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- From: david@spireproject.com (David Novak)
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- Subject: Information Research FAQ v.4.7 (Part 5/6)
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- Summary: Information Research FAQ: Resources, Tools & Training
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- Copyright: (c) 2001 David Novak
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-
- Information Research FAQ (Part 5/6)
-
- 100 pages of search techniques, tactics and theory
- by David Novak of the Spire Project (SpireProject.com)
-
-
- Welcome. This FAQ addresses information literacy; the skills, tools and
- theory of information research. Particular attention is paid to the
- role of the internet as both a reservoir and gateway to information
- resources.
-
- The FAQ is written like a book, with a narrative and pictures. You have
- found your way to part five, so do backtrack to the beginning. If you
- are lost, this FAQ always resides as text at
- http://spireproject.com/faq.txt and http://spireproject.co.uk/faq.txt
- and with pictures at http://spireproject.com/faq.htm
-
- *** The Spire Project also includes a 3 hour public seminar titled
- *** Exceptional Internet Research. This is a fast paced seminar
- *** supported with a great deal of webbing, reaching to skills and
- *** research concepts beyond the ground covered on our website and
- *** this FAQ. http://spireproject.com/seminar.htm has a synopsis.
- *** I am in Europe, seminaring in Ireland and Europe though I
- *** will be returning to the US shortly, and South Australia for
- *** a seminar this October.
-
- Enjoy,
- David Novak - david@spireproject.com
- The Spire Project : SpireProject.com and SpireProject.co.uk
-
-
-
- Search Tactics.
- Section 7
- The Pharaoh called on Shakh to negotiate the annual royal donation with
- the priests of Karnak temple complex. The Pharaoh was not wise in such
- matters and had previously given far too much to the detriment of the
- state. It was not wise to voice such sentiments. Shakh instead set
- about negotiating a figure ample to their needs but insufficient to
- further expand the temple complex.
-
- Shakh wisely chose to negotiate up river at the Kom Ombo temple - away
- from Karnak. Choosing words carefully, he deftly rejected the initial
- estimate of the temple's needs, then spoke calmly, eyes tight, that the
- Pharaoh had decided Karnak should supply the priests to the Egyptian
- army - at current expenses.
-
- It was a clever ruse. The negotiated royal donation was significantly
- reduced and the priests were happy to be excluded from military duty.
-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-
- If searching be a combination of science, art and experience, then the
- science of searching is the easiest of the three. There are just a few
- search elements to remember and search techniques to apply.
-
- Firstly, there are the tactics associated with free text searching;
- that of Boolean, proximity, truncation, field searching, target
- searching and further enhancements.
-
- Secondly, there are the basic classification schemes: the Dewey decimal
- system (for books) The WIPO and US Patent Classification Systems (for
- patents), the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes (for
- industry) and a number of additional classification systems founded on
- the same principles.
-
- Thirdly, there is the way information is organized. A book has a
- table-of-contents and an index, large directories like Kompass and Gale
- Directory of Databases are arranged with so many indexes (geographic,
- subject, product, name) that the contact information is often separated
- and numbered, then referenced as a number. The results are initially
- confusing. Statistics similarly have ways of presenting information
- (pie charts, line charts, charts with ranges which do not reach zero)
- and again, this can be confusing the first time you see them.
-
- Let's start with the technique associated with searching a text
- database.
-
- Straight Word Searching:
- All search situations allow you to ask for the presence of words in a
- block of text. Obviously it helps if you ask for the right word or
- words. If you ask for the right words, they you will quickly locate the
- information you desire. For best results you obviously want to choose a
- word or words which accurately describes what you are looking for.
- Prepare to search the text several times with different terms, and
- consider the possibility of different spellings for the same words.
-
- Straight word searching is fairly ubiquitous on the internet. You can
- always search a webpage with the search function of your web browser.
- Alternatively, you can search by placing a large amount of text into a
- word processor and using the in-built search functions. Your
- word-processor can handle large files like website traffic logbooks and
- archived files of past mailing list discussion. There are also
- specialist tools like the shareware WinGrep
- (http://www.mindspring.com/~bgrigsby/wingrep.html) for searching many
- files on your computer hard drive. (Alternatively, consider
- AgentRansack http://www.agentransack.com).
-
- Text Fragments:
- The simplest refinement to straight searching involves searching for
- parts of a word - if you are interested in surfing, search for surf
- better yet, search for " surf" with the space in front of the word.
-
- Truncation:
- Some search engines don't allow searches for text fragments, and you
- must explain your intention by adding a truncation mark (usually * or
- ?) to the ends of words. For most professional researchable databases,
- alga? will include both algae and algal (as in algal bloom). I was once
- badly lost because of the spelling difference between aging and ageing.
- There are a number of improvements on this concept to. Sometimes there
- are special symbols for a non-space character car?a, sometimes there is
- automatic awareness of multiple spellings (colour & color). Sometimes
- there is even automatic awareness of synonyms. Often you are initially
- unaware important information is indexed under slightly different
- spelling, so truncation is strongly suggested for most searching.
-
- Thesaurus:
- An improvement on truncation is the opportunity to look directly at a
- list of words, either keywords, or descriptors. This allows you to see
- the range of spellings before you search. This is also ideal for
- searches of company names or proper places so you can select only the
- words you are interested in. In a simple way, some library catalogues
- present subject searches in this way: a list of subject categories
- arranged alphabetically.
-
- Boolean operators:
- Changing tack, searching for multiple words calls for "and, or, not"
- concepts. I want this word and that word, but not another word. It is
- simple enough. Many of the search engines allow for this with the
- -sign, and commercial databases often add brackets. Use of the not
- symbol is frowned upon in textbooks (too easy to dismiss information
- you are interested in it is said), but the 'and & or' is absolutely
- necessary for complex questions like I want [(spaghetti or noodle) and
- pasta] or (Italian and cuisine). With most internet search engines, but
- not all commercial searches, you will find 'and' is assumed.
-
- Proximity operators:
- The next dramatic improvement fixes the position of words relative to
- one another. In this category we have adjacent (often written as adj,
- next, or "inserted in quotes"), near (by how many words), or in the
- same sentence. Often it is wise to stretch the distance a little
- (within two), but where available, proximity is best way to remove the
- dross without affecting the value of information. "Patent near
- Research" is much more precise than "Patent and Research".
-
- Fields:
- By separating information into different fields, we can selectively
- search different portions of the information. I want the title to show
- the words "Patent" and the abstract to include the words "Patent
- Research". Field searching is a common way to refine a search, but be
- aware searching titles is very likely to remove some desired
- information, where as searching descriptors and not abstracts may
- dramatically improve the content.
-
- Date Fields:
- Are you really interested in information more than 15 years old?
- Library catalogues frequently have many aging books, and date limiting
- is very wise.
-
- Further Enhancements:
- Ranking and the ability to search multiple databases are some of the
- further enhancements that select databases permit. There are also
- advances that do not have a grand impact - like natural language.
- Natural interpretation allows the searcher to phrase a question with
- common sentence structure. The computer then interprets what you want.
- In theory natural language is liberating but in practice the strengths
- of Boolean, proximity and field searching far exceed the benefits of
- natural language searching. Lastly, there are special techniques like
- target searching available on a few systems that bear discussing.
- Sorting allows you to shape the presentation of the information. When
- applied to financial information, this is particularly valuable. Alerts
- allow you to automatically repeat a previous search and have the
- information sent to you. Multiple database searching allows you to
- search a collection of databases concurrently. Ranking positions
- certain information at the top. These techniques can be valuable in
- certain circumstances.
-
- These technical options improve the blunt system of simply asking for a
- word. You will find most search functions allow for some of these
- options and all commercial quality databases provide for numerous
- functions. The good news is an experienced searcher can accomplish
- wonders - collecting articles of 70%+ interest regularly on expensive
- database. The bad news is most of the best of search technology is not
- implemented on all the databases you will search and only occasionally
- on databases free on the internet.
-
- Classification
- There are several search techniques associated with library catalogues.
- Beyond the simple author/title/subject search, we should also consider
- searching by Dewey number, and searching first for any title - then
- selecting the subject fields.
-
- Dewey Searching
- The Dewey decimal system is similar in many ways to the patent
- classification system. Each step is divided into 10 - getting more and
- more specific. See this CAL State Dewey list
- (http://www.calstatela.edu/library/guides/Dclass.htm) to get an idea of
- its structure. This number here refers to a book called Australian
- government assistance to local government projects:
-
- The Dewey system is arranged by Discipline, not subject groupings. Each
- digit to the right becomes progressively more detailed. The system
- works well in organizing books - and libraries expand it to suit their
- needs - but it is different from a subject catalogue. Because it is
- arranged by discipline, subject fields may be split.
-
- In searching, we want to duplicate the walk to the shelves and browsing
- other publications that share similar numbers. We do this
- electronically by searching/browsing books that share most of a number.
- Drop a digit - expand the field of interest.
-
- The Dewey system is a bit congested in certain areas, giving rise to
- very long numbers. For this and historical reasons, several national
- libraries do not use the Dewey system. The Library of Congress, for
- example, has its own classification scheme (Outlined here
- http://lcweb.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/lcco/lcco.html ).
-
- Subject Searching
- We can do better than searching the subject index of a library
- catalogue. Try instead to search for a book which interests you - which
- you can usually find easily with a simple title search - and then
- selecting the subjects that book are indexed under.
-
- Many of the library catalogues are making this particularly easy by
- incorporating links into the catalogue results. A quick look at the
- Library of Congress, for example, will show how all the subject fields
- are linked to further searching.
-
- We can show this in action by looking at the book Earth Time [1] by
- David Suzuki, at my State Library. As you can see down the bottom, it
- is indexed under Social Ecology [2] and Human Ecology [3].
-
- This kind of 'locate then expand' is an effective search technique used
- in a number of situations. In commercial databases, we may search for a
- company then expand to make sure we catch any different company
- spellings. We may also wish to search for a book, then search for books
- by the same publisher.
-
- [1]
- http://henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au/search/asuzuki+david/1,2,46,B/frameset&asuzuki+david+t+1936&11,,45
- [2]
- http://henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au/search/dsocial+ecology/-5,-1,0,B/browse
- [3]
- http://henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au/search/dhuman+ecology/-5,-1,0,B/browse
-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-
- Patent Classification
- All patents are given a special number. Unfortunately, each country has
- a distinct numbering scheme: US patents are assigned a consecutive
- patent number (currently 6 million+). Australian patents have an
- alphanumerical which includes the year. Canadian patents are numbered.
-
- Above these numbering systems, we have the International Patent
- Classification (IPC), by the World Intellectual Property Organization
- (WIPO). Most every country uses the IPC to classify patents, save the
- US. US Patent Classification is similar in many ways.
-
- International Patent Classification
- Thanks to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), the
- International Patent Classification (IPC) works as a universal
- classification for patents. Started in 1975 and periodically updated,
- we currently use IPC 7th Edition.
-
- Section, Class & Group. The International Patent Classification looks
- like this: A 02 J 1/00
- At the heart of the IPC is the unique coding of every invention by its
- specific form or function. The system is highly specific and logical,
- and includes numerous cross-references to other codes of similar form
- or function. Think of this as the Dewey Decimal System for patents.
-
- The first letter is the section - one of eight broad categories labeled
- A through G. 'A' represents Human Necessities. 'B' covers Transport.
-
- Each section is divided into Classes. Each class includes two numbers.
- In addition, each class is divided into subclasses, the letters which
- follow the first number.
-
- Each subclass is then divided into groups and subgroups. The number
- before the slash is the group, the number after the slash is the
- subgroup. Subgroups only have two digits, with further numbers
- considered as resting behind a decimal point: 3/46 then 3/464, then
- 3/47.
-
- Thus A 47 J 27/09 includes the safety device on your rice cooker and B
- 63 G 11/00 covers your various aircraft carriers.
-
- The IPC system is fully described in these published directories:
- The Official Catchword Index by World Intellectual Property
- Organization.
- International Patent Classification: Guide, Survey of Classes & Summary
- of Main Groups
- International Patent Classification: Section G - Physics
- International Patent Classification: Guide
-
- Thanks to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), these
- full documents are online. We now have direct access to the
- International Patent Classification (7th Edition): Official Catchword
- Index, Guide to the IPC, and the complete Class and Section books.
-
- Note: The International Patent Classification includes plenty of
- internal references - indicating this group is similar to another
- group; motorized boats take precedence over boat function. These
- internal references are important to effectively searching databases.
- There is more to the IPC, and we strongly recommend you read the
- Introductory Manual to the International Patent Classification (IPC)
- found on the WIPO website.
-
- US Patent Classification
- US Patents are classified with 400+ main classes and thousands of
- subclasses. Sound similar to the International Patent Classification?
- It is. US patents are numbered sequentially.
-
- This means you can find US patents:
- - by full text searching through the USPTO database CASSIS (found at US
- patent libraries),
- - by bibliographic & abstract text searching online through the USPTO
- or IBM Patent Library,
- - by US Patent number by US Patent Classification class & subclass - to
- list similar patents by an effective combination search
- - by the searching recent notices in the Official Gazette... available
- online.
-
- The USPTO allows you to search or browse the US Manual of
- Classification online. The Internet Patent Search System lets you to
- browse US Patent titles by class/subclass.
-
- A little more information can be found with the Patent Guide to using
- CASSIS, at the University of Michigan.
-
- Patent Search Strategies
- Here are the avenues open to you:
- 1_ Full text search and retrieval through a commercial database.
- 2_ Free bibliographic & abstract searching online followed by selective
- patent perusal/ordering.
- 3_ Paging manually through the relevant official gazette (the US
- gazette is searchable).
- 4_ Retrieval of the titles & abstracts within appropriate
- class/subclass then selective review and patent perusal/ordering.
-
- This last avenue is particularly resourceful and swift. Start by
- reaching for The Official Catchword Index, a book by World Intellectual
- Property Organization (WIPO). This will tell you the possible
- class/subclasses that will interest you. You could word-search a patent
- database and note all the class/subclasses found. Lastly, you can
- always reach for the three separate printed guides that lead you from
- section to subclass.
-
- The result should be a collection of class/subclasses that may interest
- you.
-
- With this information, you can now browse all the patents in the
- class/subclass. This process will help you locate all the patents that
- may interest you since patent classification is more reliable than free
- text search. (Note, both British and American spelling appears in
- patent databases.) This also allows you to quickly review the patents
- in other countries.
-
- If you are undertaking a novelty search - is a patent sufficiently
- unique from other existing patents - then you must review more than one
- country. There can be a significant delay before patent applications
- reach other countries without affecting the protection. Case in point:
- Australia only accounts for 7% of the world's patents.
-
- Further Search Strategy
- Patent search strategy is further discussed in the Introductory Manual
- to the International Patent Classification (IPC) found on the WIPO
- website. You may also wish to reach "Searching for Patents"
- (http://www.ummu.umich.edu/library/PTO/newpatsearch.html) from the
- University of Michigan, and "Patents" by Simon Fraser University
- Libraries (http://www.lib.sfu.ca/kiosk/nelles/patents.htm).
-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-
- Trademarks
- Trademark law is designed to protect consumers from confusion. The law
- can work to protect business investment in brands & slogans, but only
- if the business behaves in particular ways which protect consumers from
- confusion: actively using the trademark, working to restrict the
- trademark from becoming generic, routinely searching for unauthorized
- use. For a very clear description of trademark use, and the
- responsibilities of trademark owners, read the short webpages A Guide
- to Proper Trademark Use, and How are Marks Protected both by Gregory
- Guillot.
-
- Trademark Law has implications for searching: Just because a
- potentially conflicting trademark has been found does not mean it
- should concern you. It may be simple to show or argue that trademark
- ownership has lapsed and become abandoned unintentionally.
-
- A common law search involves searching records other than the federal
- register and pending application records. It may involve checking phone
- directories, yellow pages, industrial directories, state trademark
- registers, among others, in an effort to determine if a particular mark
- is used by others when they have not filed for a federal trademark
- registration.
-
- The system may appear particularly legalistic, and it is. Recent
- Australian Trade Marks Office Decisions
- (http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/ATMO/recent-cases.html),
- information ultimately supplied by IP Australia, displays this vividly.
- However, much trademark activity is self-evident. In Australia, A$350
- and a minimum of seven and a half months will usually earn you a
- registered trademark. Should you choose a trademark and find another
- has used it, you will most likely receive a 'cease & desist' letter and
- forfeit the value you may have invested in the trademark.
-
- This leads us to the importance of commercial trademark databases,
- watching services and other commercial services. Searching both
- prevents investment in an unusable trademark and inadvertent
- infringement by others - a responsibility of trademark owners.
-
- Trademark Classification
- A concise list of the 42 classes of the International Trademark
- Classification codes courtesy of Master-McNeil Inc. WIPO is in charge
- of the full class description, currently The 7th edition of the Nice
- Classification, but this is rather lengthy. IP Australia has a simple
- search feature of classification terminology.
-
- Trademarks are assigned to a particular class of product or service. A
- slogan or mark, for example, could be registered for use in movies but
- not computer products. The situation has changes recently but let us
- explain the difference down the page a bit.
-
- Originally, all goods and services were broken down into 42 classes.
- These classes are international divisions organized by WIPO (World
- Intellectual Property Organization), so are the same from country to
- country. Registered trademark documents will explain at length the
- types of products & services covered by a particular trademark.
-
- There is some bleeding between categories, and trademark examiners are
- unlikely to grant requests for nearly identical trademarks in similar
- categories, but class plays a role in granting trademarks.
-
- Recently it became necessary to list specifically the products or
- services to be covered, and the 42 classes have been expanded to a
- collection of specific sub-classes, which is reminiscent of patent
- classification, but far less useful.
-
- Class is important as trademarks are class-specific. You can search by
- class in certain registered trademark databases, but this is not
- particularly a good search technique: you are far too likely to miss a
- comparable trademark.
-
- Trademark Picture Descriptors
- Search Image Descriptors, by IP Australia, here abbreviated, needs
- basic words - simple like bird or butterfly.
-
- One difficulty with trademark searches is that all the tools apply best
- to words which appear in trademarks. What of the picture? The solution
- appears to be image descriptors. I am uncertain of the international
- nature of image descriptors, but at least in Australia, there is a
- standard set of image descriptors. IP Australia allows you to search
- for other trademarks with a particular picture element - irrespective
- of the words involved. But to do this, you must first select the
- appropriate image descriptor.
-
- Conclusion
- Trademarks are just one element of intellectual property rights;
- patents, copyright, industrial design rights, circuit layout rights and
- plant breeders rights. As certain registered trademark databases are
- free online, some trademark research can be accomplished quite simply
- by the novice.
-
- Why search?
- 1_ To find existing trademarks similar to one you plan to register.
- 2_ To find existing trademarks similar to one you plan to use as a
- trademark.
- 3_ To see if a trademark is similar to a business name you consider
- using.
- 4_ To search for possible infringing trademarks.
-
- This is further explained in this help file by IP Australia.
-
- Further Assistance
- Misc.int-property has a lively usenet discussion on Intellectual
- Property. Access the newsgroup directly: misc.int-property or search
- the past discussion through Deja.com's usenet archive).
-
- For a lively discussion of how trademark law affects internet domain
- names, consider the trademarks-l mailing list at Washburn University
- (read the Scout Report description
- http://scout7.cs.wisc.edu/pages/00000138.html).
-
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-
- Industry Classification
- Lastly, we have not yet researched the categorization of industries
- using standard SIC or NAICS codes. In simple terms though, all
- industries are given a specific code. Sub-industry is given a more
- specific code. More and more specific codes refer to the production of
- more and more specific items. Of course, some companies will be
- involved in a collection of industries.
-
- Two competing standards, the SIC and NAICS, have different codes but
- the same coding system. Each code system can be mapped on the other, so
- will cause you no undue concern. Trade statistics, digital business
- directories, and national statistical bureau industry data will all use
- the industry codes.
-
-
- Information Quality.
- Section 8
-
- Information has value. It also has other qualities that will assist you
- to judge information you may consider buying.
-
- Accuracy: the factual nature of the information presented. If the
- statistics purport to show a particular trend - how large is the margin
- of error? How large is the sample size? How likely are there to have
- been factual errors in their development? The measurement of
- statistical error is now a refined science in some fields. A
- statistical result can be inaccurate when the sample size is too small,
- if the margin of error is too large, the sample collection procedure
- incorrect, or a number of other situations.
-
- Reliability: the support for trusting the solutions, both from
- additional resources and from being able to duplicate the conclusions.
- This includes the reputation of the researchers. No matter how
- inaccurate and biased you may believe certain facts to be, successful
- independent support of a suggested fact does improve its value.
-
- Bias: conscious or subconscious influences that affect information.
- Bias can occur in collection, preparation and presentation of
- information. Most information you find will be tainted. Secondary
- information is deeply affected. Statistics are not necessarily less
- biased.
-
- We counter bias in several ways. Firstly, we try to be aware of bias.
- Where is bias likely? Which direction would the bias affect the
- information? Secondly, we try to collect information with different
- bias. This is why research based solely on government research, no
- matter how accurate and reliable, is less valuable. Often information
- from different countries can counter bias. Thirdly, we need to accept
- bias is likely to exist. This is why primary sources are often more
- valuable than secondary sources. This is why tertiary sources, like
- experts, can rarely stand alone.
-
- Age: The date information was created or compiled will feature
- prominently in the value of information. Dates given sometimes mean the
- date information was created, or the date information was compiled. How
- old is a book compiled in 1995, which took the author 10 years to
- finish? I find statistics often forecast information, prominently
- displaying recent compilation dates but still use old census data or
- the like to draw their conclusions. Information on the internet
- typically has no date, and can be severely challenged because of this.
-
- Purpose: purpose merits further discussion. When you are uncertain
- about potential bias, you can look for reasons to distrust the
- information instead. Suspicion is not equivalent to bias, but it can be
- thought provoking. Privately, I have heard repeated rumours important
- national statistics have been fudged in different countries. A
- government research report investigating the price of books in
- Australia would have a political purpose, a purpose that provides the
- climate for some potentially significant bias. A tell-all book by
- industry experts often includes a tremendous quality of insider
- experience difficult to find elsewhere. While there may be a purpose of
- self-aggrandizement, the purpose is less a climate for significant
- bias. Medical research has perhaps the greatest climate for significant
- bias, and this suggests the greatest standard of proof and external,
- reliable support.
-
- Accuracy, reliability, bias, age and purpose are very important in
- research. This is what leads us to an appraisal of value. For years,
- the tobacco industry funded 'independent' research finding smoking
- minimally harmful to health. It is now likely there may have been
- errors brought on by accuracy, and bias. Certainly, purpose was in
- doubt. As new studies show smoking is harmful, we can also say the
- original research lacked reliability. In some topics, like the
- internet, research is perpetually suspect because it also ages so
- quickly.
-
- I have seen further discussions that add 'Coverage' and 'Authority' to
- this checklist. Both have bearing on the value of the information
- contained. By coverage, we mean how much detail is invested in covering
- a specific topic. Sparse or shallow coverage is closely tied to missing
- critical aspects of information. News stories frequently have limited
- coverage.
-
- Once you are acclimatized to these elements, you begin to see potential
- for error in a whole range of information. Real-estate association
- figures, expert opinions, Toothpaste advertisements and National GDP
- figures all occasionally display some degree of warping and
- manipulation, clouding the truth. The solution is awareness, comparison
- and careful analysis. As a personal aside, this is part of the reason
- for my personal dislike for market research: it is often taken far more
- seriously than warranted and mean far less than suggested.
- ___________________________________________________
- This document continues as Part 6/6
- ___________________________________________________
- Copyright (c) 1998-2001 by David Novak, all rights reserved. This FAQ
- may be posted to any USENET newsgroup, on-line service, website, or BBS
- as long as it is posted unaltered in its entirety including this
- copyright statement. This FAQ may not be included in commercial
- collections or compilations without express permission from the author.
- Please send permission requests to david@spireproject.com
-
-