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- THINKING WELL AND THINKING LOGICALLY
- by Mark Hodes
-
- I. The Thesis
-
- The literature of skepticism has generated its share of cliches.
- Skeptics claim to use scientific reasoning, to think logically,
- to be guided by evidence in forming beliefs as though these are
- clear-cut descriptions of well-understood activities. Thinking
- logically, by implication, is taken as an explication of thinking well
- or clearly. Those who think logically are regarded as less likely to
- err by adopting false beliefs or rejecting true ones. I will argue
- that thinking logically is not all it's cracked up to be, and that
- thinking logically is not the same as thinking well.
-
- II. Contrapositives
-
- In the propositional calculus of elementary symbolic logic, p -> q,
- material implication, has the following truth table:
-
- p q p->q
- --------------
- 1. T T T
- 2. T F F
- 3. F T T
- 4. F F T
-
- Exemplar:
- If most live birds fly, then 8 - 3 = 5 (true).
- If most live birds fly, then 8 - 3 = 4 (false).
- If pigs fly, then 8 - 3 = 5 (true).
- If pigs fly, then 8 - 3 = 4 (true).
-
- Line 3 is true because the sentence makes no claim if in fact pigs do
- not fly. If in line 4 it seems strange that F -> F is T, consider the
- sentence "If I am president of France, then I have a chauffeur." I
- assure my readers that both the hypothesis and conclusion are false,
- though intuitively (as well as logically) the sentence is true.
-
- The next step in my argument is to consider the CONTRAPOSITIVE of
- p -> q. This is the sentence (not q) -> (not p). For example, if an
- exemplar of p -> q is "If something is a dog, then it is an animal",
- then the exemplar of (not q) -> (not p) would be "If something is not
- an animal, then it is not a dog." A conditional sentence and its
- contrapositive are logically equivalent. Their truth tables are:
-
- 1 2 3 4 5 6
- p q p->q (not q) (not p) (not q)->(not p)
- ----------------------------------------------
- T T T F F T
- T F F T F F
- F T T F T T
- F F T T T T
-
- The entries in columns 4 and 5 are derived as the opposites of the
- entries in 2 and 1, respectively. The matching entries in columns 3
- and 6 demonstrate the logical equivalence of the sentences p -> q and
- (not q) -> (not p).
-
- In case you still are not convinced of the logical equivalence of a
- sentence and its contrapositive, select a conditional sentence and try
- to imagine a world in which it is true, but its contrapositive is
- false (or vice versa). Your inability to do this should convince you
- of their synonymity.
-
- III. Induction
-
- A primary epistemological activity of science is the generation of
- probably true or well-confirmed generalizations from evidence. The
- more extensive and diverse the evidence, the more soundly based are
- the generalizations. A single apparently disconfirming instance can,
- however, jeopardize any general statement.
-
- The following hackneyed example is often given as a model for
- inductive generalization. You observe a crow and notice that it is
- black. You seek out many other crows and find (surprise) that they,
- too, are black. You conclude, tentatively, that all crows are black.
-
- As the years roll by, you have occasion to observe other black crows,
- and never observe a crow that is not black. Your observations of black
- crows occur under widely varying conditions. Each new observation in
- the absence of disconfirming instances strengthens your belief that
- all crows are black.
-
- Originally, of course, being black was not a defining characteristic
- of crows. After years of study, you reformulate the concept of
- crowness by including melanism amongst the theoretical baggage of
- being a crow. You are awarded the Nobel Prize for Avian Trivia and
- retire to Woodshole, where you spend your declining years wiring
- flowers to the grave of Burt Lancaster to commemorate his portrayal of
- the Bird Man of Alcatraz.
-
- IV. Is Science Logical?
-
- The general statement involved in our example of generalization is "If
- something is a crow, then it is black." We have seen that this
- statement is logically equivalent to its contrapositive, "If something
- is black, then it is not a crow", or, more simply, "All non-blacks are
- non-crows." Now, if science really proceeds logically, any evidence
- that tends to confirm a statement should tend to confirm any logically
- equivalent statement to exactly the same extent. Similarly,
- disconfirming evidence should be equipotent in respect to a statement
- and its contrapositive. We have arrived at the end of my garden path.
- So you see the paradox?
-
- V. The Paradox
-
- Our Nobel Laureate could have confirmed his hypothesis by observing
- non-blacks and noticing that they never turn out to be crows. He
- could, for example, have gone to Sears, inventoried all non-black
- items, noticed that none was a crow, and proclaimed his tentative
- conclusion, "All crows are black." Notice that if Sears does not sell
- parrots, the generalization "All parrots are black" is equally well
- confirmed.
-
- Receiving a grant from William Proxmire, our savant could then have
- toured the shopping malls of Europe, sampling non-black merchandise,
- finding no crows, and proclaiming, "All non-blacks are non-crows", or,
- equivalently, "All crows are black."
-
- Now, you may feel that I have cheated in some way, because non-blacks
- are so much more numerous than crows. I am not sure how this affects
- the prinicple involved, but it does create an apparent asymmetry
- between the original condition and its contrapositive. Consider,
- however, an astronomer attempting to support her thesis, "All type G
- stars have planetary systems."
-
- Lacking the funding for adequate telescope time, she peers from the
- roof of her observatory onto the used car lot below. She proceeds by
- examining all Chevrolets failing to have planetary systems, and notes
- that none of them is a type G star. Given the frequency-of-repair
- records of GM cars, there are surely more type G stars than
- Chevrolets. So, here the numerical asymmetry is in the opposite
- direction.
-
- There is some rationale for our stargazer's procedure. The more
- diverse the confirmatory evidence, the more effective the
- confirmation. Chevrolets are more diverse (remember the '59 Impala?),
- though less numerous, than type G stars. Nevertheless, we would be a
- bit uncomfortable accepting our astronomer's conclusion on the basis
- of such evidence. She would be laughed off the roof of the
- observatory.
-
- VI. The Lineus Bottomus
-
- Our conclusion is that sentences that are logically equivalent are not
- necessarily epistemologically equivalent. This would come as no
- surprise to serious students of science, for the philosophical and
- psychological literature is replete with such examples. Ours is merely
- a cautionary tale for those who believe that thinking logically is an
- adequate explication of thinking well. Sorry, Mr. Spock.
-
-