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0 INTRODUCTION 0.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter we will look at how C compilers work, how to use the Lattice C compiler, repeat some important things in C, and finish of by explaining how two use the Amigas's Libraries, and discuss the three different types of memory. As you have noticed, this chapter will give you a short introduction to C, compilers and the Amiga. 0.2 HOW TO COMPILE AND LINK The idea with C compilers is that you write a document (usually referred as "source code"), which is read by the C compiler in two stages. The first time the C compiler will create a working file, referred as "quad file". The quad file is then compiled a second time into an "object file". The object file contains mostly executable machine code, but it also contains references to external functions/variables in other object files and libraries. So before we can run the program we need to tie all object files and libraries together into one single program. It is done by the linker. ------------- | Program.c | Source Code ------------- | | 1. First phase of compilation (lc1) V ------------- | Program.q | Quad file ------------- | | 2. Second phase of compilation (lc2) V ------------- | Program.o | Object file ------------- | | 3. Linking (blink) V ------------- | Program | Executable program ------------- 0.2.1 SOURCE CODE When you are going to write C programs you need an editor/ wordprocessor to create the "source code". The source code is like a normal document except that it is written following some special rules. Almost any kind of editor/wordprocessor can be used. You can even use the MEMACS which you got when you bought your Amiga. (MEMACS exist on "The Extras Disk".) Here is an example of a source code: #include <stdio.h> main() { printf("Hello!\n"); } Once you have written the source code you need to save it. It is standard that the file names should end with the extension ".c". So if you want to call your program "hello", the source code should be named "hello.c". 0.2.2 FIRST PHASE OF COMPILATION Once the source code is saved you can start the first phase of compilation. If you use the Lattice C Compiler you simply use the command "lc1". To compile our example you only need to write "lc1 hello.c", and the compiler will then create a quad file named "hello.q". 0.2.3 SECOND PHASE OF COMPILATION To start the second phase of compilation you use the command "lc2". To compile our example you then only need to write "lc2 hello.q", and the compiler will then create an object file named "hello.o". If you want to invoke both the first and second compiler pass in one single call you can use the command "lc". So if you write "lc hello.c" both the first and the second phase of compilation would be executed. (lc calls both lc1 and lc2 automatically.) 0.2.4 LINKING The quad file does not, as said before, contain only machine code instructions. It also contains calls to external functions in other object files and libraries. Before you may run the program you therefore need to tie everything together by a linker. Lattice C uses a linker called "blink". Every program you create must normally be linked together with the startup routine "c.o", and the two libraries: "lc.lib" and "amiga.lib". The object file and the two libraries are placed in the "lib" directory on the second Lattice C disk. That directory is normally already assigned the name "LIB:", so if you want to find the files, you simply write "LIB:c.o" for example. For almost all programs you call the linker like this: (This shows how to link our example "hello".) blink LIB:c.o, hello.o TO hello LIB LIB:lc.lib, LIB:amiga.lib [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [A] The object file "c.o" must always be placed before all other object files. The file can be found in the logical device "LIB:". [B] After the startup file "c.o" you may place all other object files you want to link together. (Remember to put a comma between them.) In this example we only have one object file, "hello.o". [C] After the list of object files you write the word "TO" plus a name which will be the name of the executable program. In this example we want our program to be called "hello". [D] Almost all programs need to be linked together with some libraries. The keyword "LIB" tells blink that the coming file-names are names on libraries. (Remember to put a comma between each library name.) Do not mix up the keyword "LIB" with the logical device "LIB:". "LIB" tells the linker that a list of library-names will come, while the logical device "LIB:" tells AmigaDOS which device and directory to find some files in. [E] The library "lc.lib" must be the second last library in the list. The library can be found in the logical device "LIB:".) [F] The library "amiga.lib" must be the last library in the list. The library can be found in the logical device "LIB:".) If you want to invoke both the first and second compiler pass, plus link the object file together with the standard libraries, in one single call you can use the command "lc" with the added parameter "-L". So if you want to compile and link the program in one single command you only need to write: lc -L hello.c The command "lc" will invoke both the first and the second compiler pass, and the added parameter "-L" means that the finished object code should be linked together with the standard libraries. If you also want the linker to search the standard math library you simply put the letter "m" after the "-L": lc -Lm <file-name.c> Our simple example "hello" does not need the math library, but if you use any sort of calculations you normally need to include it. ALL examples in this manual will compile and link happily with the command: lc -Lm ExampleX.c 0.3 C PROGRAMS This manual is written for everyone who has a little knowledge of C and who wants to program the Amiga. If you know how to write a program that prints out "hello!" on the screen, and are not totally confused by pointers and structures, I do not think you will have any problems reading this manual. All examples have been written as clearly as possible, and I have avoided many shortcuts in order to make the examples easily understandable. However, before we start with the real manual I think it is best to repeat some important features in C: 0.3.1 #INCLUDE The first thing you find in a C program is the "#include" commands. They tell the compiler to read some files before compiling the code, and can therefore contain definitions of constants/structures/macros etc. The files are normally referred as "header files", and have because of that a ".h" extension. There exist two types of header files; your own and standard system definitions. If you include your own header files you put a double-quotation around the file name: #include "mydefinitions.h" The compiler will then look in the "current directory" for your file. If you on the other hand include any standard system definitions you put two angle-brackets around the file name: (The compiler will then look in the logical device "INCLUDE:") #include <intuition/intuition.h> Note that there is not semicolons after the #include statements! That is because the #include files are scanned by a macro pre-processor (included in the first compiler phase, lc1), and have actually nothing to do with the C compiler. Later in the manual we will often include the file intuition.h which contains definitions of many structures (such as Window, Border, Gadget etc) plus some important constants and macros. This and all other standard system header files are compressed and put on the second Lattice C disk. If you are interested to see what they actually define you can find the uncompressed files on the fourth Lattice C disk. 0.3.2 #DEFINE After the #include statements the #define statements will come. With help of the #define command you can both declare constants and replacement strings, but you can even declare your own macros. The important thing to remember is that the first defined string is replaced with the second string by the macro pre- processor: (The first space will separate the first string from the second string. Note the underline character between MAX and WIDTH, and the quotations between Anders Bjerin.) #define MAX_WIDTH 150 #define AUTHOR "Anders Bjerin" The macro pre-processor will replace all MAX_WITH strings with 150, and all AUTHOR strings with "Anders Bjerin". If there are any parentheses in the first string then you are declaring macros: #define SQUARE(x) x*x The first string is replaced with the second one as normal, but every element (separated by commas if more than one) inside the parentheses also moved into the formula. A line like this: nr = SQUARE(4); Will be replaced like this: nr = 4*4; It is however important to remember that the pre-processor consider everything to be strings, and a line like this: nr = SQUARE(4+1); Will be replaced like this: nr = 4+1*4+1 Square of 4+1 is 25 (5*5), but nr is equal to 9. This shows that you have to be very careful when you define your macros. To solve this problem you only need to add some parentheses around the x:s: #define SQUARE(x) (x)*(x) nr = SQUARE(4+1); Will then be replaced like this: nr = (4+1)*(4+1); However, the macro is still not perfectly defined. Consider this statement: nr = 16 / SQUARE(2); Will then be replaced like this: nr = 16 / (2)*(2); 16 divided by square of 2 is 16/4, which is equal to 4, but nr is equal to 16 (16/2 * 2). The solution to all this problems is to put parentheses around every element, PLUS parentheses around the whole expression: #define SQUARE(x) ((x)*(x)) nr = 16 / SQUARE(2); Will then be replaced like this: nr = 16 / ((2)*(2)); /* OK */ What you need to remember about macros is that: 1. Put parentheses around every element. 2. Put also parentheses around the whole expression. Here is a list of some commonly used macros: #define MAX(x,y) ((x)>(y)?(x):(y)) #define ABS(x) ((x)<0?-(x):(x)) #define ANSWER(c) ((c)=='y'||(c)=='Y'?1:0) Remember, if you have written some good constants/macros you can put them all in a header file and #include it every time you need them. 0.3.3 OTHER PRE-PROCESSOR COMMANDS #include and #define are the two most commonly used pre-processor commands, but there exist five more which can be used together with the #define command: 1. You can check if something has been defined, and then define something else. (#ifdef) 2. You can check if something has not been defined, and then define something else. (#ifndef) 3. You can put an "else" statement which is connected to an #ifdef/ifndef. (#else) 4. You can put an end mark which is connected to an #ifdef/ #ifndef. (#endif) 5. You can undefine the something that has already been defined. (#undef) Here some examples which shows how you can use the pre-processor commands: #define BIG 1 #ifdef BIG #define HEIGHT 100 /* If BIG is defined, HEIGHT and WIDTH */ #define WIDTH 300 /* is defined to 100 and 300. */ #else #define HEIGHT 50 /* If BIG is undefined, HEIGHT and */ #define WIDTH 25 /* WIDTH is defined to 50 and 25. */ #endif These commands are very handy when you #include several files, and you want to check if something has been defined. If it is not defined you can include some other files and so on... #ifndef MY_DEFINITIONS /* If MY_DEFINITIONS is undefined */ #include "mydefinitions" /* we include "mydefinitions". */ #endif The last pre-processor command, #undef, undefines the last definition: #define HEIGHT 200 /* HEIGHT is defined as 200. */ #define HEIGHT 350 /* HEIGHT is redefined as 350. */ #undef HEIGHT /* HEIGHT last definition is undefined, */ /* and is redefined as previous to 200. */ #undef HEIGHT /* HEIGHT is now undefined. */ 0.3.4 FUNCTIONS C compilers expect in general to find function definitions (what type of data the function will return) before they are referenced. Since the main() function will come first, and will probably contain references to other functions further down, we need to declare the functions before the main() function. When a function is defined, before it is declared, we need to put a semicolon after it. The compiler will then understand that we only define a function, and that the function will be declared later on: #include <stdio.h> void main(); /* Will not return anything. */ int get_radius(); /* Will return an integer value. */ float calculate_area(); /* Will return a float value. */ void print_area(); /* Will not return anything. */ void main() { int radius; float area; radius = get_radius(); area = calculate_area( radius ); print_area( area ); } int get_radius() { int r; printf( "Please enter the radius: " ); scanf( "%d", &r ); return( r ); } float calculate_area( r ) int r; { float a; a = 3.14 * r * r; return( a ); } void print_area( a ) float a; { printf( "The area is %f square units.\n", a ); } 0.3.5 VARIABLES Here are the standard Lattice C data types: ----------------------------------------------------------------- | TYPE | BITS | Minimum value | Maximum value | |---------------------------------------------------------------| | char | 8 | -128 | 127 | | unsigned char | 8 | 0 | 255 | | short | 16 | -32 768 | 32 767 | | unsigned short | 16 | 0 | 65 535 | | int | 32 | -2 147 483 648 | 2 147 483 647 | | unsigned int | 32 | 0 | 4 294 987 295 | | long | 32 | -2 147 483 648 | 2 147 483 647 | | unsigned long | 32 | 0 | 4 294 987 295 | | float | 32 | ±10E-37 | ±10E+38 | | double | 64 | ±10E-307 | ±10E+308 | ----------------------------------------------------------------- Important, these data types can be different on other versions of C, so be careful when using them. To be sure that the size of the variables are the same on different systems there exist a special list of variable definitions. You only need to include the file "exec/types.h", and you have a list of safe variable types. The file defines, among many things, these commonly used data types: Amiga Data Types Lattice C Data Types Description ----------------------------------------------------------------- LONG long Signed 32-bit ULONG unsigned long Unsigned 32-bit LONGBITS unsigned long 32 bits manipulation WORD short Signed 16-bit UWORD unsigned short Unsigned 16-bit WORDBITS unsigned short 16 bits manipulation BYTE char Signed 8-bit UBYTE unsigned char Unsigned 8-bit BYTEBITS unsigned char 8 bits manipulation VOID void Nothing STRPTR *unsigned char String pointer CPTR ULONG Absolute memory pointer TEXT unsigned char Text BOOL short Boolean (The file has also defined the two words TRUE = 1 and FALSE = 0) ----------------------------------------------------------------- Here is a list of some data types which should not be used any more: ----------------------------------------------------------------- APTR *STRPTR Absolute memory pointer (Misdefined, use CPTR!) SHORT short Signed 16-bit (WORD) USHORT unsigned short Unsigned 16-bit (UWORD) ----------------------------------------------------------------- See file "exec/types.h" on the fourth Lattice C disk for more information. This file is automatically included when you include the "intuition.h" header file. 0.3.6 STORAGE CLASSES FOR VARIABLES There exist six main types of storage classes for variables: 1. Automatic 2. Formal 3. Global 4. External Static 5. Internal Static 6. Register 0.3.6.1 AUTOMATIC Automatic variables are declared inside functions with the keyword "auto" in front of them. (Variables which are declared inside a function with no keyword in front of them are assumed to also be automatic variables.) Space for them are reserved from the stack, and they can only be reached inside the same function that declared them. When the function has finished the memory is automatically deallocated back to the stack. Here is a small recursion program. The user can enter values until he enters 0 when all the numbers will be printed out backwards. #include <stdio.h> main() { get_number(); } get_number() { auto int number; /* <== Here it is! */ /* Keyword "auto" is optional. */ printf( "Enter a number (0: Quit) =>" ); scanf( "%d", &number ); if( number ) get_number(); else printf( "%d\n", number ); } 0.3.6.2 FORMAL Very similar to automatic variables. Memory is reserved from the stack, they can only be reached inside the function which declared them, the memory is automatically deallocated back to the stack when the function quits. The only difference is that they are the functions "parameters" and are declared after the parentheses, but before the curly brackets. #include <stdio.h> void main(); void print_number(); void main() { print_number( 3.142 ); } void print_number( number ) float number; /* <== Here it is! */ { printf( "The number is %f!\n", number ); } 0.3.6.3 GLOBAL Global variables are declared outside the functions and can therefore be reached from everywhere. The memory is reserved in the BSS or DATA hunks, and can not be deallocated. (All uninitialized data is put in the BSS hunks, while all initialized data is put in the DATA hunks.) int number; /* Put in the BSS hunks. */ int width = 12; /* Put in the DATA hunks. */ Information about global variables is put in the object file so other modules can reach the variables. If a variable is declared as a global variable (declared outside the functions) in module A, the variable should be declared as an external global variable (declared outside the functions with the keyword "extern" in front of it) in module B. -------------------------------------------------------------- | Module A | -------------------------------------------------------------- #include <stdio.h> void main(); char name = "Andirs Bjerin"; /* Declare this variable as a */ /* global variable. (DATA) */ void main() { print_name(); } -------------------------------------------------------------- | Module B | -------------------------------------------------------------- #include <stdio.h> void print_name(); extern char name; /* Tell the compiler that this variable */ /* actually exist, but is declared in */ /* another module. */ void print_name() { name[ 3 ] = 'e'; printf("Programmer: %s\n", name ); } To compile these two modules and link them you only need to: 1. Compile (lc1 and lc2) Module A: lc ModuleA.c 2. Compile (lc1 and lc2) Module B: lc ModuleB.c 3. Link the two object modules together with some other libraries etc: blink LIB:c.o, ModuleA.o, ModuleB.o TO program LIB LIB:lc.lib, LIB:amiga.lib 0.3.6.4 EXTERNAL STATIC Same as global variables but can ONLY be reached inside the same module. All functions in that module will know about the variable, but no functions in other modules can reach it. The memory is taken from the BSS or DATA hunks, but no information about these variables is put in the object files. To declare an external static variable you simply put the keyword "static" in front of a global variable. static numbers[ 20 ]; 0.3.6.5 INTERNAL STATIC Same as external static variables except that they are declared inside the functions, and can only be reached by that function. The special thing about internal static variables is that the memory is not deallocated when the the function has finished, and the values which were stored in them is untouched. (The memory was reserved from the BSS or DATA hunks.) An internal static variable will only be initialized once, but can later be changed, but not deallocated. #include <stdio.h> void main(); void count_up(); void main() { int loop; for( loop = 0; loop < 20; loop++ ) count_up(); } void count_up() { static number = 1; /* We declare and initialize an internal */ /* static variable. Since the number is */ /* a static variable it will only be */ /* initialized the first time we call */ /* the function. (DATA) */ number++; printf("Number: %d\n", number ); } 0.3.6.6 REGISTER Register variables are like automatic variables except that you ask the compiler if the variable can be allowed to use a processor register for it self. This is very handy if you use a variable a lot, for example in a loop. However, it is not sure that you can reserve a register. If you are lucky the compiler managed to reserve a register for the variable, but it is not always possible. The register variable will then be a normal automatic variable. #include <stdio.h> void main(); void main() { register int loop; /* <== Here it is! */ for( loop = 0; loop < 10000; loop++) ; } 0.3.7 POINTERS Pointers are declared in the same way as normal variables with only one important difference. We put a "*" sign in front of the name: int a; /* "a" is an integer variable. */ int *b /* "b" is an integer pointer variable. */ If we want to get the address of a variable we put a "&" sign in front of the variable. "a" contains an integer value while "&a" is the memory address of that variable. If we want the pointer "b" to point to the variable "a", we simply write: b = &a; /* "b" will contain the address of variable "a". */ It is important to remember that "b" is a pointer variable ("b" can point to any integer variable), while "&a" is a pointer constant ("&a" will always be the address of "a"). 0.3.8 STRUCTURES I will not try to explain everything about structures, but I will however give a short summary of how to use them. 0.3.8.1 HOW TO DECLARE STRUCTURES You declare a structure type like this: 1. Write the keyword "struct" plus a name for the structure type. 2. Put all variable-types with their names inside two curly brackets. If you want to declare a structure type called "person" which should consist of an integer field, named "age", and two float fields, named "height" and "weight", you write: struct person { int age; float height, weight; } You can put often used structures declarations in a header file and then include it when necessary. When we are going to program the Amiga we will use a lot of declared structures which mainly exist in the header file "intuition.h". 0.3.8.2 HOW TO CHANGE THE STRUCTURE'S FIELDS Once you have declared a structure type, you can declare structure variables and pointers. To declare a structure variable named "anders" and a structure pointer named "programmer" you write: struct person anders; struct person *programmer; You can now initialize the structure variable "anders" with some data. You do it by writing the name of the structure variable, put a dot, and then write the field you want to access. So if you want to change the age in the structure variable "anders" to 20, the height to 1.92, and the weight to 74.5 you write: anders.age = 20; anders.height = 1.92; anders.weight = 74.5; 0.3.8.3 POINTERS AND STRUCTURES If we want to initialize the pointer "programmer" so it points to the "anders" structure, we write: programmer = &anders; Remember: "anders" is the structure variable. "&anders" is the address of the structure variable. Once the structure pointer points to a structure we can start to check and change values of that structure. The important thing to remember is that we do not put a dot between the pointer name and the field name, we put a "->" sign. (The pointer "programmer" points to the field "height": programmer -> height etc.) if( programmer -> age == 20 ) /* The programmer is 20 years old. */ programmer -> weight -= 5; /* The programmer is on a diet. */ 0.3.9 CASTING If you want to convert one type of data into another type of data you need to use a method which is usually referred as "casting". If you want to convert a WORD variable into a LONG variable type you would write something like this: WORD number; LONG data; data = (LONG) number; The command (LONG) tells the C compiler that the next data type should be converted into a LONG variable type. When you convert different variable types you normally do not need to do any casting. In the previous you could therefore have left out the (LONG) command, but to make it clear for anyone who reads the code that it is no mistake, it is best to keep it. However, when you convert different pointer types you should use the casting method. Since the most common errors in C have something to do with pointers, C compiler are usually very fussy about which pointers may point to which variables/structures etc. If we have declared a pointer to be a normal memory CPTR pointer (programmer), and want it to point to a structure (person), the compiler would be very confused. struct person anders; CPTR programmer; programmer = &anders; A memory pointer, and a pointer to a structure, is actually the same thing, but the paranoid compiler does not believe it, and will give us a warning which look something like this: Example.c 27 Warning 30: pointers do not point to same type of object To tell the compiler that the two different types of memory addresses are actually the same thing you need to do some casting. We need to tell the compiler that a pointer to the structure anders (&anders) is actually a memory pointer (CPTR). programmer = (CPTR) &anders; 0.4 LIBRARIES Many special functions have already been written for you, and are placed in different "libraries". If you want to access any of the functions, you simply need to "open" the right library. You open a library by calling the function OpenLibrary(), and it will return a pointer to a library structure. There exist roughly two different types of libraries, ROM libraries which are placed in ROM (surprise, surprise), and Disk libraries which are placed on the boot disk (system disk). 0.4.1 ROM LIBRARIES ROM libraries are always available (they are placed in the ROM) but they still need to be opened before you may use their functions. Here is a list of the ROM Libraries: GRAPHICS This library contains all functions which has anything to do with graphics: Display (View, ViewPorts and RastPorts), sprites (Hardware/ software sprites and BOBs), text and fonts etc. Chapter 10 and some examples in the chapters 1 - 9 uses this library. LAYERS This library contains routines that handles the screen in such a way that different "layers" (planes) can be used and overlap each other. INTUITION This library takes care of the "user interface" and works with the Graphics and Layers libraries. Takes care of screens/windows/gadgets/requesters/menus etc. Chapter 1 - 9 explains how to use this library. EXEC Takes care of the memory/tasks/libraries/devices/ resources, i/o ports etc. DOS AmigaDOS. Contains routines which open/close/read/ write files etc. MATHFFP Motorola Fast Floating Point Routines. Handles addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, comparison, conversion etc. (Single Precision) RAM-LIB Takes care of the RAM disk. EXPANSION Handles the expansion slots. 0.4.2 DISK LIBRARIES If a programs opens a disk library, AmigaDOS will look in the logical device "LIBS:", which has been assigned to system disk's "libs" directory, and will then load the whole library into RAM. If the library has already been loaded into RAM by another task, Exec will then use the already existing library. (This shows how memory efficient libraries are, since several program can use the same code.) Here is a list of the Disk Libraries: TRANSLATOR This library translates English strings into phonetic strings. DISKFONT Handles the Fonts on the disk. ICON Takes care of the "icons" used by the Workbench. MATHTRANS Contains functions like sin, cos, log, ln, square, power etc. MATHIEEEDOUBBAS Same as the ROM Library "MATNFFP" but uses Double Precision. 0.4.3 OPEN AND CLOSE LIBRARIES You open, as said above, a library by calling the function OpenLibrary(). It will return a pointer to a library structure, and the pointer MUST be stored in a pointer variable with a special name. For example, if you open the Intuition library, the pointer should be called "IntuitionBase", and if you open the Graphics library, the pointer should be called "GfxBase".) Synopsis: pointer = OpenLibrary( name, version ); pointer: (struct Library *) Pointer to a library structure. If you open the Intuition library it is a pointer to an IntuitionBase structure, and should be called "IntuitionBase". If you open the Graphics library it is a pointer to a GfxBase structure, and should be called "GfxBase". (You will need to do some casting here.) name: (char *) Pointer to a string containing the library name. The Intuition library is called "intuition.library", and the Graphics library is called "graphics.library". version: (long) You can here specify that the user need a special version (or higher) of the library to run the program. If you want any version of the library, simply write 0. (The highest library version is for the moment 34.) Every library which has been opened, must be closed before the program terminates. You close a library by calling the function CloseLibrary(), with the library pointer as the only argument. The ROM libraries do not actually need to be closed since they exist in ROM, and will not occupy any valuable memory, but close it anyway. (Always follow the rule: Close everything that you have opened!) Synopsis: CloseLibrary( pointer ); pointer: (struct Library *) Pointer to a library structure which has been previously initialized by an OpenLibrary() call. In this manual we will only discuss functions in the Intuition and Graphics libraries. Here is a fragment of a program that opens and closes the Intuition library: struct IntuitionBase *IntuitionBase; main() { /* Open the Intuition Library (any version): */ IntuitionBase = (struct IntuitionBase *) OpenLibrary( "intuition.library", 0 ); if( IntuitionBase == NULL ) exit(); /* Could NOT open the Intuition Library! */ ... ... /* Close the Intuition Library: */ CloseLibrary( IntuitionBase ); } Here is another fragment of a program which this time opens and closes the Graphics library: struct GfxBase *GfxBase; main() { /* Open the Graphics Library (any version): */ GfxBase = (struct GfxBase *) OpenLibrary( "graphics.library", 0 ); if( GfxBase == NULL ) exit(); /* Could NOT open the Graphics Library! */ ... ... /* Close the Graphics Library: */ CloseLibrary( GfxBase ); } 0.5 MEMORY The Amiga can be expanded to a total of 9MB of memory. This memory can be divided into three different types: Chip Memory The first 512KB is normally called "Chip Memory", and can be accessed both by the processor as well as the co-processors and the other special chips in the Amiga. (All graphics/Sound etc which is used by the special Chips (Blitter etc) must be located here!) Slow Memory The following 512KB (extra memory which is put inside the Amiga) can only be accessed by the main CPU, and can therefore not be used to store graphics and sound data. It is called "Slow" since it is not accessible by the Chips, but can be interrupted by them. If you have a screen with a high resolution and/or many colours this memory will be slowed down since the Chips will steal some memory cycles from it. There exist a new Chip set which enables the co-processors and Chips to use this memory also, which means that this memory could be used to store graphics/sound data etc. However, most of the Amigas (99.9%) have still the old Chips, and this memory can NOT be used for graphics/sound data. Fast Memory: The third type of memory is the following 8MB, which can ONLY be accessed by the main processor, and is NOT slowed down by the Chips. This memory is therefore called "Fast Memory". The important thing to remember is that all Graphics and Sound data (all data handled by the Chips) MUST be stored in the "Chip Memory"! There exist three different ways of putting the data into the Chip Memory: 1. If you use the Lattice C Compiler V5.00 or higher, you can put the keyword "chip" in front of the name of the data, and the Compiler will automatically put it in the Chip Memory. Eg. UWORD chip graphics_data[] = { ... }; 2. If you use the Lattice C Compiler V4.00 you can compile the source code with the added command "-acdb" which will load all initialized data (DATA) into Chip Memory when the program is loaded. Eg. lc -acdb -Lm Example.c 3. Allocate some Chip Memory by calling the function AllocMem(), and then move all data into the newly allocated memory. There exist other methods, such as running the program "ATOM" etc, but I will not explain it here. (See your own manuals for more information.)