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I've just finished reading the xlisp 2.1 source code for the first time. The tutorial and reference material included with the winterp distribution are well done, but I would have liked an overview of the interpreter internals. Here's a first cut at such a document. Comments welcome... Jeff Prothero I've modified Jeff's overview to match current XLISP-PLUS 2.1f practice, and describe initialization and save/restore. Tom Almy ---------------------------cut here------------------------------- 90Nov13 jsp@milton.u.washington.edu Public Domain. +---------------------+ | xlisp 2.1 internals | +---------------------+ Who should read this? --------------------- Anyone poking through the C implementation of xlisp for the first time. This is intended to provide a rough roadmap of the global xlisp structures and algorithms. If you just want to write lisp code in xlisp, you don't need to read this file -- go read cldoc.txt. If you want to tinker with the xlisp implementation code, you should *still* read that before reading this. The following isn't intended to be exhaustively precise -- that's what the source code is for! It is intended only to give you sufficient orientation give you a fighting chance to understand the code the first time through, instead of the third time. At the bottom of the file you'll find an example of how to add new primitive functions to xlisp. General note on MS-DOS Memory Models ------------------------------------ If you are not using MS-DOS ignore all the "FAR" and "NEAR" keywords. Also ignore MEDMEM, and most uppercase macros default to the lowercase library functions. For MS-DOS, originally XLISP used Large memory model. However in order to allow for a clean MS Windows port (never completed :-() and to improve performance, the code was overhauled to use Medium memory model. Every xlisp object is is allocated from FAR memory, so pointers need to be cast to FAR. Local variables, and statically allocated global variables are NEAR, however. Since FAR strings cannot be handled by Medium model library string routines, they must be moded into a NEAR buffer first. Other added confusions ______________________ There are two separate sets of memory allocation/garbage collection routines. One pair, xldmem/xlimage, was the traditional xlisp allocator. The second pair, dldmem/dlimage, additionally manages arrays and strings. In the original version, malloc and free are used, which can cause memory fragmentation problems. The dl pair compresses array memory segments to eliminate fragmentation. There are many compilation options. Thank goodness many more have been eliminated. What is an LVAL? ---------------- An "LVAL" is the C type for a generic pointer to an xlisp garbage-collectable something. (Cons cell, object, string, closure, symbol, vector, whatever.) Virtually every variable in the interpreter is an LVAL. Cons cells contain two LVAL slots, symbols contains four LVAL slots, etc. What is the obarray? -------------------- The obarray is the xlisp symbol table. More precisely, it is is a hashtable mapping ascii strings (symbol names) to symbols. ("obarray" is a misnomer, since it contains only xlisp SYMBOLs, and in particular contains no xlisp OBJECTs.) It is used when converting lisp expressions from text to internal form. Since it is a root for the garbage collector, it also serves to distinguish permanent global-variable symbols from other symbols -- you can permanently protect a symbol from the garbage collector by entering it into the obarray. This is called "interning" the symbol. The obarray is called "obarray" in C and "*OBARRAY*" in xlisp. When the package facility is compiled, *OBARRAY* no longer exists, and obarray is a list of packages. A package is a structure (an array) of six elements. The first is an obarray for the internal symbols in the package, the second is an obarry for the external symbols, the third is a list of shadowing symbols, the fourth is a list of packages this package uses, the fifth is a list of packages which use this package, and the sixth is a list of the package's names with all but the first being the nicknames. In addition, symbols have an additional attribute in their structure which is the home package of the symbol. The Interpreter Stacks ---------------------- xlisp uses two stacks, an "evaluation stack" and an "argument stack". Both are roots for the garbage collector. The evaluation stack is largely private to the interpreter and protects internal values from garbage collection, while the argument stack holds the conventional user-visible stackframes. The evaluation stack is an EDEPTH-long array of "LVAL" statically allocated. It grows zeroward. xlstkbase points to the zero-near end of the evaluation stack. xlstktop points to the zero-far end of the evaluation stack: the occupied part of the stack lies between xlstack and xlstktop. NOTE that xlstktop is *NOT* the top of the stack in the conventional sense of indicating the most recent entry on the stack: xlstktop is a static bounds pointer which never changes. xlstack starts at the zero-far end of the evaluation stack. *xlstack is the most recent LVAL on the stack. The garbage collector MARKs everything reachable from the evaluation stack (among other things), so we frequently push things on this stack while C code is manipulating them. (Via xlsave(), xlprotect(), xlsave1(), xlprot1().) The argument stack is an ADEPTH-long array of "LVAL". It also grows zeroward. The evaluator pushes arguments on the argument stack at the start of a function call (form evaluation). Built-in functions usually eat them directly off the stack. For user-lisp functions xleval.c:evfun() pops them off the stack and binds them to the appropriate symbols before beginning execution of the function body proper. xlargstkbase is the zero-near end of argument stack. xlargstktop is the zero-far end of argument stack. Like xlstktop, xlargstktop is a static bounds pointer. *xlsp ("sp"=="stack pointer") is the most recent item on the argument stack. xlfp ("fp"=="frame pointer") is the base of the current stackframe. What is a context? ------------------ An xlisp "context" is something like a checkpoint, recording a particular point buried in the execution history so that we can abort/return back to it. Contexts are used to implement call/return, catch/throw, signals, gotos, and breaks. xlcontext points to the chain of active contexts, the top one being the second-newest active context. (The newest -- that is, current -- active context is implemented by the variables xlstack xlenv xlfenv xldenv xlcontext xlargv xlargc xlfp xlsp.) Context records are written by xljump.c:xlbegin() and read by xljump.c:xljump(). Context records are C structures on the C program stack; They are not in the dynamic memory pool or on the lisp execution or argument stacks. What is an environment? ----------------------- An environment is basically a store of symbol-value pairs, used to resolve variable references by the lisp program. xlisp maintains three environments, in the global variables xlenv, xlfenv and xldenv. xlenv and xlfenv are linked-list stacks which are pushed when we enter a function and popped when we exit it. We also switch xlenv+xlfenf environments entirely when we begin executing a new closure (user-fn written in lisp). The xlenv environment is enlarged during a LET function (or other special form with value bindings), while the xlfenv environment is enlarged with FLET/MACROLET/LABELS. The xlenv environment is the most heavily used environment. It is used to resolve everyday data references to local variables. It consists of a list of frames (and objects). Each frame is a list of sym-val pairs. In the case of an object, we check all the instance and class variables of the object, then do the same for its superclass, until we run out of superclasses. If the symbol is not found it has not been bound and its global value is used. The xlfenv environment is used to find function values instead of variable values. When we send a message, we set xlenv to the value it had when the message CLOSURE was built, then push on (obj msg-class), where msg-class is the [super]class defining the method. (We also set xlfenv to the value xlfenv had when the method was built.) This makes the object instance variables part of the environment, and saves the information needed to correctly resolve references to class variables, and to implement SEND-SUPER. The xldenv environment tracks the old values of global variables which we have changed but intend to restore later to their original values, particularly for variables (symbols) marked as F_SPECIAL, but also for progv. This is also used internally when we bind and unbind s_evalhook and s_applyhook (*EVALHOOK* and *APPLYHOOK*). It is a simple list of sym-val pairs, treated as a stack. These environments are manipulated in C via the xlisp.h macros xlframe(e), xlbind(s,v), xlfbind(s,v), xlpbind(s,v,e), xldbind(s,v), xlunbind(e). How are multiple return values handled? --------------------------------------- The first value is always returned via the C function mechanism. All return values are passed back in an array xlresults[]. The number of return values are specified in xlnumresults. In order to avoid having to repeat the multiple value code in every function, a flag in the SUBR or FSUBR cell indicates if multiple values are used, and code in xleval.c mimics multiple value functions for single value functions. The function VALUES, defined in xvalues() allows closures to return multiple values. How are xlisp entities stored and identified? --------------------------------------------- Conceptually, xlisp manages memory as a single array of fixed-size objects. Keeping all objects the same size simplifies memory management enormously, since any object can be allocated anywhere, and complex compacting schemes aren't needed. Every LVAL pointer points somewhere in this array. Every xlisp object has the basic format (xldmem.h:typdef struct node) struct node { char n_type; char n_flags; LVAL car; LVAL cdr; } where n_type is one of: FREE A node on the freelist. SUBR A function implemented in C. (Needs evalutated arguments.) FSUBR A special function implemented in C. (Needs unevaluated arguments). CONS A regular lisp cons cell. FIXNUM An integer. FLONUM A floating-point number. STRING A string. STREAM An input or output file. CHAR An ascii character. USTREAM An internal stream. RATIO A ratio. SYMBOL A symbol. OBJECT Any object, including class objects. VECTOR A variable-size array of LVALs. CLOSURE Result of DEFUN or LAMBDA -- a function written in lisp. STRUCT A structure. COMPLEX A complex number PACKAGE A package Messages may be sent only to nodes with n_type == OBJECT. Obviously, several of the above types won't fit in a fixed-size two-slot node. The escape is to have them malloc() some memory and have one of the slots point to it -- VECTOR is the archetype. For example, see xldmem.c:newvector(). To some extent, this malloc() hack simply exports the memory- fragmentation problem to the C malloc()/free() routines. However, it helps keep xlisp simple, and it has the happy side-effect of unpinning the body of the vector, so that vectors can easily be expanded and contracted. When the dldmem.c version of the memory manager is used, this memory is managed by xlisp. The garbage collector has special-case code for each of the above node types, so it can find all LVAL slots and recycle any malloc()ed ram when a node is garbage-collected. If the collected node is a STREAM, then it's associated file is closed. Xlisp pre-allocates nodes for all ascii characters, and for small integers. These nodes are never garbage-collected. As a practical matter, allocating all nodes in a single array is not very sensible. Instead, nodes are allocated as needed, in segments of one or two thousand nodes, and the segments linked by a pointer chain rooted at xldmem.c:segs. How are vectors implemented? ---------------------------- An xlisp vector is a generic array of LVAL slots. Vectors are also the canonical illustration of xlisp's escape mechanism for node types which need more than two LVAL slots (the maximum possible in the fixed-size nodes in the dynamic memory pool). The node CAR/CDR slots for a vector hold a size field plus a pointer to a malloc()ed ram chunk, which is automatically free()ed when the vector is garbage-collected. xldmem.h defines macros for reading and writing vector fields and slots: getsize(), getelement() and setelement(). It also defines macros for accessing each of the other types of xlisp nodes. How are strings implemented? ---------------------------- Strings work much like vectors: The node has a pointer to a malloc()ed ram chunk which is automatically free()ed when the string gets garbage-collected. How are symbols implemented? ---------------------------- A symbol is a generic user-visible lisp variable, with separate slots for print name, value, function, and property list. Any or all of these slots (including name) may be NIL. You create a symbol in C by calling "xlmakesym(name)" or "xlenter(name)" (to make a symbol and enter it in the obarray). You create a symbol in xlisp with the READ function, or by calling "(gensym)", or indirectly in various ways. Most of the symbol-specific code in the interpreter is in xlsym.c. Physically, a symbol is implemented like a four- or five-slot vector. A couple of free bits in the node structure are used as flags for F_SPECIAL (special variables) and F_CONSTANT (constants). A symbol is marked as unbound (no value) or undefined (no function) by placing a pointer to symbol s_unbound in the value or function field, respectively. The symbol s_unbound is not interned and is not used other than to set and check for unbound variables and undefined functions. The symbol NIL is statically allocated so its address is a constant. This makes the frequent comparision of a pointer to NIL faster and more compact (in some cases). Random musing: Abstractly, the LISP symbols plus cons cells (etc) constitute a single directed graph, and the symbols mark spots where normal recursive evaluation should stop. Normal lisp programming practice is to have a symbol in every cycle in the graph, so that recursive traversal can be done without MARK bits. How are closures implemented? ----------------------------- A closure, the return value from a lambda, is a regular coded-in-lisp fn. Physically, it it implemented like an eleven-slot vector, with the node n_type field hacked to contain CLOSURE instead of VECTOR. The vector slots contain: name symbol -- 1st arg of DEFUN. NIL for LAMBDA closures. type (s_lambda or s_macro). args List of "required" formal arguments (as symbols) oargs List of "optional" args, each like: (name (default specified-p)) rest Name of "&rest" formal arg, else NIL. kargs keyword args, each like: ((':foo 'bar default specified-p)) aargs &aux vars, each like: (('arg default)) body actual code (as lisp list) for fn. env value of xlenv when the closure was built. NIL for macros. fenv value of xlfenv when the closure was built. NIL for macros. lambda The original formal args list in the defining form. The lambda field is for printout purposes. The remaining fields store a predigested version of the formal args list. This is a limited form of compilation: by processing the args list at closure-creation time, we reduce the work needed during calls to the closure. How are objects implemented? ---------------------------- An object is implemented like a vector, with the size determined by the number of instance variables. The first slot in the vector points to the class of the object; the remaining slots hold the instance variables for the object. An object needs enough slots to hold all the instance variables defined by its class, *plus* all the instance variables defined by all of its superclasses. How are classes implemented? ---------------------------- A class is a specific kind of object, hence has a class pointer plus instance variables. All classes have the following instance variables: MESSAGES A list of (interned-symbol method-closure) pairs. IVARS Instance variable names: A list of interned symbols. CVARS Class variable names: A list of interned symbols. CVALS Class variable values: A vector of values. SUPERCLASS A pointer to the superclass. IVARCNT Number of class instance variables, as a fixnum. IVARTOTAL Total number of instance variables, as a fixnum. PNAME Printname for this class IVARCNT is the count of the number of instance variables defined by our class. IVARTOTAL is the total number of instance variables in an object of this class -- IVARCNT for this class plus the IVARCNTs from all of our superclasses. How is the class hierarchy laid out? ------------------------------------ The fundamental objects are the OBJECT and CLASS class objects. (Both are instances of class CLASS, and since CLASSes are a particular kind of OBJECT, both are also objects, with n_type==OBJECT. Bear with me!) OBJECT is the root of the class hierarchy: everything you can send a message to is of type OBJECT. (Vectors, chars, integers and so forth stand outside the object hierarchy -- you can't send messages to them. I'm not sure why Dave did it this way.) OBJECT defines the messages: :isnew -- Does nothing :class -- Returns contents of class-pointer slot. :show -- Prints names of obj, obj->class and instance vars (for debugging). :prin1 -- print the object to argument stream A CLASS is a specialized type of OBJECT (with instance variables like MESSAGES which generic OBJECTs lack), class CLASS hence has class OBJECT as its superclass. The CLASS object defines the messages: :new -- Create new object with self.IVARTOTAL LVAR slots, plus one for the class pointer. Point class slot to self. Set new.n_type char to OBJECT. :isnew -- Fill in IVARS, CVARS, CVALS, SUPERCLASS, IVARCNT and IVARTOTAL, using parameters from :new call. (The :isnew msg inherits the :new msg parameters because the :isnew msg is generated automatically after each :new msg, courtesy of a special hack in xlobj.c:sendmsg().) :answer -- Add a (msg closure) pair to self.MESSAGES. Here's a figure to summarize the above, with a generic object thrown in for good measure. Note that all instances of CLASS will have a SUPERCLASS pointer, but no non-class object will. Note also that the messages known to an object are those which can be reached by following exactly one Class Ptr and then zero or more Superclass Ptrs. For example, the generic object can respond to :ISNEW, :CLASS and :SHOW, but not to :NEW or :ANSWER. (The functions implementing the given messages are shown in parentheses.) NIL ^ | |Superclass Ptr | Msg+--------+ :isnew (xlobj.c:obisnew) <----| class |Class Ptr :class (xlobj.c:obclass) <----| OBJECT |------------+ :show (xlobj.c:objshow) <----| | | +--------+ | +---------+ ^ ^ | | generic |Class Ptr | | | | object |----------------+ |Superclass Ptr | +---------+ | | Msg+--------+ | :isnew (xlobj.c:clnew) <----| class |Class Ptr | :new (xlobj.c:clisnew) <----| CLASS |--------+ | :answer(xlobj.c:clanswer)<----| | | | +--------+ | | ^ ^ | | | | | | | +-----------+ | +------------------+ Thus, class CLASS inherits the :CLASS and :SHOW messages from class OBJECT, overrides the default :ISNEW message, and provides new the messages :NEW and :ANSWER. New classes are created by (send CLASS :NEW ...) messages. Their Class Ptr will point to CLASS. By default, they will have OBJECT as their superclass, but this can be overridden by the second optional argument to :NEW. The above basic structure is set up by xlobj.c:xloinit(). How do we look up the value of a variable? ------------------------------------------ When we're cruising along evaluating an expression and encounter a symbol, the symbol might refer to a global variable, an instance variable, or a class variable in any of our superclasses. Figuring out which means digging throught the environment. The canonical place this happens is in xleval.c:xleval(), which simply passes the buck to xlsym.c:xlgetvalue(), which in turn passes the buck to xlxsym.c:xlxgetvalue(), where the fun of scanning down xlenv begins. The xlenv environment looks something like Backbone Environment frame contents -------- -------------------------- xlenv --> frame ((sym val) (sym val) (sym val) ... ) frame ... object (obj msg-class) frame ... object ... frame ... ... The "frame" lines are due to everyday nested constructs like LET expressions, while the "object" lines represent an object environment entered via a message send. xlxgetvalue scans the enviroment left to right, and then top to bottom. It scans down the regular environment frames itself, and calls xlobj.c:xlobjgetvalue() to search the object environment frames. xlobjgetvalue() first searches for the symbol in the msg-class, then in all the successive superclasses of msg-class. In each class, it first checks the list of instance-variable names in the IVARS slot, then the list of class-variables name in the CVARS slot. How are function calls implemented? ----------------------------------- xleval.c contains the central expression-evaluation code. xleval.c:xleval() is the standard top-level entrypoint. The two central functions are xleval.c:xlevform() and xleval.c:evfun(). xlevform() can evaluate four kinds of expression nodes: SUBR: A normal primitive fn coded in C. We call evpushargs() to evaluate and push the arguments, then call the primitive. FSUBR: A special primitive fn coded in C, which (like IF) wants its arguments unevaluated. We call pushargs() (instead of evpushargs()) and then the C fn. CLOSURE: A preprocessed written-in-lisp fn from a DEFUN or LAMBDA. We call evpushargs() and then evfun(). CONS: We issue an error if it isn't a LAMBDA, otherwise we call xleval.c:xlclose() to build a CLOSURE from the LAMBDA, and fall into the CLOSURE code. The common thread in all the above cases is that we call evpushargs() or pushargs() to push all the arguments on the evaluation stack, leaving the number and location of the arguments in the global variables xlargc and xlargv. The primitive C functions consume their arguments directly from the argument stack. xleval.c:evfun() evaluates a CLOSURE by: (1) Switching xlenv and xlfenv to the values they had when the CLOSURE was built. (These values are recorded in the CLOSURE.) (2) Binding the arguments to the environment. This involves scanning through the section of the argument stack indicated by xlargc/xlargv, using information from the CLOSURE to resolve keyword arguments correctly and assign appropriate default values to optional arguments, among other things. (3) Evaluating the body of the function via xleval.c:xleval(). (4) Cleaning up and restoring the original environment. How are message-sends implemented? ---------------------------------- We scan the MESSAGES list in the CLASS object of the recipient, looking for a (message-symbol method) pair that matches our message symbol. If necessary, we scan the MESSAGES lists of the recipients superclasses too. (xlobj.c:sendmsg().) Once we find it, we basically do a normal function evaluation. (xlobjl.c:evmethod().) Two oddities: We need to replace the message-symbol by the recipient on the argument stack to make things look normal, and we need to push an 'object' stack entry on the xlenv environment so we remember which class is handling the message. How is garbage collection implemented? -------------------------------------- The dynamic memory pool managed by xlisp consists of a chain of memory *segments* rooted at global C variable "segs". Each segment contains an array of "struct node"s plus a pointer to the next segment. Each node contains a n_type field and a MARK bit, which is zero except during garbage collection. Xlisp uses a simple, classical mark-and-sweep garbage collector. When it runs out of memory (fnodes==NIL), it does a recursive traversal setting the MARK flag on all nodes reachable from the obarray, the three environments xlenv/xlfenv/xldenv, and the evaluation and argument stacks. (A "switch" on the n_type field tells us how to find all the LVAL slots in the node (plus associated storage), and a pointer-reversal trick lets us avoid using too much stack space during the traversal.) sweep() then adds all un-MARKed LVALs to fnodes, and clears the MARK bit on the remaining nodes. If this fails to produce enough free nodes, a new segment is malloc()ed. The code to do this stuff is mostly in xldmem.c. How is garbage collection of vectors/strings implemented? --------------------------------------------------------- In the dldmem.c version, vector/string space is allocated from a memory pool maintained by xlisp, rather than relying on the C libary malloc() and free() functions. The pool is a linked list of VSEGMENT with the root vsegments. When no free memory of a size necessary for an allocation request is available, a garbage collection is performed. If there is still no available memory, then a new vector segment is allocated. The garbage collection process compacts the memory in each vector segment. This is an easy process because each allocated vector area is pointed to by only one location (in an LVAL), and a backpointer is maintained from the vector segment to the LVAL. Empty vector segments are returned to the heap using free() if there greater than 50% of the vector space is free. This is done to reduce thrashing while making memory available for allocation to LVALs. How does XLISP initialize? -------------------------- A major confusing aspect of xlisp is how it initializes, and how save/restore works. This is a multistep process that must take place in a specific order. When xlisp starts, there is no obarray, and in fact no symbols at all. All initial symbols must be created as part of initialization. In addition the character and small integer cells must be created, and all the C variables that point to xlisp symbols must be initialized. Initialization is mostly performed in xlinit.c, from the function xlinit(). This function is called from main() after main parses the command line, calls osinit() to initialize the OS interface, and sets the initial top level context. This initial context causes a fatal error to occur if any error happens during the initialization process. The first step of xlinit() is to call xlminit(), which is in xldmem.c or dldmem.c. This initializes the pointers for the memory manager, stacks, creates the small integer and character LVAL segments, and creates the NIL symbol by filling in the statically allocated NIL LVAL from one that is temporarily created. This first call of xlmakesym will do the first garbage collection -- all of the roots used for the mark routine have been set so that marking will not occur (there is nothing to mark!). It is important, however, that garbage collection not occur again until initialization is completed. This can be assured by having the allocation segment size, NNODES, be large enough for the entire initialization. The second step in xlinit() is to call xldbug.c:xldinit() to turn debugging off. At this point, if a restore is to occur from a workspace file, then the restore is attempted. If the restore is sucessful, then initialization is finished. See "How does save/restore work?" which is the next question. If the restore fails or there is no file to restore, an initial workspace must be created. This is done by function initwks(), also in xlinit.c. Initwks() starts by calling four initialization functions. xlsym.c:xlsinit() creates the symbol *OBARRAY* (and sets the variable obarray to point to it), creates the object array as the value, and enters obarray into the array. xlsymbols() is called next. It enters all of the symbols referenced by the interpreter into the obarray, and saves their addresses in C variables. This function is also called during restores, so it is important that it does not change the value of any symbols where the value would be set by restore. If the unbound indicator symbol does not exist, one is created. Then it puts NIL in the obarray if not already there (NIL being already created), then all the other symbols are added (if they don't exist), and their addresses saved in C variables. This function also initializes constants such as NIL, T, and PI. Because a saved workspace might have a different file stream environment, xlsymbols always initializes the standard file streams based on the current xlisp invocation. It builds the structure property for RANDOM-STATE structures. It then (shudder!) calls two other initialization functions xlobj.c:obsymbols() and ossymbols (in the appropriate *stuff.c file) to enter symbols used in the object feature and operating system specific code, respectively. Returning to initwks(), two aditional initialization routines are called. Xlread.c:xlrinit() initializes the read-table and installs the standard read macros. Xlobj.c:xloinit() creates the class and object objects. Since the NIL and *OBARRAY* symbols were created before the unbound marker symbol, initwks sets the function values of these symbols, and of the unbound marker symbol, to be unbound. It then initializes all the global variables. Finally it creates all the builtin function bindings from the funtab table. The synonym functions are created last. How are workspaces saved and restored? -------------------------------------- All the work is done in dlimage.c or xlimage.c, depending on the memory management scheme. The basic trick in a save is that memory locations upon a restore would be entirely different. Because of that, addresses written out are converted into offsets from the start of the segs LVAL segment list. In the restore operation, the offset is converted back into an address; if the offset is larger than the allocated segment memory, additional segment memory is allocated until an address can be calculated. Looking at the save function, xlisave(char *fname), the argument string is taken as the name of a workspace file, and a binary file is created of that name. Then a garbage collection is performed since it would be wasteful to write out garbage. The size of ftab is writen as a validity check, figuring that if the configuration changed, then this value would be different. The offset of the *obarray* symbol is written next, since obarray is crucial to doing a restore -- it is used to get the addresses of all the other symbols used in the interpreter. Since NIL is a statically allocated symbol, the offsets to its function, property list, and printname are written. (I bet you didn't know you could define a function called NIL!) Now the segs are traversed and all nodes are written out. The nodes are written in the format of a one byte tag followed by information dependent on the node type. Since many locations in the segment can be empty, one node type, FREE, has data that sets the next offset in the file, thus allowing skipping of many locations with a single command. The function setoffset(), called before writing tags in the other cases, handles writing the FREE entry. CONS and USTREAM cells consist of two pointers, which are written after conversion into offsets. For all other node types, the raw information is written by writenode(). This could be optimized since not all information is needed (for instance, the address of arrays won't be needed!) A terminator entry (FREE with length of zero) is written, and the segs are traversed again, looking for nodes with attached array/string data and streams. For the types where the attached data is an array, the array elements (pointers) are converted to offsets and written out. For a string, the characters are written. For a stream (assuming FILETABLE is used), the file's name and position are written if it is other than standard input, output, or error. These streams cannot be saved or restored. Restoring a workspace is somewhat more difficult. The file is opened and checked for validity. Then the old memory image is deleted. During the deletion, any open file streams other than standard input, output, or error are closed. All of the global memory allocation pointers and stacks are reset, just like in initialization. Since the fixnum and character segments are of fixed size and need a known location, there are allocated. Their values, however, will be filled in from the workspace file. This is another wasteful inefficiency, but at least these segments are small. The global pointer obarray is read from the file. As mentioned earlier, the cviptr() function converts the offset in the file into a physical address, allocating more node segments as necessary. The array portion of the NIL symbol is allocated, and its function, property list, and printname pointers are read from the file. Then the node information is read in. For type FREE, the offset is adjusted. For CONS and USTREAM the car and cdr pointers are read, for other types, the LVAL data is read raw. The LVAL segments are scanned, and now the vector/string components of nodes are read. Since the order of nodes is unchanged, the data is read into the correct nodes. For vector types, the size field of the LVAL is consulted, vector space is allocated, and offsets are read from the file and converted into pointers. For strings, the string space is allocated and the string is read. For streams other than standard input, output, or error, the file name and position is read and an attempt is made to open the file. If the file can be opened, then it is positioned. During the scan, for SUBR/FSUBR nodes funtab is consulted and the correct subroutine address is inserted. During the whole process, if a tag is invalid or the file size is not correct, a fatal error occurs. A garbage collection is performed to initialize the free space for future node allocation. Finally xlsymbols() is called, as in the initializaton process, so that the C pointers in the interpreter can be set. This also sets the streams for standard input, output, and error to the correct values. How do I add a new primitive fn to xlisp? ----------------------------------------- Add a line to the end of xlftab.c:funtab[], and a function prototype to xlftab.h. This table contains a list of triples: The first element of each triple is the function name as it will appear to the programmer. Make it all upper case. The second element is S (for SUBR) if (like most fns) your function wants its arguments pre-evaluated, else F (for FSUBR). The third element is the name of the C function to call. Remember that your arguments arrive on the xlisp argument rather than via the usual C parameter mechanism. CAUTION: Try to keep your files separate from generic xlisp files, and to minimize the number of changes you make in the generic xlisp files. This way, you'll have an easier time re-installing your changes when new versions of xlisp come out. It's a good idea to put a marker (like a comment with your initials) on each line you change or insert in the generic xlisp fileset. For example, if you are going to add many primitive functions to your xlisp, use an #include file rather than putting them all in xlftab.c. CAUTION: Remember that you usually need to protect the LVAL variables in your function from the garbage-collector. It never hurts to do this, and often produces obscure bugs if you dont. Generic code for a new primitive fn: /* xlsamplefun - do useless stuff. */ /* Called like (samplefun '(a c b) 1 2.0) */ LVAL xlsamplefun() { /* Variables to hold the arguments: */ LVAL list_arg, integer_arg, float_arg; /* Get the arguments, with appropriate errors */ /* if any are of the wrong type. Look in */ /* xlisp.h for macros to read other types of */ /* arguments. Look in xlmath.c for examples */ /* of functions which can handle an argument */ /* which may be either int or float: */ list_arg = xlgalist() ; /* "XLisp Get A LIST" */ integer_arg = xlgafixnum(); /* "XLisp Get A FIXNUM" */ float_arg = xlgaflonum(); /* "XLisp Get A FLONUM" */ /* Issue an error message if there are any extra arguments: */ xllastarg(); /* Call a separate C function to do the actual */ /* work. This way, the main function can */ /* be called from both xlisp code and C code. */ /* By convention, the name of the xlisp wrapper */ /* starts with "xl", and the native C function */ /* has the same name minus the "xl" prefix: */ return samplefun( list_arg, integer_arg, float_arg ); } LVAL samplefun( list_arg, integer_arg, float_arg ) LVAL list_arg, integer_arg, float_arg; { FIXTYPE val_of_integer_arg; FLOTYPE val_of_float_arg; /* Variables which will point to LISP objects: */ LVAL result; LVAL list_ptr; LVAL float_ptr; LVAL int_ptr; /* Protect our internal pointers by */ /* pushing them on the evaluation */ /* stack so the garbage collector */ /* can't recycle them in the middle */ /* of the routine: */ xlstkcheck(3); /* Make sure following xlsave */ /* calls won't overrun stack. */ xlsave(list_ptr); /* Use xlsave1() if you don't */ xlsave(float_ptr);/* do an xlstkcheck(). */ xlsave(int_ptr); /* Create an internal list structure, protected */ /* against garbage collection until we exit fn: */ list_ptr = cons(list_arg,list_arg); /* Get the actual values of our fixnum and flonum: */ val_of_integer_arg = getfixnum( integer_arg ); val_of_float_arg = getflonum( float_arg ); /*******************************************/ /* You can have any amount of intermediate */ /* computations at this point in the fn... */ /*******************************************/ /* Make new numeric values to return: */ integer_ptr = cvflonum( val_of_integer_arg * 3 ); float_ptr = cvflonum( val_of_float_arg * 3.0 ); /* Cons it all together to produce a return value: */ result = cons( list_ptr, cons( integer_ptr, cons( float_ptr, NIL ) ) ); /* Restore the stack, cancelling the xlsave()s: */ xlpopn(3); /* Use xlpop() for a single argument.*/ return result; } - Jeff (S)