DP Tool Club 8/CDASC08.ISO/VRAC/E17INFO.ZIP/EMACS-7

GNU Info File | 1993-07-18 | 48.7 KB | 1,201 lines

This is Info file ../info/emacs, produced by Makeinfo-1.54 from the
input file emacs.texi.


File: emacs,  Node: Log Entries,  Next: Change Logs and VC,  Prev: Variables for Check-in/out,  Up: Version Control

Log Entries
-----------

   When you're editing an initial comment or log entry for inclusion in
a master file, finish your entry by typing `C-c C-c'.

`C-c C-c'
     Finish the comment edit normally (`vc-finish-logentry').  This
     finishes check-in.

   To abort check-in, just don't type `C-c C-c' in that buffer.  You
can switch buffers and do other editing.  As long as you don't try to
check in another file, the entry you were editing remains in its
buffer, and you can go back to that buffer at any time to complete the
check-in.

   If you change several source files for the same reason, it is often
convenient to specify the same log entry for many of the files.  To do
this, use the history of previous log entries.  The commands `M-n',
`M-p', `M-s' and `M-r' for doing this work just like the minibuffer
history commands (except that these versions are used outside the
minibuffer).

   Each time you check in a file, the log entry buffer is put into VC
Log mode, which involves running two hooks: `text-mode-hook' and
`vc-log-mode-hook'.  *Note Hooks::.


File: emacs,  Node: Change Logs and VC,  Next: Comparing Versions,  Prev: Log Entries,  Up: Version Control

Change Logs and VC
------------------

   If you use RCS for a program and also maintain a change log file for
it (*note Change Log::.), you can generate change log entries
automatically from the version control log entries:

`C-x v a'
     Visit the current directory's change log file and create new
     entries for versions checked in since the most recent entry in the
     change log file (`vc-update-change-log').

     This command works with RCS only; it does not work with SCCS.

   For example, suppose the first line of `ChangeLog' is dated 10 April
1992, and that the only check-in since then was by Nathaniel Bowditch
to `rcs2log' on 8 May 1992 with log text `Ignore log messages that
start with `#'.'.  Then `C-x v a' visits `ChangeLog' and inserts text
like this:

     Fri May  8 21:45:00 1992  Nathaniel Bowditch  ([e-mail])

             * rcs2log: Ignore log messages that start with `#'.

You can then edit the new change log entry further as you wish.

   Normally, the log entry for file `foo' is displayed as `* foo: TEXT
OF LOG ENTRY'.  The `:' after `foo' is omitted if the text of the log
entry starts with `(FUNCTIONNAME): '.  For example, if the log entry
for `vc.el' is `(vc-do-command): Check call-process status.', then the
text in `ChangeLog' looks like this:

     Wed May  6 10:53:00 1992  Nathaniel Bowditch  ([e-mail])

             * vc.el (vc-do-command): Check call-process status.

   When `C-x v a' adds several change log entries at once, it groups
related log entries together if they all are checked in by the same
author at nearly the same time.  If the log entries for several such
files all have the same text, it coalesces them into a single entry.
For example, suppose the most recent checkins have the following log
entries:

For `vc.texinfo':
     Fix expansion typos.
For `vc.el':
     Don't call expand-file-name.
For `vc-hooks.el':
     Don't call expand-file-name.

   They appear like this in `ChangeLog':

     Wed Apr  1 08:57:59 1992  Nathaniel Bowditch  ([e-mail])

             * vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos.

             * vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name.

   Normally, `C-x v a' separates log entries by a blank line, but you
can mark several related log entries to be clumped together (without an
intervening blank line) by starting the text of each related log entry
with a label of the form `{CLUMPNAME} '.  The label itself is not
copied to `ChangeLog'.  For example, suppose the log entries are:

For `vc.texinfo':
     {expand} Fix expansion typos.
For `vc.el':
     {expand} Don't call expand-file-name.
For `vc-hooks.el':
     {expand} Don't call expand-file-name.

Then the text in `ChangeLog' looks like this:

     Wed Apr  1 08:57:59 1992  Nathaniel Bowditch  ([e-mail])

             * vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos.
             * vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name.

   A log entry whose text begins with `#' is not copied to `ChangeLog'.
For example, if you merely fix some misspellings in comments, you can
log the change with an entry beginning with `#' to avoid putting such
trivia into `ChangeLog'.


File: emacs,  Node: Comparing Versions,  Next: VC Status,  Prev: Change Logs and VC,  Up: Version Control

Comparing Versions
------------------

   To compare two versions of a file, use the command `C-x v ='
(`vc-diff').

   Plain `C-x v =' compares the current buffer contents (saving them in
the file if necessary) with the last checked-in version of the file.
With a prefix argument, `C-x v =' reads a file name and two version
numbers, then compares those versions of the specified file.

   If you supply a directory name instead of the name of a work file,
this command compares the two specified versions of all registered files
in that directory and its subdirectories.  You can also specify a
snapshot name (*note Snapshots::.) instead of one or both version
numbers.

   You can specify a checked-in version by its number; you can specify
the most recent checked-in version with an empty version number.

   This command works by running the `diff' utility, getting the
options from the variable `diff-switches'.  It displays the output in a
special buffer in another window.  Unlike the `M-x diff' command, `C-x
v =' does not try to find the changes in the old and new versions.
This is because one or both versions normally do not exist as files.
They exist only in the records of the master file.  *Note Comparing
Files::, for more information about `M-x diff'.


File: emacs,  Node: VC Status,  Next: Renaming and VC,  Prev: Comparing Versions,  Up: Version Control

VC Status Commands
------------------

   To view the detailed version control status and history of a file,
type `C-x v l' (`vc-print-log').  It displays the history of changes to
the current file, including the text of the log entries.  The output
appears in a separate window.

   When you are working on a large program, it's often useful to find
all the files that are currently locked, or all the files maintained in
version control at all.  You can use `C-x v d' (`vc-directory') to show
all the locked files in or beneath the current directory.  This
includes all files that are locked by any user.  `C-u C-x v d' lists
all files in or beneath the current directory that are maintained with
version control.

   The list of files is displayed as a buffer that uses an augmented
Dired mode.  The names of the users locking various files are shown (in
parentheses) in place of the owner and group.  All the normal Dired
commands work in this buffer.  Most interactive VC commands work also,
and apply to the file name on the current line.

   The `vc-next-action' command, when used in the augmented Dired
buffer, operates on all the marked files (or the file on the current
line).  If it operates on more than one file, it handles each file
according to its current state; thus, it may check in one file and check
in another (which is already checked out).  If it has to check in any
files, it reads a single log entry, then uses that text for all the
files being checked in.  This can be convenient for registering or
checking in several files at once, as part of the same change.


File: emacs,  Node: Renaming and VC,  Next: Snapshots,  Prev: VC Status,  Up: Version Control

Renaming VC Work Files and Master Files
---------------------------------------

   When you rename a registered file, you must also rename its master
file correspondingly to get proper results.  Use `vc-rename-file' to
rename the source file as you specify, and rename its master file
accordingly.  It also updates any snapshots (*note Snapshots::.) that
mention the file, so that they use the new name; despite this, the
snapshot thus modified may not completely work (*note Snapshot
Caveats::.).

   You cannot use `vc-rename-file' on a file that is locked by someone
else.


File: emacs,  Node: Snapshots,  Next: Version Headers,  Prev: Renaming and VC,  Up: Version Control

Snapshots
---------

   A "snapshot" is a named set of file versions (one for each
registered file) that you can treat as a unit.  One important kind of
snapshot is a "release", a (theoretically) stable version of the system
that is ready for distribution to users.

* Menu:

* Making Snapshots::        The snapshot facilities.
* Snapshot Caveats::        Things to be careful of when using snapshots.


File: emacs,  Node: Making Snapshots,  Next: Snapshot Caveats,  Up: Snapshots

Making and Using Snapshots
..........................

   There are two basic commands for snapshots; one makes a snapshot
with a given name, the other retrieves a named snapshot.

`C-x v s NAME RET'
     Define the last saved versions of every registered file in or
     under the current directory as a snapshot named NAME
     (`vc-create-snapshot').

`C-x v r NAME RET'
     Check out all registered files at or below the current directory
     level using whatever versions correspond to the snapshot NAME
     (`vc-retrieve-snapshot').

     This command reports an error if any files are locked at or below
     the current directory, without changing anything; this is to avoid
     overwriting work in progress.

   A snapshot uses a very small amount of resources--just enough to
record the list of file names and which version belongs to the
snapshot.  Thus, you need not hesitate to create snapshots whenever
they are useful.

   You can give a snapshot name as an argument to `C-x v =' (*note
Comparing Versions::.).  Thus, you can use it to compare a snapshot
against the current files, or two snapshots against each other, or a
snapshot against a named version.


File: emacs,  Node: Snapshot Caveats,  Prev: Making Snapshots,  Up: Snapshots

Snapshot Caveats
................

   VC's snapshot facilities are modeled on RCS's named-configuration
support.  They use RCS's native facilities for this, so under VC
snapshots made using RCS are visible even when you bypass VC.

   For SCCS, VC implements snapshots itself.  The files it uses contain
name/file/version-number triples.  These snapshots are visible only
through VC.

   File renaming and deletion can create some difficulties with
snapshots.  This is not a VC-specific problem, but a general design
issue in version control systems that no one has solved very well yet.

   If you rename a registered file, you need to rename its master along
with it (the command `vc-rename-file' does this automatically).  If you
are using SCCS, you must also update the records of the snapshot, to
mention the file by its new name (`vc-rename-file' does this, too).  An
old snapshot that refers to a master file that no longer exists under
the recorded name is invalid; VC can no longer retrieve it.  It would
be beyond the scope of this manual to explain enough about RCS and SCCS
to explain how to update the snapshots by hand.

   Using `vc-rename-file' makes the snapshot remain valid for
retrieval, but it does not solve all problems.  For example, some of the
files in the program probably refer to others by name.  At the very
least, the makefile probably mentions the file that you renamed.  If you
retrieve an old snapshot, the renamed file is retrieved under its new
name, which is not the name that the makefile expects.  So the program
won't really work as retrieved.


File: emacs,  Node: Version Headers,  Prev: Snapshots,  Up: Version Control

Inserting Version Control Headers
---------------------------------

   Sometimes it is convenient to put version identification strings
directly into working files.  Certain special strings called "version
headers" are replaced in each successive version by the number of that
version.

   You can use the `C-x v h' command (`vc-insert-headers') to insert a
suitable header string.

`C-x v h'
     Insert headers in a file for use with your version-control system.

   The default header string is `$Id$' for RCS and `%W%' for SCCS.  You
can specify other headers to insert by setting the variable
`vc-header-alist'.  Its value is a list of elements of the form
`(PROGRAM . STRING)' where PROGRAM is `RCS' or `SCCS' and STRING is the
string to use.

   Instead of a single string, you can specify a list of strings; then
each string in the list is inserted as a separate header on a line of
its own.

   It is often necessary to use "superfluous" backslashes when writing
the strings that you put in this variable.  This is to prevent the
string in the constant from being interpreted as a header itself if the
Emacs Lisp file containing it is maintained with version control.

   Each header is inserted surrounded by tabs, inside comment
delimiters, on a new line at the start of the buffer.  Normally the
ordinary comment start and comment end strings of the current mode are
used, but for certain modes, there are special comment delimiters for
this purpose; the variable `vc-comment-alist' specifies them.  Each
element of this list has the form `(MODE STARTER ENDER)'.

   The variable `vc-static-header-alist' specifies further strings to
add based on the name of the buffer.  Its value should be a list of
elements of the form `(REGEXP . FORMAT)'.  Whenever REGEXP matches the
buffer name, FORMAT is inserted as part of the header.  A header line
is inserted for each element that matches the buffer name, and for each
string specified by `vc-header-alist'.  The header line is made by
processing the string from `vc-header-alist' with the format taken from
the element.  The default value for `vc-static-header-alist' is:

     (("\\.c$" .
       "\n#ifndef lint\nstatic char vcid[] = \"\%s\";\n\
     #endif /* lint */\n"))

which specifies insertion of a string of this form:


     #ifndef lint
     static char vcid[] = "STRING";
     #endif /* lint */


File: emacs,  Node: ListDir,  Next: Comparing Files,  Prev: Version Control,  Up: Files

Listing a File Directory
========================

   The file system groups files into "directories".  A "directory
listing" is a list of all the files in a directory.  Emacs provides
directory listings in brief format (file names only) and verbose format
(sizes, dates, and authors included).

`C-x C-d DIR-OR-PATTERN'
     Print a brief directory listing (`list-directory').

`C-u C-x C-d DIR-OR-PATTERN'
     Print a verbose directory listing.

   The command to display a directory listing is `C-x C-d'
(`list-directory').  It reads using the minibuffer a file name which is
either a directory to be listed or a wildcard-containing pattern for
the files to be listed.  For example,

     C-x C-d /u2/emacs/etc RET

lists all the files in directory `/u2/emacs/etc'.  An example of
specifying a file name pattern is

     C-x C-d /u2/emacs/src/*.c RET

   Normally, `C-x C-d' prints a brief directory listing containing just
file names.  A numeric argument (regardless of value) tells it to print
a verbose listing (like `ls -l').

   The text of a directory listing is obtained by running `ls' in an
inferior process.  Two Emacs variables control the switches passed to
`ls': `list-directory-brief-switches' is a string giving the switches
to use in brief listings (`"-CF"' by default), and
`list-directory-verbose-switches' is a string giving the switches to
use in a verbose listing (`"-l"' by default).


File: emacs,  Node: Comparing Files,  Next: Misc File Ops,  Prev: ListDir,  Up: Files

Comparing Files
===============

   The command `M-x diff' compares two files, displaying the
differences in an Emacs buffer named `*Diff*'.  It works by running the
`diff' program, using options taken from the variable `diff-switches',
whose value should be a string.

   The buffer `*Diff*' has Compilation mode as its major mode, so you
can use `C-x `' to visit successive changed locations in the two source
files.  You can also move to a particular hunk of changes and type `C-c
C-c' to find the corresponding source location.  You can also use the
other special commands of Compilation mode: SPC and DEL for scrolling,
and `M-p' and `M-n' for cursor motion.  *Note Compilation::.

   The command `M-x diff-backup' compares a specified file with its most
recent backup.  If you specify the name of a backup file, `diff-backup'
compares it with the source file that it is a backup of.

   The command `M-x compare-windows' compares the text in the current
window with that in the next window.  Comparison starts at point in each
window.  Point moves forward in each window, a character at a time in
each window, until the next characters in the two windows are
different.  Then the command is finished.  For more information about
windows in Emacs, *Note Windows::.

   With a numeric argument, `compare-windows' ignores changes in
whitespace.  If the variable `compare-ignore-case' is non-`nil', it
ignores differences in case as well.

   See also *Note Emerge::, for convenient facilities for merging two
similar files.


File: emacs,  Node: Misc File Ops,  Prev: Comparing Files,  Up: Files

Miscellaneous File Operations
=============================

   Emacs has commands for performing many other operations on files.
All operate on one file; they do not accept wild card file names.

   `M-x view-file' allows you to scan or read a file by sequential
screenfuls.  It reads a file name argument using the minibuffer.  After
reading the file into an Emacs buffer, `view-file' displays the
beginning.  You can then type SPC to scroll forward one windowful, or
DEL to scroll backward.  Various other commands are provided for moving
around in the file, but none for changing it; type `C-h' while viewing
for a list of them.  They are mostly the same as normal Emacs cursor
motion commands.  To exit from viewing, type `C-c'.  The commands for
viewing are defined by a special major mode called View mode.

   A related command, `M-x view-buffer', views a buffer already present
in Emacs.  *Note Misc Buffer::.

   `M-x insert-file' inserts a copy of the contents of the specified
file into the current buffer at point, leaving point unchanged before
the contents and the mark after them.

   `M-x write-region' is the inverse of `M-x insert-file'; it copies
the contents of the region into the specified file.  `M-x
append-to-file' adds the text of the region to the end of the specified
file.  *Note Accumulating Text::.

   `M-x delete-file' deletes the specified file, like the `rm' command
in the shell.  If you are deleting many files in one directory, it may
be more convenient to use Dired (*note Dired::.).

   `M-x rename-file' reads two file names OLD and NEW using the
minibuffer, then renames file OLD as NEW.  If a file named NEW already
exists, you must confirm with `yes' or renaming is not done; this is
because renaming causes the old meaning of the name NEW to be lost.  If
OLD and NEW are on different file systems, the file OLD is copied and
deleted.

   The similar command `M-x add-name-to-file' is used to add an
additional name to an existing file without removing its old name.  The
new name must belong on the same file system that the file is on.

   `M-x copy-file' reads the file OLD and writes a new file named NEW
with the same contents.  Confirmation is required if a file named NEW
already exists, because copying has the consequence of overwriting the
old contents of the file NEW.

   `M-x make-symbolic-link' reads two file names OLD and LINKNAME, then
creates a symbolic link named LINKNAME and pointing at OLD.  The effect
is that future attempts to open file LINKNAME will refer to whatever
file is named OLD at the time the opening is done, or will get an error
if the name OLD is not in use at that time.  This command does not
expand the argument FILENAME, so that it allows you to specify a
relative name as the target of the link.

   Confirmation is required when creating the link if LINKNAME is in
use.  Note that not all systems support symbolic links.


File: emacs,  Node: Buffers,  Next: Windows,  Prev: Files,  Up: Top

Using Multiple Buffers
**********************

   The text you are editing in Emacs resides in an object called a
"buffer".  Each time you visit a file, a buffer is created to hold the
file's text.  Each time you invoke Dired, a buffer is created to hold
the directory listing.  If you send a message with `C-x m', a buffer
named `*mail*' is used to hold the text of the message.  When you ask
for a command's documentation, that appears in a buffer called `*Help*'.

   At any time, one and only one buffer is "selected".  It is also
called the "current buffer".  Often we say that a command operates on
"the buffer" as if there were only one; but really this means that the
command operates on the selected buffer (most commands do).

   When Emacs has multiple windows, each window has a chosen buffer
which is displayed there, but at any time only one of the windows is
selected and its chosen buffer is the selected buffer.  Each window's
mode line displays the name of the buffer that the window is displaying
(*note Windows::.).

   Each buffer has a name, which can be of any length, and you can
select any buffer by giving its name.  Most buffers are made by
visiting files, and their names are derived from the files' names.  But
you can also create an empty buffer with any name you want.  A newly
started Emacs has a buffer named `*scratch*' which can be used for
evaluating Lisp expressions in Emacs.  The distinction between upper
and lower case matters in buffer names.

   Each buffer records individually what file it is visiting, whether
it is modified, and what major mode and minor modes are in effect in it
(*note Major Modes::.).  Any Emacs variable can be made "local to" a
particular buffer, meaning its value in that buffer can be different
from the value in other buffers.  *Note Locals::.

* Menu:

* Select Buffer::   Creating a new buffer or reselecting an old one.
* List Buffers::    Getting a list of buffers that exist.
* Misc Buffer::     Renaming; changing read-onliness; copying text.
* Kill Buffer::     Killing buffers you no longer need.
* Several Buffers:: How to go through the list of all buffers
                      and operate variously on several of them.


File: emacs,  Node: Select Buffer,  Next: List Buffers,  Up: Buffers

Creating and Selecting Buffers
==============================

`C-x b BUFFER RET'
     Select or create a buffer named BUFFER (`switch-to-buffer').

`C-x 4 b BUFFER RET'
     Similar, but select BUFFER in another window
     (`switch-to-buffer-other-window').

   To select the buffer named BUFNAME, type `C-x b BUFNAME RET'.  This
runs the command `switch-to-buffer' with argument BUFNAME.  You can use
completion on an abbreviation for the buffer name you want (*note
Completion::.).  An empty argument to `C-x b' specifies the most
recently selected buffer that is not displayed in any window.

   Most buffers are created by visiting files, or by Emacs commands that
want to display some text, but you can also create a buffer explicitly
by typing `C-x b BUFNAME RET'.  This makes a new, empty buffer which is
not visiting any file, and selects it for editing.  Such buffers are
used for making notes to yourself.  If you try to save one, you are
asked for the file name to use.  The new buffer's major mode is
determined by the value of `default-major-mode' (*note Major Modes::.).

   Note that `C-x C-f', and any other command for visiting a file, can
also be used to switch buffers.  *Note Visiting::.


File: emacs,  Node: List Buffers,  Next: Misc Buffer,  Prev: Select Buffer,  Up: Buffers

Listing Existing Buffers
========================

`C-x C-b'
     List the existing buffers (`list-buffers').

   To print a list of all the buffers that exist, type `C-x C-b'.  Each
line in the list shows one buffer's name, major mode and visited file.
The buffers are listed in the order, most recently visited first.

   `*' at the beginning of a line indicates the buffer is "modified".
If several buffers are modified, it may be time to save some with `C-x
s' (*note Saving::.).  `%' indicates a read-only buffer.  `.' marks the
selected buffer.  Here is an example of a buffer list:

      MR Buffer         Size  Mode           File
      -- ------         ----  ----           ----
     .*  emacs.tex      383402 Texinfo       /u2/emacs/man/emacs.tex
         *Help*         1287  Fundamental
         files.el       23076 Emacs-Lisp     /u2/emacs/lisp/files.el
       % RMAIL          64042 RMAIL          /u/rms/RMAIL
      *% man            747   Dired          /u2/emacs/man/
         net.emacs      343885 Fundamental   /u/rms/net.emacs
         fileio.c       27691 C              /u2/emacs/src/fileio.c
         NEWS           67340 Text           /u2/emacs/etc/NEWS
         *scratch*       0     Lisp Interaction

Note that the buffer `*Help*' was made by a help request; it is not
visiting any file.  The buffer `man' was made by Dired on the directory
`/u2/emacs/man/'.


File: emacs,  Node: Misc Buffer,  Next: Kill Buffer,  Prev: List Buffers,  Up: Buffers

Miscellaneous Buffer Operations
===============================

`C-x C-q'
     Toggle read-only status of buffer (`toggle-read-only').

`M-x rename-buffer RET NAME RET'
     Change the name of the current buffer.

`M-x rename-uniquely'
     Rename the current buffer by adding `<NUMBER>' to the end.

`M-x view-buffer RET BUFFER RET'
     Scroll through buffer BUFFER.

   A buffer can be "read-only", which means that commands to change its
contents are not allowed.  The mode line indicates read-only buffers
with `%%' near the left margin.

   Read-only buffers are made by subsystems such as Dired and Rmail that
have special commands to operate on the text; also if you visit a file
that is protected so you cannot write it.  If you wish to make changes
in a read-only buffer, use the command `C-x C-q'
(`vc-toggle-read-only').  It makes a read-only buffer writable, and
makes a writable buffer read-only.  This works by setting the variable
`buffer-read-only', which has a local value in each buffer and makes
the buffer read-only if its value is non-`nil'.

   If the file is maintained with version control, `C-x C-q' works
through the version control system to change the read-only status of
the buffer.

   `M-x rename-buffer' changes the name of the current buffer.  Specify
the new name as a minibuffer argument.  There is no default.  If you
specify a name that is in use for some other buffer, an error happens
and no renaming is done.

   `M-x rename-uniquely' renames the current buffer to a similar name
with a numeric suffix added to make it both different and unique.  This
command does not need an argument.  It is useful for creating multiple
shell buffers: if you rename the `*Shell*', then do `M-x shell' again,
it makes a new shell buffer named `*Shell*'; meanwhile, the old shell
buffer continues to exist under its altered name.  This method is also
good for mail buffers, compilation buffers, and any Emacs feature which
creates a special buffer with a particular name.

   `M-x view-buffer' is much like `M-x view-file' (*note Misc File
Ops::.) except that it examines an already existing Emacs buffer.  View
mode provides commands for scrolling through the buffer conveniently
but not for changing it.  When you exit View mode, the value of point
that resulted from your perusal remains in effect.

   The commands `M-x append-to-buffer' and `M-x insert-buffer' can be
used to copy text from one buffer to another.  *Note Accumulating
Text::.


File: emacs,  Node: Kill Buffer,  Next: Several Buffers,  Prev: Misc Buffer,  Up: Buffers

Killing Buffers
===============

   If you continue an Emacs session for a while, you may accumulate a
large number of buffers.  You may then find it convenient to "kill" the
buffers you no longer need.  On most operating systems, killing a
buffer releases its space back to the operating system so that other
programs can use it.  There are several commands for killing buffers:

`C-x k BUFNAME RET'
     Kill buffer BUFNAME (`kill-buffer').

`M-x kill-some-buffers'
     Offer to kill each buffer, one by one.

   `C-x k' (`kill-buffer') kills one buffer, whose name you specify in
the minibuffer.  The default, used if you type just RET in the
minibuffer, is to kill the current buffer.  If you kill the current
buffer, another buffer is selected; one that has been selected recently
but does not appear in any window now.  If you ask to kill a buffer
that is modified (has unsaved editing), then you must confirm with
`yes' before the buffer is killed.

   The command `M-x kill-some-buffers' asks about each buffer, one by
one.  An answer of `y' means to kill the buffer.  Killing the current
buffer or a buffer containing unsaved changes selects a new buffer or
asks for confirmation just like `kill-buffer'.

   If you want to do something special every time a buffer is killed,
you can add hook functions to the hook `kill-buffer-hook' (*note
Hooks::.).


File: emacs,  Node: Several Buffers,  Prev: Kill Buffer,  Up: Buffers

Operating on Several Buffers
============================

   The "buffer-menu" facility is like a "Dired for buffers"; it allows
you to request operations on various Emacs buffers by editing an Emacs
buffer containing a list of them.  You can save buffers, kill them
(here called "deleting" them, for consistency with Dired), or display
them.

`M-x buffer-menu'
     Begin editing a buffer listing all Emacs buffers.

   The command `buffer-menu' writes a list of all Emacs buffers into
the buffer `*Buffer List*', and selects that buffer in Buffer Menu
mode.  The buffer is read-only, and can be changed only through the
special commands described in this section.  The usual Emacs cursor
motion commands can be used in the `*Buffer List*' buffer.  The
following commands apply to the buffer described on the current line.

`d'
     Request to delete (kill) the buffer, then move down.  The request
     shows as a `D' on the line, before the buffer name.  Requested
     deletions take place when you type the `x' command.

`C-d'
     Like `d' but move up afterwards instead of down.

`s'
     Request to save the buffer.  The request shows as an `S' on the
     line.  Requested saves take place when you type the `x' command.
     You may request both saving and deletion for the same buffer.

`x'
     Perform previously requested deletions and saves.

`u'
     Remove any request made for the current line, and move down.

`DEL'
     Move to previous line and remove any request made for that line.

   The `d', `s' and `u' commands to add or remove flags also move down
a line.  They accept a numeric argument as a repeat count.

   These commands operate immediately on the buffer listed on the
current line:

`~'
     Mark the buffer "unmodified".  The command `~' does this
     immediately when you type it.

`%'
     Toggle the buffer's read-only flag.  The command `%' does this
     immediately when you type it.

`t'
     Visit the buffer as a tag table.

   There are also commands to select another buffer or buffers:

`q'
     Quit the buffer menu--immediately display the most recent formerly
     visible buffer in its place.

`f'
     Immediately select this line's buffer in place of the `*Buffer
     List*' buffer.

`o'
     Immediately select this line's buffer in another window as if by
     `C-x 4 b', leaving `*Buffer List*' visible.

`C-o'
     Immediately display this line's buffer in another window, but don't
     select the window.

`1'
     Immediately select this line's buffer in a full-screen window.

`2'
     Immediately set up two windows, with this line's buffer in one,
     and the previously selected buffer (aside from the buffer `*Buffer
     List*') in the other.

`m'
     Mark this line's buffer to be displayed in another window if the
     `q' command is used.  The request shows as a `>' at the beginning
     of the line.  The same buffer may not have both a delete request
     and a display request.

`v'
     Immediately select this line's buffer, and also display in other
     windows any buffers previously marked with the `m' command.  If
     you have not marked any buffers, this command is equivalent to `1'.

   All that `buffer-menu' does directly is create and select a suitable
buffer, and turn on Buffer Menu mode.  Everything else described above
is implemented by the special commands provided in Buffer Menu mode.
One consequence of this is that you can switch from the `*Buffer List*'
buffer to another Emacs buffer, and edit there.  You can reselect the
`buffer-menu' buffer later, to perform the operations already
requested, or you can kill it, or pay no further attention to it.

   The only difference between `buffer-menu' and `list-buffers' is that
`buffer-menu' selects the `*Buffer List*' buffer and `list-buffers'
does not.  If you run `list-buffers' (that is, type `C-x C-b') and
select the buffer list manually, you can use all of the commands
described here.

   The buffer `*Buffer List*' is not updated automatically; its
contents are just text.  If you have created, deleted or renamed
buffers, the way to update `*Buffer List*' to show what you have done
is to repeat the `buffer-menu' command.


File: emacs,  Node: Windows,  Next: Frames,  Prev: Buffers,  Up: Top

Multiple Windows
****************

   Emacs can split a frame into two or many windows.  Multiple windows
can display parts of different buffers, or different parts of one
buffer.  Multiple frames always imply multiple windows, because each
window belongs to one and only one frame.

* Menu:

* Basic Window::     Introduction to Emacs windows.
* Split Window::     New windows are made by splitting existing windows.
* Other Window::     Moving to another window or doing something to it.
* Pop Up Window::    Finding a file or buffer in another window.
* Change Window::    Deleting windows and changing their sizes.


File: emacs,  Node: Basic Window,  Next: Split Window,  Prev: Windows,  Up: Windows

Concepts of Emacs Windows
=========================

   When multiple windows are being displayed, each window has an Emacs
buffer designated for display in it.  The same buffer may appear in more
than one window; if it does, any changes in its text are displayed in
all the windows where it appears.  But the windows showing the same
buffer can show different parts of it, because each window has its own
value of point.

   At any time, one of the windows is the "selected window"; the buffer
this window is displaying is the current buffer.  The terminal's cursor
shows the location of point in this window.  Each other window has a
location of point as well, but since the terminal has only one cursor
there is no way to show where those locations are.  When you make
multiple frames, each frame has a cursor which appears in the frame's
selected window.

   Commands to move point affect the value of point for the selected
Emacs window only.  They do not change the value of point in any other
Emacs window, even one showing the same buffer.  The same is true for
commands such as `C-x b' to change the selected buffer in the selected
window; they do not affect other windows at all.  However, there are
other commands such as `C-x 4 b' that select a different window and
switch buffers in it.  Also, all commands that display information in a
window, including (for example) `C-h f' (`describe-function') and `C-x
C-b' (`list-buffers'), work by switching buffers in a nonselected window
without affecting the selected window.

   When multiple windows show the same buffer, they can have different
regions, because they can have different values of point.  This means
that in Transient Mark mode, each window highlights a different part of
the buffer.  The part that is highlighted in the selected window is the
region that editing commands use.

   Each window has its own mode line, which displays the buffer name,
modification status and major and minor modes of the buffer that is
displayed in the window.  *Note Mode Line::, for full details on the
mode line.


File: emacs,  Node: Split Window,  Next: Other Window,  Prev: Basic Window,  Up: Windows

Splitting Windows
=================

`C-x 2'
     Split the selected window into two windows, one above the other
     (`split-window-vertically').

`C-x 3'
     Split the selected window into two windows positioned side by side
     (`split-window-horizontally').

   The command `C-x 2' (`split-window-vertically') breaks the selected
window into two windows, one above the other.  Both windows start out
displaying the same buffer, with the same value of point.  By default
the two windows each get half the height of the window that was split; a
numeric argument specifies how many lines to give to the top window.

   `C-x 3' (`split-window-horizontally') breaks the selected window
into two side-by-side windows.  A numeric argument specifies how many
columns to give the one on the left.  A line of vertical bars separates
the two windows.  Windows that are not the full width of the screen
have mode lines, but they are truncated; also, they do not always
appear in inverse video, because the Emacs display routines have not
been taught how to display a region of inverse video that is only part
of a line on the screen.

   When a window is less than the full width, text lines too long to
fit are frequent.  Continuing all those lines might be confusing.  The
variable `truncate-partial-width-windows' can be set non-`nil' to force
truncation in all windows less than the full width of the screen,
independent of the buffer being displayed and its value for
`truncate-lines'.  *Note Continuation Lines::.

   Horizontal scrolling is often used in side-by-side windows.  *Note
Display::.

   If `split-window-keep-point' is non-nil, `C-x 2' tries to avoid
shifting any text on the screen by putting point in whichever window
happens to contain the screen line the cursor is already on.  The
default is that `split-window-keep-point' is non-nil on slow terminals.


File: emacs,  Node: Other Window,  Next: Pop Up Window,  Prev: Split Window,  Up: Windows

Using Other Windows
===================

`C-x o'
     Select another window (`other-window').  That is `o', not zero.

`C-M-v'
     Scroll the next window (`scroll-other-window').

`M-x compare-windows'
     Find next place where the text in the selected window does not
     match the text in the next window.

   To select a different window, use `C-x o' (`other-window').  That is
an `o', for `other', not a zero.  When there are more than two windows,
this command moves through all the windows in a cyclic order, generally
top to bottom and left to right.  After the rightmost and bottommost
window, it goes back to the one at the upper left corner.  A numeric
argument means to move several steps in the cyclic order of windows.  A
negative argument moves around the cycle in the opposite order.  When
the minibuffer is active, the minibuffer is the last window in the
cycle; you can switch from the minibuffer window to one of the other
windows, and later switch back and finish supplying the minibuffer
argument that is requested.  *Note Minibuffer Edit::.

   The usual scrolling commands (*note Display::.) apply to the selected
window only, but there is one command to scroll the next window.
`C-M-v' (`scroll-other-window') scrolls the window that `C-x o' would
select.  It takes arguments, positive and negative, like `C-v'.  (In
the minibuffer, `C-M-v' scrolls the window that contains the minibuffer
help display, if any, rather than the next window in the standard
cyclic order.)

   The command `M-x compare-windows' lets you compare two files or
buffers visible in two windows, by moving through them to the next
mismatch.  *Note Comparing Files::.


File: emacs,  Node: Pop Up Window,  Next: Change Window,  Prev: Other Window,  Up: Windows

Displaying in Another Window
============================

   `C-x 4' is a prefix key for commands that select another window
(splitting the window if there is only one) and select a buffer in that
window.  Different `C-x 4' commands have different ways of finding the
buffer to select.

`C-x 4 b BUFNAME RET'
     Select buffer BUFNAME in another window.  This runs
     `switch-to-buffer-other-window'.

`C-x 4 C-o BUFNAME RET'
     Display buffer BUFNAME in another window, but don't select that
     buffer or that window.  This runs `display-buffer'.

`C-x 4 f FILENAME RET'
     Visit file FILENAME and select its buffer in another window.  This
     runs `find-file-other-window'.  *Note Visiting::.

`C-x 4 d DIRECTORY RET'
     Select a Dired buffer for directory DIRECTORY in another window.
     This runs `dired-other-window'.  *Note Dired::.

`C-x 4 m'
     Start composing a mail message in another window.  This runs
     `mail-other-window'; its same-window analogue is `C-x m' (*note
     Sending Mail::.).

`C-x 4 .'
     Find a tag in the current tag table in another window.  This runs
     `find-tag-other-window', the multiple-window variant of `M-.'
     (*note Tags::.).

`C-x 4 r FILENAME RET'
     Visit file FILENAME read-only, and select its buffer in another
     window.  This runs `find-file-read-only-other-window'.  *Note
     Visiting::.


File: emacs,  Node: Change Window,  Prev: Pop Up Window,  Up: Windows

Deleting and Rearranging Windows
================================

`C-x 0'
     Get rid of the selected window (`delete-window').  That is a zero.

`C-x 1'
     Get rid of all windows except the selected one
     (`delete-other-windows').

`C-x ^'
     Make selected window taller (`enlarge-window').

`C-x }'
     Make selected window wider (`enlarge-window-horizontally').

   To delete a window, type `C-x 0' (`delete-window').  (That is a
zero.)  The space occupied by the deleted window is given to an
adjacent window (but not the minibuffer window, even if that is active
at the time).  Once a window is deleted, its attributes are forgotten;
only restoring a window configuration can bring it back.  Deleting the
window has no effect on the buffer it used to display; the buffer
continues to exist, and you can select it in any window with `C-x b'.

   `C-x 1' (`delete-other-windows') is more powerful than `C-x 0'; it
deletes all the windows except the selected one (and the minibuffer);
the selected window expands to use the whole frame except for the echo
area.

   To readjust the division of space among vertically adjacent windows,
use `C-x ^' (`enlarge-window').  It makes the currently selected window
get one line bigger, or as many lines as is specified with a numeric
argument.  With a negative argument, it makes the selected window
smaller.  `C-x }' (`enlarge-window-horizontally') makes the selected
window wider by the specified number of columns.  The extra screen
space given to a window comes from one of its neighbors, if that is
possible.  If this makes any window too small, it is deleted and its
space is given to an adjacent window.  The minimum size is specified by
the variables `window-min-height' and `window-min-width'.


File: emacs,  Node: Frames,  Next: Major Modes,  Prev: Windows,  Up: Top

Frames and X Windows
********************

   When using the X Window System, you can create multiple windows at
the X level in a single Emacs session.  Each X window that belongs to
Emacs displays a "frame" which can contain one or several Emacs windows.
A frame initially contains a single general-purpose Emacs window which
you can subdivide vertically or horizontally into smaller windows.  A
frame normally contains its own echo area and minibuffer, but you can
make frames that don't have these--they use the echo area and
minibuffer of another frame.

   Anything you do in one frame also affects the other frames.  For
instance, if you put text in the kill ring in one frame, you can yank it
in another frame.  If you exit emacs through `C-x C-c' in one frame, it
terminates all the frames.  To delete just one frame, use `C-x 5 0'.

   To avoid confusion, we reserve the word "window" for the
subdivisions that Emacs implements, and never use it to refer to a
frame.

* Menu:

* Mouse Commands::     Moving, cutting, and pasting, with the mouse.
* Creating Frames::    Creating additional Emacs frames with various contents.
* Frame Parameters::   Changing the colors and other modes of frames.
* Scroll Bars::        How to enable and disable scroll bars; how to use them.
* Menu Bars::          Enabling and disabling the menu bar.
* Faces::              How to change the display style using faces.
* Misc X::             Iconifying and deleting frames.  Region highlighting.


File: emacs,  Node: Mouse Commands,  Next: Creating Frames,  Up: Frames

Mouse Commands
==============

`mouse-1'
     Move point to where you click (`mouse-set-point').  This is
     normally the left button.

`drag-mouse-1'
     Move point to where you release the mouse, and set the mark where
     you initially clicked the mouse (`mouse-set-region').  Thus, you
     can specify both ends of the region.  In Transient Mark mode, the
     region highlighting appears and changes as you drag.

     If you move the mouse off the top or bottom of the window while
     dragging, the window scrolls at a steady rate until you move the
     mouse back into the window.  This way, you can mark regions that
     don't fit entirely on the screen.

`mouse-2'
     Yank the last kill text, where you click (`mouse-yank-at-click').
     This is normally the middle button.

`mouse-3'
     Copy text to the kill ring (`mouse-save-then-click').  This is
     normally the right button.  If you click it a second time at the
     same place, that kills the text.

     This operation applies to the text between point and the place
     where you click.

   Thus, to kill a section of text, you can press Mouse-1 at one end,
then press Mouse-3 twice at the other end.  To select the text for
copying without deleting it from the buffer, press Mouse-3 just once.
Then you can copy it elsewhere by yanking it.  *Note Killing::.

   To yank the killed or copied text somewhere else, move the mouse
there and press Mouse-2.  *Note Yanking::.

   To copy text to another X window, kill it or save it in the kill
ring.  Under X, this also sets the "primary selection".  Then use the
"paste" or "yank" command of the program operating the other window to
insert the text from the selection.

   To copy text from another X window, use the "cut" or "copy" command
of the program operating the other window, to select the text you want.
Then yank it in Emacs with `C-y' or Mouse-2.


File: emacs,  Node: Creating Frames,  Next: Frame Parameters,  Prev: Mouse Commands,  Up: Frames

Creating Frames
===============

   The prefix key `C-x 5' is analogous to `C-x 4', with parallel
subcommands.  The difference is that `C-x 5' commands create a new
frame rather than just a new window in the selected frame.  (*Note Pop
Up Window::.)  Different `C-x 4' commands have different ways of
finding the buffer to select.

`C-x 5 b BUFNAME RET'
     Select buffer BUFNAME in another window.  This runs
     `switch-to-buffer-other-frame'.

`C-x 5 f FILENAME RET'
     Visit file FILENAME and select its buffer in another frame.  This
     runs `find-file-other-frame'.  *Note Visiting::.

`C-x 5 d DIRECTORY RET'
     Select a Dired buffer for directory DIRECTORY in another frame.
     This runs `dired-other-frame'.  *Note Dired::.

`C-x 5 m'
     Start composing a mail message in another frame.  This runs
     `mail-other-frame', and its same-frame version is `C-x m'.  *Note
     Sending Mail::.

`C-x 5 .'
     Find a tag in the current tag table in another frame.  This runs
     `find-tag-other-frame', the multiple-frame variant of `M-.'.
     *Note Tags::.

`C-x 5 r FILENAME RET'
     Visit file FILENAME read-only, and select its buffer in another
     frame.  This runs `find-file-read-only-other-frame'.  *Note
     Visiting::.


File: emacs,  Node: Frame Parameters,  Next: Scroll Bars,  Prev: Creating Frames,  Up: Frames

Setting Frame Parameters
========================

   This section describes commands for altering the display style and
window management behavior of the selected frame.

`M-x set-foreground-color RET COLOR RET'
     Specify color COLOR for the foreground of the selected frame.

`M-x set-background-color RET COLOR RET'
     Specify color COLOR for the background of the selected frame.

`M-x set-cursor-color RET COLOR RET'
     Specify color COLOR for the cursor of the selected frame.

`M-x set-mouse-color RET COLOR RET'
     Specify color COLOR for the mouse cursor when it is over the
     selected frame.

`M-x set-border-color RET COLOR RET'
     Specify color COLOR for the border of the selected frame.

`M-x auto-raise-mode'
     Toggle whether or not the selected frame should auto-raise.
     Auto-raise means that every time you move the mouse onto the frame,
     it raises the frame.

`M-x auto-lower-mode'
     Toggle whether or not the selected frame should auto-lower.
     Auto-lower means that every time you move the mouse off of the
     frame, the frame moves to the bottom of the stack of X windows.

`M-x set-default-font RET FONT RET'
     Specify font FONT as the default for the selected frame.  *Note
     Font X::, for ways to list the available fonts on your system.

     You can also set a frame's default font through a pop-up menu.
     Press `C-Mouse-3' to activate this menu.