons, one liaison squadron, three helicopter squadrons, and
one training squadron.

     Military Equipment: Most major equipment imported. Sources included
United States, Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), Netherlands,
France, Australia, and Republic of Korea (South Korea). Increasing emphasis
on domestic production of other items, especially small arms and ammunition.
Assembling helicopters and transport aircraft under license agreements.

     Military Budget: Rp1.7 trillion, or 12 percent of total government
budget for FY 1982.

     Foreign Military Treaties: None.

     Internal Security Forces: All armed forces had internal security
missions, army's territorial forces and police in particular. Also important
were internal security and intelligence apparatuses, Operational Command for
the Restoration of Security and Order (Kopkamtib) and State Intelligence
Coordinating Agency (Bakin).