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                An Assembly Language Primer

                 (C) 1983 by David Whitman




















































                                                                       1

              TABLE OF CONTENTS


Introduction.......................................2

The Computer As A Bit Pattern Manipulator..........2

Digression: A Notation System for Bit Patterns.....4

Addressing Memory..................................6

The Contents of Memory: Data and Programs..........7

The Dawn of Assembly Language......................8

The 8088...........................................9

Assembly Language Syntax..........................12

The Stack.........................................14

Software Interrupts...............................15

Pseudo-Operations.................................17

Tutorial..........................................18






































                                                                       2

INTRODUCTION

Many people requesting CHASM have indicated that they are
interested in *learning* assembly language.  They are beginners,
and have little idea just where to start.  This primer is
directed to those users.  Experianced users will probably find
little here that they do not already know.

Being a primer, this text will not teach you everything there is
to know about assembly language programming.  It's purpose is to
give you some of the vocabulary and general ideas which will help
you on your way.

I must make a small caveat: I consider myself a relative beginner
in assembly language programming.  A big part of the reason for
writing CHASM was to try and learn this branch of programming
from the inside out.  I think I've learned quite a bit, but it's
quite possible that some of the ideas I relate here may have some
small, or even large, flaws in them.  Nonetheless, I have
produced a number of working assembly language programs by
following the ideas presented here.

THE COMPUTER AS A BIT PATTERN MANIPULATOR.

We all have some conception about what a computer does.  On one
level, it may be thought of as a machine which can execute BASIC
programs.  Another idea is that the computer is a number
crunching device.  As I write this primer, I'm using my computer
as a word processor.

I'd like to introduce a more general concept of just what sort of
machine a computer is: a bit pattern manipulator.

I'm certain that everyone has been introduced to the idea of a
*bit*.  (Note: Throughout this primer, a word enclosed in
*asterisks* is to be read as if it were in italics.)  A bit has
two states: on and off, typically represented with the symbols
"1"  and "0".  In this context, DON'T think of 1 and 0 as
numbers.  They are merely convenient shorthand labels for the
state of a bit.

The memory of your computer consists of a huge collection of
bits, each of which could be in either the 1 or 0 (on or off)
state.




















                                                                       3


At the heart of your computer is a microprocessor chip, named the
8088 by Intel, who makes the chip.  What this chip can do is
manipulate the bits which make up the memory.  The 8088 likes to
handle bits in chunks, and so we'll introduce special names for
the two sizes of bit chunks the 8088 is most happy with.  A
*byte* will refer to a collection of eight bits.  A *word*
consists of two bytes, or equivalently, sixteen bits.

A collection of bits holds a pattern, determined by the state of
it's individual bits.  Here are some typical byte long patterns:

10101010         11111111         00001111

If you've had a course in probability, it's quite easy to work
out that there are 256 possible patterns that a byte could hold.
Similarly, a word can hold 65,536 different patterns.

All right, now for the single most important idea in assembly
language programming.  Are you sitting down?  These bit patterns
can be used to represent other sets of things, by mapping each
pattern onto a member of the other set.  Doesn't sound like much,
but IBM has made *BILLIONS* off this idea.

For example, by mapping the patterns a word can hold onto the set
of integers, you can represent either the numbers from 0 to 65535
or -32768 to 32767, depending on the exact mapping you use.  You
might recognize these number ranges as the range of possible line
numbers, and the possible values of an integer variable, in BASIC
programs.  This explains these somewhat arbitrary seeming limits:
BASIC uses words of memory to hold line numbers and integer
variables.

As another example, you could map the patterns a byte can hold
onto a series of arbitrarily chosen little pictures which might
be displayed on a video screen.  If you look in appendix G of
your BASIC manual, you'll notice that there are *exactly* 256
differant characters that can be displayed on your screen.  Your
computer uses a byte of memory to tell it what character to
display at each location of the video screen.
























                                                                       4

Without getting too far ahead of myself, I'll just casually
mention that there are about 256 fundamental operations that the
8088 microprocessor chip can carry out.  This suggests another
mapping which we'll discuss in more detail later.

The point of this discussion is that we can use bit patterns to
represent anything we want, and by manipulating the patterns in
differant ways, we can produce results which have significance in
terms of what we're choosing to represent.

DIGRESSION: A NOTATION SYSTEM FOR BIT PATTERNS

Because of their importance, it would be nice to have a
convenient way to represent the various bit patterns we'll be
talking about.  We already have one way, by listing the states of
the individual bits as a series of 1's and 0's.  This system is
somewhat clumsy, and error prone.  Are the following word
patterns identical or different?

1111111011111111                         1111111101111111

You probably had trouble telling them apart.  It's easier to tell
that they're different by breaking them down into more managable
pieces, and comparing the pieces.  Here are the same two patterns
broken down into four bit chunks:

1111 1110 1111 1111                  1111 1111 0111 1111

Some clown has given the name *nybble* to a chunk of 4 bits,
presumably because 4 bits are half a byte.  A nybble is fairly
easy to handle.  There are only 16 possible nybble long patterns,
and most people can distinguish between the patterns quite
easily.































                                                                       5

Each nybble pattern has been given a unique symbol agreed upon by
computer scientists.  The first 10 patterns were given symbols
"0" through "9", and when they ran out of digit style symbols,
they used the letters "A" through "F" for the last six patterns.
Below is the "nybble pattern code":

0000 = 0    0001 = 1    0010 = 2    0011 = 3

0100 = 4    0101 = 5    0110 = 6    0111 = 7

1000 = 8    1001 = 9    1010 = A    1011 = B

1100 = C    1101 = D    1110 = E    1111 = F

Using the nybble code, we can represent the two similar word
patterns given above, with the following more managable shorthand
versions:

               FEFF       FF7F

Of course, the assignment of the symbols for the various nybble
patterns was not so arbitrary as I've tried to make it appear.  A
perceptive reader who has been exposed to binary numbers will
have noticed an underlying system to the assignments.  If the 1's
and 0's of the patterns are interpreted as actual *numbers*,
rather than mere symbols for bit states, the first 10 patterns
correspond to binary numbers whose decimal representation is the
symbol assigned to the pattern.  The last six patterns receive the
symbols "A" through "F", and taken together, the symbols 0
through F constitute the digits of the *hexadecimal* number
system.  Thus, the symbols assigned to the different nybble
patterns were born out of historical prejudice in thinking of
the computer as strictly a number handling machine.  Although
this is an important interpretation of these symbols, for the
time being it's enough to merely think of them as a shorthand way
to write down bit patterns.

Because some nybble patterns can look just like a number, it's
often necessary to somehow indicate that we're talking about a
pattern.  In BASIC, you do this by adding the characters &H to
the beginning of the pattern: &H1234.  A more common convention
is to just add the letter H to the end of the pattern: 1234H.  In
both conventions, the H is referring to hexadecimal.





















                                                                       6

Eventually you'll want to learn about using the hexadecimal
number system, since it is an important way to use bit patterns.
I'm not going to discuss it in this primer, because a number of
books have much better treatments of this topic than I could
produce.  Consider this an advanced topic you'll want to fill in
later.

ADDRESSING MEMORY

As stated before, the 8088 chip inside your computer can
manipulate the bit patterns which make up the computer's memory.
Some of the possible manipulations are copying patterns from one
place to another, turning on or turning off certain bits, or
interpreting the patterns as numbers and performing arithmetic
operations on them.  To perform any of these actions, the 8088
has to know what part of memory is to be worked on.  A specific
location in memory is identified by it's *address*.

An address is a pointer into memory.  Each address points to the
beginning of a byte long chunk of memory.  The 8088 has the
capability to distinguish 1,048,576 differant bytes of memory.

By this point, it probably comes as no suprise to hear that
addresses are represented as patterns of bits.  It takes 20 bits
to get a total of 1,048,576 differant patterns, and thus an
address may be written down as a series of 5 nybble codes.  For
example, DOS stores a pattern which encodes information about
what equipment is installed on your IBM PC in the word which
begins at location 00410.  Interpreting the address as a hex
number, the second byte of this word has an address 1 greater
than 00410, or 00411.

The 8088 isn't very happy handling 20 bits at a time.  The
biggest chunk that's convenient for it to use is a 16 bit word.
The 8088 actually calculates 20 bit addresses as the combination
of two words, a segment word and an offset word.  The combination
process involves interpreting the two patterns as hexadecimal
numbers and adding them.  The way that two 16 bit patterns can be
combined to give one 20 bit pattern is that the two patterns are
added out of alignment by one nybble:
























                                                                       7

    0040      4 nybble segment
     0010     4 nybble offset
   --------
    00410     5 nybble address

Because of this mechanism for calculating addresses, they will
often be written down in what may be called segment:offset form.
Thus, the address in above calculation could be written:

0040:0010

MEMORY CONTERNS: DATA AND PROGRAMS

The contents of memory may be broken down into two broad classes.
The first is *data*, just raw patterns of bits for the 8088 to
work on.  The significance of the patterns is determined by what
the computer is being used for at any given time.

The second class of memory contents are *instructions*.  The 8088
can look at memory and interpret a pattern it sees there as
specifying one of the 200 some fundamental operations it knows how
to do.  This mapping of patterns onto operations is called the
*machine language* of the 8088.  A machine language *program*
consists of a series of patterns located in consequtive memory
locations, whose corresponding operations perform some useful
process.

Note that there is no way for the 8088 to know whether a given
pattern is meant to be an instruction, or a piece of data to
operate on.  It is quite possible for the chip to accidentally
begin reading what was intended to be data, and interpret it as a
program.  Some pretty bizarre things can occur when this happens.
In assembly language programming circles, this is known as
"crashing the system".






























                                                                       8

THE DAWN OF ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Unless you happen to be an 8088 chip, the patterns which make up
a machine language program can be pretty incomprehensible.  For
example, the pattern which tells the 8088 to flip all the bits in
the byte at address 5555 is:

F6 16 55 55

which is not very informative, although you can see the 5555
address in there.  In ancient history, the old wood-burning and
vacuum tube computers were programmed by laboriously figuring out
bit patterns which represented the series of instructions
desired.  Needless to say, this technique was incredibly tedious,
and very prone to making errors.  It finally occured to these
ancestral programmers that they could give the task of figuring
out the proper patterns to the computer itself, and assembly
language programming was born.

Assembly language represents each of the many operations that the
computer can do with a *mnemonic*, a short, easy to remember
series of letters.  For example, in boolean algebra, the logical
operation which inverts the state of a bit is called "not", and
hence the assembly language equivalent of the preceding machine
language pattern is:

    NOTB [5555]

The brackets around the 5555 roughly mean "the memory location
addressed by".  The "B" at the end of "NOTB" indicates that we
want to operate on a byte of memory, not a word.

Unfortunately, the 8088 can't make head nor tail of the string of
characters "NOTB".  What's needed is a special program to run on
the 8088 which converts the string "NOTB" into the pattern F6 16.
This program is called an assembler.  A good analogy is that an
assembler program is like a meat grinder which takes in assembly
language and gives out machine language.

Typically, an assembler reads a file of assembly language and
translates it one line at a time, outputing a file of machine
language.  Often times the input file is called the *source file*
and the output file is called the *object file*.  The machine
language patterns produced are called the *object code*.




















                                                                       9


Also produced during the assembly process is a *listing*, which
summarizes the results of the assembly process.  The listing
shows each line from the source file, along with the shorthand
"nybble code" representation of the object code produced.  In the
event that the assembler was unable to understand any of the source
lines, it inserts error messages in the listing, pointing out the
problem.

The primeval assembly language programmers had to write their
assembler programs in machine language, because they had no other
choice.  Not being a masochist, I wrote CHASM in BASIC.  When you
think about it, there's a sort of circular logic in action here.
Some programmers at Microsoft wrote the BASIC interpreter in
assembly language, and I used BASIC to write an assembler.
Someday, I hope to use the present version of CHASM to
produce a machine language version, which will run about a
hundred times faster, and at the same time bring this crazy
process full circle.

THE 8088

The preceding discussions have (I hope) given you some very
general background, a world view if you will, about assembly and
machine language programming.  At this point, I'd like to get
into a little more detail, beginning by examining the internal
structure of the 8088 microprocessor, from the programmer's point
of view.  This discussion is a condensation of information which
I obtained from "The 8086 Book" which was written by Russell
Rector and George Alexy, and published by Osborne/McGraw-Hill.
Once you've digested this, I'd recomend going to The 8086 Book
for a deeper treatment.  To use the CHASM assembler, you're going
to need The 8086 Book anyway, to tell you the different 8088
instructions and their mnemonics.

Inside the 8088 are a number of *registers* each of which can
hold a 16 bit pattern.  In assembly language, each of the
registers has a two letter mnemonic name.  There are 14
registers, and their mnemonics are:

AX BX CX DX     SP BP    SI DI     CS DS SS ES    PC ST

Each of the registers are a little different and have different
intended uses, but they can be grouped into some broad classes.




















                                                                       10


The *general purpose* registers (AX BX CX DX) are just that.
These are registers which hold patterns pulled in from memory
which are to be worked on within the 8088.  You can use these
registers for just about anything you want.

Each of the general purpose registers can be broken down into two
8 bit registers, which have names of their own.  Thus, the CX
register is broken down into the CH and CL registers.  The "H"
and "L" stand for high and low respectively.  Each general
purpose register breaks down into a high/low pair.

The AX register, and it's 8 bit low half, the AL register, are
somewhat special.  Mainly for historical reasons, these registers
are referred to as the 16 bit and 8 bit *accumulators*.  Some
operations of the 8088 can only be carried out on the contents of
the accumulators, and many others are faster when used in
conjunction with these registers.

Another group of registers are the *segment* registers (CS DS SS
ES).  These registers hold segment values for use in calculating
memory addresses.  The CS, or code segment register, is used
every  time the 8088 accesses memory to read an instruction
pattern.  The  DS, or data segment register, is used for bringing
data patterns in.  The SS register is used to access the stack
(more about the stack later).  The ES is the extra segment
register.  A very few special instructions use the ES register to
access memory, plus you can overide use of the DS register and
substitute the ES register, if you need to maintain two separate
data areas.

The *pointer* (SP BP) and *index* (DI SI) registers are used to
provide indirect addressing, which is an very powerful technique
for accessing memory.  Indirect addressing is beyond the scope of
this little primer, but is discussed in The 8086 Book.  The SP
register is used to implement a stack in memory. (again, more
about the stack later)  Besides their special function, the BP,
DI and SI registers can be used as additional general purpose
registers.  Although it's physically possible to directly
manipulate the value in the SP register, it's best to leave it
alone, since you could wipe out the stack.

Finally, there are two registers which are relatively
inaccessable to direct manipulation.  The first is the *program




















                                                                       11

counter*, PC.  This register always contains the offset part of
the address of the next instruction to be executed.  Although
you're not allowed to just move values into this register, you
*can* indirectly affect it's contents, and hence the next
instruction to be executed, using operations which are equivalent
to BASIC's GOTO and GOSUB instructions.  Occasionally, you will
see the PC referred to as the *IP*, which stands for instruction
pointer.

The last register is also relatively inaccessable.  This is the
*status* register, ST.  This one has a *two* alternate names, so
watch for FL (flag register) and PSW (program status word).  The
latter is somewhat steeped in history, since this was the name
given to a special location in memory which served a similar
function on the antique IBM 360 mainframe.

The status register consists of a series of one bit *flags* which
can affect how the 8088 works.  There are special instructions
which allow you to set or clear each of these flags.  In
addition, many instructions affect the state of the flags,
depending on the outcome of the instruction.  For example, one of
the bits of the status register is called the Zero flag.  Any
operation which ends up generating a bit pattern of all 0's
automatically sets the Zero flag on.

Setting the flags doesn't seem to do much, until you know that
there a whole set of conditional branching instructions which
cause the equivalent to a BASIC GOTO if the particular µmπg
pattern they look for is set.  In assembly language, the only way
to make a decision and branch accordingly is via this flag testing
mechanism.

Although some instructions implicitly affect the flags, there are
a series of instructions whose *only* effect is to set the flags,
based on some test or comparision.  It's very common to see one
of these comparision operations used to set the flags just before
a conditional branch.  Taken together, the two instructions are
exactly equivalent to BASIC's:

IF (comparision) THEN GOTO (linenumber)
























                                                                       12


ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE SYNTAX

In general, each line of an assembly language program translates
to a set of patterns which specify one fundamental operation for
the 8088 to carry out.

Each line may consist of one or more of the following parts:

First, a label, which is just a marker for the assembler to use.
If you want to branch to an instruction from some other part of
the program, you put a label on the instruction.  When you want to
branch, you refer to the label.  In general, the label can be any
string of characters you want.  A good practice is to use a name
which reminds you what that particular part of the program does.
CHASM will assume that any string of characters which starts in
the first column of a line is intended to be a label.

After the label, or if the text of the line starts to the right
of the first column, at the beginning of the text, comes an
instruction mnemonic.  This specifies the operation that the line
is asking for.  For a list of the 200-odd mnemonics, along with
the instructions they stand for, see The 8086 Book.

Most of the 8088 instructions require that you specify one or
more *operands*.  The operands are what the operation is to work
on, and are listed after the instruction mnemonic.

There are a number of possible operands.  Probably the most common
are registers, specified by their two letter mnemonics.

Another operand type is *immediate data*, a pattern of bits to be
put somewhere or compared or combined with some other pattern.
Generally immediate data is specified by it's nybble code
representation, marked as such by following it with the letter
"H".  Some assemblers allow alternate ways to specify immediate
data which emphasize the pattern's intended use.  CHASM
recognizes five different ways to represent immediate data.

A memory location can be used as an operand.  We've seen one way
to do this, by enclosing it's address in brackets.  (You can now
see why the brackets are needed.  Without them, you couldn't
distinguish between an address and immediate data.)  If you've
asked the assembler to set aside a section of memory for data




















                                                                       13

(more on this latter), and put a label on the request, you can
specify that point in memory by using the label.  Finally, there
are a number of indirect ways to address memory locations, which
you can read about in The 8086 Book.

The last major type of operands are labels.  Branching
instructions require an operand to tell them where to branch *to*.
In assembly language, you specify locations which may be branched
to by putting a label on them.  You can then use the label as an
operand on branches.

Often times, the order in which the operands are listed can be
important.  For example, when moving a pattern from one place to
another, you need to specify where the pattern is to come from,
and where it's going.  The convention in general use is that the
first operand is the *destination* and the second is the
*source*.  Thus, to move the pattern in the DX register into the
AX register, you would write:

        MOV AX,DX

This may take some getting used to, since when reading from left
to right it seems reasonable to assume that the transfer goes in
this direction as well.  However, since this convention is pretty
well entrenched in the assembly language community, CHASM goes
along with it.

The last part of an assembly language line is a *comment*.  The
comment is totally ignored by the assembler, but is *vital* for
humans who are attempting to understand the program.  Assembly
language programs tend to be very hard to follow, and so it's
particularly important to put in lots of comments so that you'll
remember just what it was you were trying to do with a given
piece of code.  Professional assembly language programmers put a
comment on *every* line of code, explaining what it does, plus
devoting many entire lines for additional explanations.  For an
example of a professional assembly language program, you should
examine the BIOS source listing given in the IBM Technical
Referance manual.  Over *half* the text consists of comments!

Since the assembler ignores the comments, they cost you nothing
in terms of size or speed of execution in the resulting machine
language program.  This is in sharp contrast to BASIC, where each
remark slows your program down and eats up precious memory.




















                                                                       14


Generally, a character is set aside to indicate to the assembler
the beginning of a comment, so that it knows to skip over.  CHASM
follows a common convention of reserving the semi-colon (;) for
marking comments.

THE STACK

I've been dropping the name *stack* from time to time.  The stack
is just a portion of memory which has been temporarily set aside
to be used in a special way.

To get a picture of how the stack works, think of the spring
loaded contraptions you sometimes see holding trays in a
cafeteria.  As each tray is washed, the busboy puts it on top of
the stack in the contraption.  Because the thing is spring loaded,
the whole stack sinks down from the weight of the new tray, and
the top of the stack ends up always being the same height off the
floor.  When a customer takes a tray off the stack, the next one
rises up to take it's place.

In the computer, the stack is used to hold data patterns, which
are generally being passed from one program or subroutine to
another.  By putting things on the stack, the receiving routine
doesn't need to know a particular address to look for the
information it needs, it just pulls them off the top of the
stack.

There is some jargon associated with use of the stack.  Patterns
are *pushed* onto the stack, and *popped* off.  Accordingly, there
are a set of PUSH and POP instructions in the 8088's repertoire.

Because you don't need to keep track of where the patterns are
actually being kept, the stack is often used as a scratch pad
area, patterns being pushed when the register they're in is
needed for some other purpose, then popped out when the register
is free.  It's very common for the first few instructions of a
subroutine to be a series of pushes to save the patterns which
are occupying the registers its about to use.   This is referred
to as *saving the state* of the registers.  The last thing the
subroutine will do is pop the patterns back into the registers
they came from, thus *restoring the state* of the registers.






















                                                                       15

Following the analogy of the cafeteria contraption, when you pop
the stack, the pattern you get is the last one which was pushed.
When you pop a pattern off, the next-to-last thing pushed
automatically moves to the top, just as the trays rise up when a
customer removes one.  Everything comes off the stack in the
reverse order of which they went on.  Sometimes you'll see the
phrase "last in, first out" or *LIFO stack*.

Of course, there are no special spring loaded memory locations
inside the computer.  The stack is implemented using a register
which keeps track of where the top of the stack is currently
located.  When you push something, the pointer is moved to the
next available memory location, and the pattern is put in that
spot.  When something is popped, it is copied from the location
pointed at, then the pointer is moved back.  You don't have to
worry about moving the pointer because it's all done
automatically with the push and pop instructions.

The register set aside to hold the pointer is SP, and that's why
you don't want to monkey with SP.  You'll recall that to form an
address, two words are needed, an offset and a segment.  The
segment word for the stack is kept in the SS register, so you
should leave SS alone as well.  When you run the type of machine
language program that CHASM produces, DOS will automatically set
the SP and SS registers to reserve a stack capable of holding 128
words.

SOFTWARE INTERRUPTS

I have been religiously avoiding talking about the various
individual instructions the 8088 can carry out, because if I
didn't, this little primer would soon grow into a rather long
book.  However, there's one very important instruction, which when
you read about it in The 8088 Book, won't seem particularly
useful.  This section will discuss the *software interrupt*
instruction, and why it's so important.

The 8088 reserves the first 1024 bytes of memory for a series of
256 *interrupt vectors*.  Each of these two word long interrupt
vectors is used to store the segment:offset address of a location
in memory.  When you execute a software interrupt instruction,
the the 8088 pushes the location of the next instruction of your
program onto the stack, then branches to the memory location
pointed at by the vector specified in the interrupt.




















                                                                       16


This probably seems like a rather awkward way to branch around in
memory, and chances are you'd never use this method to get from
one part of your program to another.  The way these instructions
become important is that IBM has pre-loaded a whole series of
useful little (and not so little) machine language routines into
your computer, and set the interrupt vectors to point to them.
All of these routines are set up so that after doing their thing,
they use the location pushed on the stack by the interrupt
instruction to branch back to your program.

Some of these routines are a part of DOS, and documentation for
them can be found in Appendix D of the DOS manual.  The rest of
them are stored in ROM (read only memory) and comprise the *BIOS*,
or basic input/output system of the computer.  Details of the BIOS
routines can be found in Appendix A of IBM's Technical Referance
Manual.  IBM charges around $40 for Technical Referance, but the
information in Appendix A alone is easily worth the money.

The routines do all kinds of useful things, such as run the disk
drive for you, print characters on the screen, or read data from
the keyboard.  In effect, the software interrupts add a whole
series of very powerful operations to the 8088 instruction set.

A final point is that if you don't like the way that DOS or the
BIOS does something, the vectored interrupt system makes it very
easy to substitute your own program to handle that function.  You
just load your program and reset the appropriate interrupt vector
to point at your program rather than the resident routine.  This
is how all those RAM disk and print spooler programs work.  The
programs change the vector for disk drive or printer support to
point to themselves, and carry out the operations in their own
special way.

To make things easy for you, one of the DOS interrupt routines
has the function of resetting interrupt vectors to point at new
code.  Still another DOS interrupt routine is used to graft new
code onto DOS, so that it doesn't accidentally get wiped out by
other programs.  The whole thing is really quite elegant and easy
to use, and IBM is to be complimented for setting things up this
way.























                                                                       17

PSEUDO-OPERATIONS

Up to this point, I've implied that each line of an assembly
language program gets translated into a machine language
instruction.  In fact, this is not the case.  Most assemblers
recognize a series of *pseudo-operations* which are handled as
embedded commands to the assembler itself, not as an instruction
in the machine language program being built.  Almost invariably
you'll see the phrase "pseudo-operation" abbreviated down to
*pseudo-op*. Sometimes you'll see *assembler directive*, which
means the same thing, but just doesn't seem to roll off the
tongue as well as pseudo-op.

One very common pseudo-op is the *equate*, usually given mnemonic
*EQU*.  What this allows you to do is assign a name to a
frequently used constant.  Thereafter, anywhere you use that
name, the assembler automatically substitutes the equated
constant.  This process makes your program easier to read, since
in place of the somewhat meaningless looking pattern, you see a
name which tells you what the pattern is for.  It also makes your
program easier to modify, since if you decide to change the
constant, you only need to do it once, rather than all over the
program.

The only other type of pseudo-op I'll talk about here are those
for setting aside memory locations for data.  These pseudo-ops
tend to be quite idiosyncratic with each assembler.  CHASM
implements two such pseudo-ops: DB (declare byte) and DS (declare
storage).  DB is used to set aside small data areas, which can be
initialized to any pattern, one byte at a time.  DS sets up
relatively large areas, but all the locations are filled with the
same initial pattern.

If you put a label on a pseudo-op which sets aside data areas,
most assemblers allow you to use the label as an operand, in place
of the actual address of the location.  The assembler
automatically substitutes the address for the name during the
translation process.

Some assemblers have a great number of pseudo-ops.  CHASM
implements a couple more, which aren't discussed here.























                                                                       18

TUTORIAL

To conclude this primer, this section will walk through the
process of writting, assembling, and running a very simple
program.

The program will perform the function filled by the BASIC command
CLS, that is, it will clear the video screen and move the cursor
to the upper left hand corner.  In fact, this is a useful little
program, since the DOS environment doesn't provide any method of
clearing the screen.

There is a BIOS routine called VIDEO_IO which provides an
interface to the screen.  Access to VIDEO_IO is through software
interrupt number 16, and documentation can be found on pages A-43
and A-44 of Technical Referance.  VIDEO_IO actually performs 15
different screen handling functions.  We specify which function
we want, along with information needed by the individual
function, in the 8088 registers.  Our entire program will be made
up of putting the proper patterns into the registers, then
activating VIDEO_IO with an interrupt.

To clear the screen, we'll use VIDEO_IO's scroll up function.
What this does is move a portion of the screen up, filling the
vacated space with blanks.  We have to tell VIDEO_IO what portion
of the screen to scroll, and how far to scroll it.  We can get
the proper patterns into the right registers using the MOV
instruction, MOVing the patterns in as immediate data.  Here's
the code to do this:



































                                                                       19

    MOV AH,6     ;this specifys we want a scroll
                 ;the CH/CL register pair specifies the row and
                 ;column of the upper left hand corner of the region
                 ;to be scrolled
    MOV CH,0     ;row = 0
    MOV CL,0     ;column = 0
                 ;the DH/DL pair does the same for the lower
                 ;right corner.
    MOV DH,24    ;row = 24
    MOV DL,79    ;column = 79
                 ;BH specifies what color to fill with
    MOV BH,7     ;we'll use black
                 ;AL specifies how far to scroll.
    MOV AL,0     ;pattern 0 means to blank out the whole region.
    INT 16       ;call video_io

Notice that none of the lines starts at the left margin (column
1).  If they did, CHASM would think that the instruction mnemonic
was meant to be a label, and would get very confused.

Since the bit patterns are meant to represent numbers, I've
chosen to write down the immediate data as decimal numbers.  CHASM
will automatically translate into the proper patterns.  Notice
that since each of the high/low register pairs can be accessed as
a single 16 bit register, I could have moved the patterns for both
halves in at the same time.  I did it this way for clarity.  Note
also the profusion of comments.

The second half of the program has to move the cursor to the upper
left.  Again, all that's necessary is to load the registers and
execute the interrupt:

    MOV AH,2     ;specifies that we want to position the cursor.
                 ;the DH/DL pair specifies the row and column of
                 ;where we want the cursor.
    MOV DH,0     ;row = 0
    MOV DL,0     ;column = 0
                 ;BH specifies which display page
    MOV BH,0     ;put the cursor on page 0
    INT 16       ;call video_io
























                                                                       20

There's one last detail.  We have to warn the 8088 that it's come
to the end of our program, or it'll just keep executing whatever
random patterns are in memory after our stuff.  Remember
"crashing the system"?  One of DOS's vectored interrupts handles
program termination, returning you to DOS.  The last instruction
is:

   INT 32       ;return to DOS

After writing the program, we must now create a text file which
contains the lines of our program.  This is done using a text
editor, such as EDLIN, which comes on your DOS disk.  At this
point, you can either copy the above lines into a file using an
editor, or use the file CLS.ASM, which was included on your CHASM
disk.  CLS.ASM contains the above lines already entered for you,
if you'd rather not bother making your own file at the moment.

It's now time to assemble the program.  From DOS, you start CHASM
up by typing it's name:

   A> CHASM

CHASM will respond by printing a hello screen, and ask you to
press a key when you're done reading it.  When you do so, CHASM
will ask you some questions:

    Source code file name? [.asm]

Type in the name of the file which has your assembly language
program text in it, then press return.

    Direct listing to Printer (P), Screen (S), or Disk (D)?

CHASM wants to know where to send the listing produced during the
assembly process.  If you have a printer, turn it on then press
P. If you don't have a printer, press S.

The last question is:

    Name for object file? [xxx.com]

CHASM is asking for the name you'd like to give to the machine
language program which is about to be produced.  Just press enter
here. (We'll accept CHASM's default name)




















                                                                       21


At this point CHASM will start accessing the disk drive, reading
in your program a line at a time.  A status line will appear at
the bottom of your screen, telling you how far along the
translation has gotten.  For this program, the whole process
takes about 2 1/2 minutes.

If the listing went to your printer, CHASM automatically returns
you to DOS when it's finished.  If it went to the screen, CHASM
waits for you to press a key to indicate that you're done
reading.  Near the bottom of the listing will be the message:

XXX Diagnostics Offered
YYY Errors Detected

If both numbers are 0, everything went fine.  If not, look up on
the listing for error messages, which will point out the
offending lines.  At this point, don't worry too much about what
the error messages say, just fix the line in your input file to
look like the text developed above.  Once you manage to get an
assembly with no errors, you're ready to go on.

Your disk will now contain machine language program whose name is
that of your input file, with an extension of .COM.  Check this
by typing DIR to get a directory listing.  Not only will this
confirm that the file is really there, it fills up your screen,
to give us something to clear.

To run the machine language program, you just type it's name,
with or without the .COM extension.  (Note: even though you don't
need to *enter* the it, the file has to have the .COM extension
for DOS to recognize it as a machine language program.) If
everything was done right, the screen will clear, and then the
DOS prompt, A>, will appear.

That's the entire process, from start to finish.  At this point
you should have enough of a start to be able to digest CHASM's
documentation and The 8086 Book, then begin to write your own
programs.  Good Luck!