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Hypertext Authoring Environments: A Critical Review (Part 1) as submitted to _EJournal_ by robin 42131_4001@uwovax.uwo.ca in September, 1993 ============================================================================= This version was prepared in two parts, anticipating the possibility of publication in consecutive issues of _EJournal_. It differs noticeably from the text published as Volume 3 Number 3 of _EJournal_. For instance, one of the tables extended beyond screen boundaries and thus is wrapped. Furthermore, last-minute information from the companies has NOT been included in the text or tables of this unedited version. =============================================================================== =============================================================================== This review-essay is (c) copyright by _EJournal_, November, 1993. It may be given away, but no one may own it. ================================================================================ Hypertext Authoring Environments: A Critical Review (Part 1) Introduction ------------ The term hypertext (coined by Ted Nelson in 1965) is commonly used to describe an electronic text composed of nodes (blocks of text) which are linked together in a non-linear web. When viewing each node, certain words are highlighted to indicate that they "yield" to a separate node; these are anchors. By tracing from node to node, readers create their own paths in the textual network. The traditional dominance of a single author-fixed reading is overturned. Readers shape their own experience of the text not only at the subjective level of interpretation, but at the objective level of words on a page. The provision for shared authoring, links between previously distinct works, and innovative access methods all greatly alter the concept of the book. Issues such as copyright, the canon, and Barthes' writerly versus readerly text take on renewed significance. One of the features of hypertext is that the usual sharp distinction between the author and the reader of a text is eroded. Readers may be granted certain authorial functions: the ability to add nodes, create links, use filters, and so on. The role of the author is also expanded to encompass much more than just writing. A hyperbook author may be required to design the presentation of the text and the overall interface (within the system parameters), create graphics, and program actions. With the inclusion of sound, video, and other media, hypertext (here often referred to as hypermedia) expands the world available to a writer. For a further examination of conceptual issues, I refer you to Landow's _Hypertext: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology_. The depth of the hypertext field is well represented by Delany and Landow's excellent anthology _Hypermedia and Literary Studies_ and Nielsen's _Hypertext and Hypermedia_. The latter contains a thorough annotated bibliography. Finally, Nelson's seminal ideas are presented most coherently in _Literary Machines_. In this paper I will evaluate hypertext authoring software, with the aim of providing recommendations to potential authors. Given the number of programs which claim to have hypertext functions, it is impossible to examine every package. Instead, I have categorized them under two headings--hardware platform and structural paradigm--and have reviewed prominent representatives of each. Along the way, I will mention particular works which have been written in the system under discussion. All are readily available. It should be stressed that the only way to gain an appreciation for hypertext is to actually read electronic works. Navigation ---------- The most distinctive method of navigating a hyperbook is to follow the connections between nodes. When a reference link is selected, a destination node is displayed on the screen, usually replacing the image of the current node. This is the software equivalent of flipping from page to page in a book. As Conklin has noted, "referential links are the kind of link that most clearly distinguishes hypertext", as they allow the creation of non-hierarchical structures (33). There are three other classes of links commonly in use. When a note link is selected, a small area of the screen (a "pop-up" window) displays the destination node. No further links are available; one must return to the original node before navigating further. The paper equivalent is the footnote or endnote. When an expansion link is selected, the contents of the destination node are placed after the source anchor as if the anchor had expanded to include the new text. This technique is commonly used in outline processors, where branches under the current entry may be expanded (to reveal all branches) or collapsed (to show just the main entry). This type of link assumes a local hierarchical structure. When a command link is selected, an action is performed: the operating system is called, an external program is run, etc. In addition to links, most hypertext packages provide at least some of the following navigation tools: Search, Filter, Index, Bookmark, Local Map, Global Map, Breadcrumbs, Footprint, Tour, and History. The first four of these are direct analogues of paper devices. The others require a brief explanation. A map provides a picture of all of the links and nodes near the current node, either directly connected (local map) or in some neighbourhood (global map). The depiction may be graphically (eg. a flowchart), or textual (a simple list). In most systems, readers may select one of the nodes to make it current. Maps provide context for a reader, and may help in link selection. Breadcrumbs provide a visual indicator that a particular node has been visited, anchor activated, or link traversed. This helps to prevent the problem noted by Nielsen: "users complained that they would often feel compelled to take hypertext links to places where they had recently been, just to make sure that they did not miss important information" ("The Art of Navigating Through Hypertext" 303). A footprint is an indication of the popularity of a node. The more often a node is visited, the more visible the footprint becomes. This is most useful in multi-user systems, where it contributes to a sense of community. A tour is a path through a series of nodes (and links) which may be replayed at will. This feature is most useful in the creation of tutorials or demonstrations. The history tool lists those nodes and links visited on the current path, and allows the reader to return to a previous location. The degree to which a hypertext system supports varied navigation methods is a good indicator of its overall flexibility. Hypertext authors must be aware, as Landow has noted in "The Rhetoric of Hypermedia," of how the rhetorical devices of a hypertext web differ from paper text. This is most important when considering which navigation features to use (and how they will be implemented) as they greatly shape a reader's experience. History and bookmarks are useful features for almost any hyperbook. To complicate comparison, some hypertext systems may not automatically provide a tool, but instead allow for its construction using simpler elements or a scripting language. For instance, an index for a particular book may be built by manually listing all of the desired terms in a node titled "Index" and making them source anchors. However, this is a time-consuming task which an automatic indexing tool could eliminate. See Bernstein for a complete discussion of navigation issues. Structural Paradigms -------------------- Hypertext features are available in software designed for a great variety of tasks. The packages evaluated here provide examples of the most important structural paradigms. Note that as products mature, they are less likely to fall strictly into any one category. *Card-based systems* provide for fixed-size, full-screen nodes. Scrolling is not available; all of the text in the node must fit on the screen. Such software is based on the cue card or slide show metaphor, and is commonly used to create software demonstrations, simple front ends to command-based tools, and interactive presentations. I believe that the card metaphor is too limiting for most purposes, as it forces writers to chunk text into nodes which may be unnaturally small for the given document. Examples include HyperShell, HyperTies, HyperWriter, and Orpheus. *HyperCard-like systems* are based on the card paradigm, but add rich interface tools and an English-based scripting language. This last feature is the most important. The phenomenal success of HyperCard turned hundreds of thousands of computer users into computer programmers, almost without them realizing it. However, it is my belief that writers should not need to be programmers simply to explore the benefits of hypertext. Other examples include HyperPad, LinkWay, PLUS, and ToolBook. *Document-based systems* focus on text editing and formatting single documents. They are often extensions to word-processors, and are not optimized for non-linear writing. Examples include FrameMaker and Guide. *Windowing systems* provide a rich event-driven interface which allows for multiple scrolling windows. Users will be familiar with this interface from operating systems such as Microsoft Windows and Mac System 7. Such environments provide readers with the ability to compare two pages of text, write notes while viewing a second page, and so on. I believe that such activities must be fluidly supported for the benefits of hypertext to become apparent. Examples include Dart, Folio VIEWS, Knowledge Pro, SmarText, StorySpace, and the Windows Help Compiler. Platforms --------- The difference between microcomputer hardware platforms was once profound. Machines based on Intel processors (so-called IBM compatibles) were relatively inexpensive and popular in the business community. The operating system itself (DOS) was command-line driven, limited, and difficult to learn. The California-based company Apple reacted to this hegemony with a line of "user-friendly" personal computers designed with the "common person" in mind. The operating system was derived from Xerox's research at PARC into graphical presentation (menus and windows), pointing devices (the mouse), and ease of use (event-driven interface). However, little was available in the way of software or hardware add-ons. Workstations, such as those designed by Silicon Graphics and Sun, combined immense computing power with UNIX, the legendary cryptic operating system derived from mainframes. They were predominantly used in research and academia, due to their large price tags and investment in training. If this picture was accurate five years ago, it is not today. With the wide-spread adoption of event-driven interfaces on all platforms and the maturing of the software industry, the differences between hardware platforms has largely disappeared. The choice now mostly depends on what computer your friends and co-workers use. For the purposes of this paper, I am assuming that potential users are running DOS on a 80286 processor, Windows on a 80386, or Mac systems with at least a 68030. In any case, it is reasonable to expect a 16-bit display, a mouse or similar pointing device, and 4 MB of RAM. Workstation-hosted software has not been reviewed as price and availability make them unsuitable for general use. I have evaluated the following commercially available packages. Note that some appear more than once in the list, as they offer cross-platform compatibility. _ DOS: Dart, Folio VIEWS, HyperPad, HyperShell, HyperTies, HyperWriter!, Knowledge Pro, LinkWay, Orpheus _ Windows: FrameMaker, Guide, Knowledge Pro, PLUS, SmarText, ToolBook, Windows Help Compiler _ Apple: FrameMaker, Guide, HyperCard, PLUS, Storyspace The evaluations are based on product literature, published reviews, demos, working copies, and full copies of the software. Thus, I have not had equal access to information on all of the systems. All prices are in US dollars (rounded off to the nearest $5) unless otherwise noted. Contact addresses have been provided so you can obtain up-to-date pricing and configuration information. Evaluation Criteria ------------------- Besides platform, structural paradigm, and navigation features, my evaluation criteria include price, linking features, available utilities, ability to customize, and ease of use. The primary assumption is that the author/developer wishes to create a stand-alone work which can be distributed in much the same way (and for much the same price) as a paper book, journal, or magazine. For many, the price of the authoring package is the first thing they notice. However, there is a second component of price: the runtime fee, ie. the fee that software manufacturers demand for distribution or licensing texts produced in or for their systems. I believe that authoring packages should be priced similar to a good word processor, certainly no more than $1000. Runtime fees must be very inexpensive or free; in order to be competitive, hyperbooks will have to be priced comparable to paper books. Since authors will be spending a lot of time making connections, it is important that linking can be accomplished easily. Great flexibility should be available as to anchor size, anchor appearance, and link characteristics, as these govern the way in which a hyperbook will be perceived. There are many other utilities which could potentially be of use, though few are essential: import and export, encryption, compression, versioning, spell checker and thesaurus, draw and paint editors, printing, installation tools. A great deal of customization should be possible without programming. In particular, an author should have complete control over which authoring tools to include in the final hyperbook. A scripting language could be provided for additional control; however, authors should not be forced to script to implement basic functionality. In the following product tables, several abbreviations are used: + available for extra cost S sound x not supported V video * recommended configuration A animation L pounds sterling D video disc A. Card-Based Systems +-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |Product |HyperShell 4.0 |HyperTies 3.0 |HyperWriter 3.0 |Orpheus 1.53 | +--------------+----------------+--------------+----------------+-------------+ |Company |Text Technology |Cognetics |Ntergaid |Hyperion | |Phone |0625-431357 |609-799-5005 |203-380-1280 |819-566-6296 | + | |Price |L 70 |$ 380 |$ 495 |$ 50 | |Platform |8086 |80286 |80286 |8086 | |OS |DOS 3.0 |DOS 3.1 |DOS 3.0 |DOS 3.2 | |Memory |256 KB |540 KB |384 KB (640*) |480 KB | |Graphics card |any |any |any |any | |Graphic files |PCX, bload |PCX, TGF |PCX, GIF |PCX, SPR | |Multimedia |x |+ ($200,1070) |SVAD |x | |Runtime |unlimited |reader |reader |reader | |Price |L 70 |10 free |free |free | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+ 1. HyperShell (DOS) ------------------- HyperShell 4.0 is a shareware product from Text Technology in England. It runs in text mode on IBM-compatibles. The entire package installs in under 1 MB, and includes both stand-alone and memory-resident versions (6 KB RAM required). One might well ask what functionality could possibly be contained in such a small package. The answer is surprising. HyperShell contains a Boolean search, a history function, support for full-screen PCX images, user preferences, mouse support, printing, compression, user macros, and the usual link classes (reference, expansion, note, command). The interface is simple--only one paged window is visible at a time. Anchors appear as bold text; this attribute may not be altered. The memory-resident capability makes HyperShell ideal for help systems. One notable feature is the ability to read the screen over which HyperShell is loaded. This permits context-sensitive applications. One demonstration hyperbook, included with the package, provides help for DOS commands. Hyperbooks are designed by the markup language HyperGlyphix, which provides for menus, buttons, and other interface features. Unfortunately, the implementation is poor. Menus, for instance, trap the mouse cursor once it crosses their screen position. One must use the Escape key to terminate the menu before the mouse can be moved again. The documentation is spread throughout several hyperbooks and text files. None make clear exactly how to start authoring. I did not spend the time to fully explore the power of this system, and believe that few others will either. HyperShell desperately needs better documentation and more coherent authoring tools. 2. HyperTies (DOS) ------------------ In 1983, Ben Schneiderman began development at the University of Maryland on The Interactive Encyclopedia System (TIES). This has since evolved into a commercial product, HyperTies, marketed by Cognetics. Early versions supported only DOS text mode, and used the cursor keys for navigation. Hyperbooks implemented in HyperTies include the electronic versions of Schneiderman and Kearsley's _Hypertext Hands-On!_ and _Communications of the ACM_, July 1988. Recently, support has been added for graphics modes up to SVGA. I examined version 3.05, available as HyperTies Standard ($380), HyperTies Professional ($580), and HyperTies for DVI ($1450). The Professional version adds video and video disc support to the base product; the top-of-the-line product adds support for sound and Intel's Digital Video Interactive standard. Both also provide a screen designer. I will concentrate here on the standard package. HyperTies is oriented towards ease of use. Its small feature set, page paradigm, and touch-screen support make it ideal for public-access kiosks, trade show displays, and interactive tutorials. Navigation features include a history, Boolean search, and index. PCX and TGF graphics may be included. In the standard version, screen designs may be selected from one of seven templates provided. Only reference links are supported, from text or graphics. Anchors appear in a distinct colour. A nice feature is that the mouse pointer highlights the anchors when passing over them. ASCII import and export with markup codes for nodes and links is supported. Page design--the positioning of buttons, graphics, and other elements--is all done through codes inserted using the rudimentary text editor. Considering the emphasis on ease of use, this process should be automated by way of an interactive designer. The first ten reader modules are free, subsequently authors can negotiate a rate structure with Cognetics. A typical royalty is 10% of retail; actual rates are based on volume, whether the reader is to be used within the author's organisation or externally, and so on. Though it has its strengths, HyperTies falls far short of HyperWriter! in the feature department. Future extensions include a reader for Windows. This was being beta tested as of May 1993. 3. HyperWriter! (DOS) --------------------- The oddly named Ntergaid began their forays into hypertext with the shareware program Black Magic. This product provides rudimentary features, and though still available on bulletin boards, is no longer supported. I have chosen to focus on its commercial by-product, HyperWriter!. HyperWriter! provides support for mixed text and graphics in display modes up to SVGA. Sound, video, animation, and video disc media may all be accessed. The support for navigation features is particularly strong. Boolean searches include proximity qualifiers, and may be saved to disk. The history list has no limit, and displays the amount of time spent in each node. Bookmarks may be named and user preferences saved. Tours and local maps are also supported. The writing environment is the best of the DOS products, with block operations, a spell checker, macros, and full font and style support. HyperWriter! has developed from a page paradigm to include scrolling windows. However, the scroll bars look as though they were a late addition; aesthetically, they do not look one with the window. In addition, they do not support the mouse, though I received assurances from the company that this problem had been fixed for future versions. Bi-directional reference, expansion, note, and command links are supported. Link attributes include name, author, creation date, and access rights. Best of all is the fact that this plethora of features is available without scripting. Indeed, HyperWriter! does not have an extension language. Customization is available through the Utilities Kit (an additional $495), which I view as a necessary purchase for serious authoring. With this toolkit, one can develop an install routine, customize the context-sensitive help, create a hyperbook for CD-ROM, compress and encrypt data, create new fonts, and customize the anchor appearance (by colour, symbol, or attribute). Most importantly, this kit allows the customization of menus; authors can remove features they don't want readers to use. ASCII, WordPerfect, and text tagged by Ventura Publisher may all be imported. An included tool can be used to generate an index. The separately available AutoLinker ($695) processes batches of files, automatically creating nodes, links, paragraph tags, and so on. This impressive tool appears to be comparable to SmarText. HyperWriter! is one product which deserves its self-congratulatory exclamation mark. It provides a rich feature set for those who don't require a full windowing environment. Other than a few annoying interface quirks, I found little to criticize. Performance is a bit lacklustre on a 16-bit computer, but this is normal for a full graphics mode display. The thousand dollars necessary to buy the Developers' Bundle (HyperWriter! plus the Utilities Kit) is reasonable when one considers that a royalty-free runtime is included. A Windows version with similar features has recently been released; files are compatible across platforms. I hope that the company will continue to actively support the DOS version. 4. Orpheus (DOS) ---------------- Hyperion Softword's Orpheus 1.53 is a DOS text mode hypertext system. It implements history and bookmark features, and supports full-screen PCX images. Reference, note, and command links may be created using the simple markup language. Macros, a print function, and on-line help round out the feature set. ASCII importing is possible, but as only one page may be filled at a time, it is not practical. The included runtime program occupies just 125 KB of disk space. One hundred pages of documentation are provided on-line. It costs $50 to register this shareware package. Though Orpheus relies on a page metaphor (indeed, the manual contains a lengthy defense of this position), it does provide several extensions. During authoring, each page may contain fifty lines, so that there is room for rough work. Up to four edit windows (and one view window) may be open at a time, though only one occupies the screen. The manual notes that scrolling will be added to a future version. Orpheus' interface has not been implemented well. The menus are far from intuitive. For instance, some require you to enter data right on the menu bar, instead of presenting a dialogue window for data input. This behaviour is non-standard and distracting. Small icons (actually ASCII characters) are available in the top right corner of the screen. These too are not intuitive; the right arrow does not advance to the next node, but instead moves one backwards along the current path. The markup language contains only one structure, an IF statement. Commands are available to display graphics, text, and ANSI files; run external programs and batch files; change and test the graphics mode; set colours and special effects; go to a specific card or book, and define graphic anchors. Scripts may be run when a node is loaded or when a link is activated. Orpheus would be a viable authoring system if it had scrolling windows, an improved import procedure, and redesigned menus. The developer, Rod Willmott, has published the hyperbook poem _Everglade_ using this system. End of Part 1 <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Hypertext Authoring Environments: A Critical Review (Part 2) ============================================================ In this first part of this paper, I provided some basic hypertext concepts and definitions, and began evaluating authoring packages. The aim was to recommend software to potential authors. That review process will continue with an examination of HyperCard-like, document-based, and windowing systems. In the following product tables, several abbreviations are used: + available for extra cost S sound x not supported V video * recommended configuration A animation L pounds sterling D video disc B. HyperCard-Like Systems +------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + ------------------+ |Product |HyperCard 2.1 |HyperPad 2.2 |LinkWay 2.0 |PLUS 2.5 + |Toolbook 1.5 | +--------------+--------------+--------------------+------------+--------------- + ----+-------------+ |Company |Claris |Brightbill-Roberts |IBM |Spinnaker + |Asymetrix | |Phone |408-727-8227 |315-474-3400 ? |local dealer|617-494-1200 + |206-637-1500 | |Price |$ 70 Cdn |$ 100 |? |$ 495 + |$ 395 | |Platform |any Mac |8086 |8086 |68030* / 80386 + SX* |80386 | |OS |System 7.0 |DOS |DOS 2.1 |System 6 / + Windows |Windows | |Memory |1 MB |448 KB |512 KB |2 MB (4*) + |1.5 MB | |Graphics card |any |any |any |colour* / EVS + |EV | |Graphic files |PICT, PICT2 |x |BIT |PICT2 / BMP, + PCX | | |Multimedia |SVAD |A |SAD |A + |+ | |Runtime |unlimited |unlimited |unlimited |unlimited + |unlimited | |Price |free |varies |free |$ 495 per OS + |free | +------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + ------------------+ 1. HyperCard (Apple) -------------------- In August 1987, Apple revolutionized how people interact with their computers by packaging Bill Atkinson's HyperCard free with every Mac sold. HyperCard uses the metaphor of a stack of cards, each of which may contain pictures, text, and other interface elements. These may be drawn or selected from the menu. Functionality is provided through scripts attached to buttons. These may be simple links to other cards, or complicated programs in their own right. The HyperTalk language is distinctive in that it offers object-oriented features in an English-like syntax. Sound, video, animation, and video disc control are all supported, either in the native language, or through eXternal CoMmanDs (XCMDs) written in Pascal or C. The add-on XCMD market has flourished, providing a rich resource for HyperCard developers. Though able to run on any Mac, and requiring as little as 1 MB RAM, HyperCard deserves faster processors and more memory. As an interpreted language, it is very slow. Though HyperCard popularized the idea of hypertext, it is not a hypertext system itself. The only built-in navigation aids are the search and history functions. However, since basic scripting is within the grasp of any developer, it is easy to use HyperCard as the framework for a hypertext system. Its main limitation is that anchors are restricted to interface objects such as buttons, and may not be placed in full text. In its first year, one million copies of HyperCard were sold. The stack paradigm has become so popular that it has spawned clones, each offering an expanded feature set. Claris, a company Apple formed to handle their software, responded with versions of HyperCard that supported variable card size, multiple windows, and scrolling. Version 2.1 also provides a report writer, a debugger, several print options, and a host of sample scripts and buttons. Stuart Moulthrop's _Dreamtime_ is an example of a fictional hypertext which makes good use of sound, graphics, and other multimedia elements of HyperCard. 2. HyperPad (DOS) ----------------- HyperPad is an inexpensive shareware HyperCard clone for DOS text systems. The extensive installation (3.7 MB) includes 830 pages of documentation and an excellent on-line tutorial. Many sample scripts, clip art, and mini- applications are included. HyperPad is designed to be used out of the box as a DOS desktop utility kit. As a hypertext system, HyperPad is minimal. It supports no additional media, has no navigation tools, and does not allow scrolling or multiple window screens. Reference and command links may be scripted using the extensive PadTalk language, a thorough clone of HyperTalk. C and Assembler extensions are possible, and well-documented. HyperPad is unique amongst HyperCard clones in its complete lack of support for graphics. However, the program makes effective use of colour and ASCII characters to implement an attractive text-only display. The collection of ASCII clip art is a fine example of what can be accomplished with limited resources. I experienced some unusual behaviour in my sessions with the sample pads. An innocuous action would occasionally send HyperPad into apparent convulsions, flashing from screen to screen as if driven by an internal demon. In his review, Stepno noted other problems, such as weak error detection and poor importing (190). It is unknown if Brightbill-Roberts is still operating. My attempts to contact them by phone failed. 3. LinkWay (DOS) ---------------- LinkWay was originally developed in late 1987 as an implementation of HyperCard for DOS PCs. It supports mixed text and graphics with sound, animation, and video disc control. A mouse is required. LinkWay supports reference, note, and command links from either text, graphics, or invisible anchors. Text on a page may scroll. Rudimentary though serviceable text, icon, and paint editors are provided. Security is available through a password system. Simple history (ten items) and search functions are the only navigation aids. The scripting language offers only minimal functionality, not sufficient for structured programming. LinkWay suffers here in comparison with HyperPad. The main benefits of LinkWay are its minimal hardware requirements and free runtime (215 KB in size). It is more suitable for slide-show and CAI applications than hypertext, due mainly to its poor text editing features. 4. PLUS (Windows, OS/2, Apple) ------------------------------ Spinnaker's PLUS 2.5 is a clone of HyperCard which attempts to extend the card paradigm beyond Macintosh hardware. Its major selling point is the availability of Macintosh, Windows, and OS/2 versions. The price for this flexibility is $495 per operating system, with a like amount for a runtime license. Above and beyond the features of HyperCard 1.0, PLUS offers colour support, variable card size, a complete report writer, and extensions to the HyperTalk-compatible language PPL. In Windows, all the correct acronyms are supported: DLL, DDE, BMP, PCX. The main downside to this functionality is the extreme sluggishness with which the program runs. The recommended Windows hardware configuration includes a 32-bit processor and 4MB RAM, yet reviewers with up to 12MB have been unhappy. With the release of HyperCard 2.1, PLUS's feature advantage has been eliminated. 5. Toolbook (Windows) --------------------- Asymmetrix's Toolbook is a capable HyperCard clone for Microsoft Windows 3.0. It requires a 16-bit processor and a minimum of 1MB RAM, though a 32-bit processor with 4MB RAM is more reasonable. An unlimited runtime is provided free. Toolbook supports many graphics formats in up to 24-bit colour. The built-in draw features are quite capable. Flat file database functions allow records with up to eight sort keys. Cards may be of any size, and support scroll bars. More than one stack may be open at once. Sound is supported through Windows' WAV format. Text formatting includes character and paragraph styles, as well as search and replace. Sample applications are included; one is DayBook, a complete personal organizer. For $300, users can upgrade to Multimedia Toolbook, which supports CD-ROM, laser disc, animation, audio cards, video, and MIDI. The OpenScript language is a superset of HyperTalk. It includes a script recorder, editor, syntax checker, and debugger. DLLs are supported. Unlike other HyperCard clones, Toolbook can easily create anchors in text, to which scripts may be attached. Creating a hypertext system is therefore made simpler. I did not perform a hands-on evaluation of Toolbook, but can assume from its success in the market and positive reviews that it is a capable package. It has more features, and is less expensive, than PLUS. If only there was a Mac version, Toolbook would be the clear winner in its class. C. Document-Based Systems +-------------------------------------------------------------+ |Product |FrameMaker 3.0 |Guide 3.05 | +---------------+---------------------+-----------------------+ |Company |Frame Technology Co. |Owl | |Phone |408-433-3311 |800-344-9737 | |Price |$ 800 |$ 495 | |Platform |80386 / SE |68000 / 80286 | |OS |Windows 3 / System 6 |System 6 / Windows 2.1 | |Memory |4 (8*) / 2 (4*) |1 MB / 640 KB | |Graphics card |VS |any / EV | |Graphics files |EPS, PCX, etc. |PICT / PCX & TIFF | |Multimedia |x |VD | |Runtime |reader |reader | |Price |$ 90 |varies | +-------------------------------------------------------------+ 1. FrameMaker (Windows, Apple, and many others) ----------------------------------------------- FrameMaker is a high-end desktop publishing package available in more than two dozen environments including Apple and Windows. All configurations require hefty hardware; FrameMaker is designed for corporate environments. FrameMaker provides an unparalleled array of text and graphics abilities. >From file formats (17 graphic, 18 text), to page formatting (complete table support, mixed width columns), to font support (four to 400 points, auto and manual kerning), it's all here. One can draw freehand curves; group, move, and resize objects; search and replace for tags and markers; spell-check with a 130,000-word dictionary (in eleven languages); share files on a LAN; and zoom from 25% to 1600%, in 1% increments. Not only can one lay out complicated equations, but at the touch of a mouse FrameMaker will solve them! Of particular interest is the ability to generate tables of contents, indices, and other lists across multiple documents. "See Also" references are updated automatically. In this way, hypertext links may be implemented, though it was not evident how to accomplish this in the working copy I had access to. Though it is well designed, FrameMaker's depth makes a manual essential; this is not provided with the evaluation version. FrameMaker documents may be distributed electronically in read-only form by using FrameViewer (UNIX platforms), or FrameReader (Apple and Windows). FrameReader allows multiple resizable and zoomable windows with hypertext links and print functions. It is priced on a sliding scale according to volume, with initial readers being $90 each. The hardware and memory requirements are much more modest than FrameMaker itself. This product's pricing and hardware requirements make it unsuitable for book circulation. However, it is an order of magnitude cheaper than other programs designed for in-house document distribution. The only limitation I could find in my admittedly cursory examination was the inability to rotate text at other than 90 degree increments. 2. Guide (Windows, Apple) ------------------------- Guide was first developed by Peter Brown at the University of Kent in 1982. Version 3.05 is a single-user document hypertext, with support for PCX and TIFF graphics, video, video disc, and external pointers. Multiple document Boolean search and a 32-item history are the only available navigation features. All four link classes are supported; anchors are represented by italic (reference, command), bold (note), and underline (expansion) text. The anchor appearance may be changed, but only to other typographic styles. I consider these choices to be unfortunate. However, a nice feature is the fact that the mouse pointer changes shape when over an anchor. Links may be created without scripting, though a simple Pascal clone (Logiix) is provided. Dynamic Data Exchange is supported. ASCII and RTF files may be imported and exported. An additional utility, G-Convert, converts Mac to PC hyperbooks. Guide readers must be purchased individually, at prices which start at $95 each (for less than ten). This makes low volume distribution on par with book pricing unfeasible. For larger volumes, pricing is more reasonable. For instance, if purchasing between 1,000 and 5,000 copies, each reader is $19.50. Guide is very user-friendly. In case of difficulties, most of the 300-page manual is on-line. Its cross-platform compatibility and ease of linking earn it high marks. It is recommended if you can afford the runtime fees. D. Windowing Systems +------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + -------------------------------------------+ |Product |Dart 2a |Folio Views 2.1 |Knowledge Pro 1 / 2 | + SmarText 2.0 |StorySpace |WinHelp Compiler | +---------------+-----------------+----------------+--------------------+------- + -------+-----------------+-----------------+ |Company |Userware |Folio Corp. |Knowledge Garden |Lotus + |Eastgate Systems |Microsoft | |Phone |716-425-3463 |801-375-3700 |516-246-5400 |404- + 391-0011 |617-924-9044 |n/a | |Price |$ 30 |$ 695 |$ 195 / 250 |$ 495 + |$ 215 |n/a | |Platform |8086 |80386 |80286 / 80386* |80386* + |Plus |80386 SX* | |OS |DOS 2.1 |DOS |DOS / Windows 3.0 | + Windows 3.0 |6.0 |Windows 3.0 | |Memory |196 KB |512 KB |640 KB* / 1 MB |2 MB* + |? |640 KB (2 MB*) | |Graphics card |any |any |any / EV |EV + |any |EV | |Graphics files |x |PCX |PCX + ($ 180) |CGM, + PCX,etc. |PNT |BMP, WMF | |Multimedia |x |S |+ ($ 550) |D + |SV |+ | |Runtime |runtime |runtime |unlimited |reader + |runtime |reader | |Price |free |$ 1995 |$ 255 / 300 |$ 100 + to 20 |free |free | +------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + -------------------------------------------+ 1. Dart (DOS) ------------- UserWare's Dart is a shareware program with the unheard-of price of $30 (including runtime). It implements a full multiple-window, scrolling, mouseable interface in DOS text mode. Graphics are not supported. As an editor, Dart works with ASCII files up to 32,000 lines long. However, none of the usual facilities of a text editor are present. Even block commands (cut, copy, paste) and word wrap are missing. As a viewer, Dart can load both ASCII files and compressed hypertext files. Features include history, index, table of contents, print, and on-line help. Only reference links are supported. Hyperbooks are created by inserting simple markup codes in the source document. Dart transparently translates these when viewing the file. A somewhat arcane naming convention is required for multiple document hyperbooks. Files must be distributed individually; they are not bound together in any way. The markup codes support bold and underlined (yellow on a colour monitor) text, input fields for simple data entry forms, and running external programs. There is no reader module. The entire Dart viewer, small though it is (100 KB), must be distributed to end-users. This is a problem, as there is no way to turn off menu items which you don't want readers to access. Performance is excellent, even on low-end computers. Rutgers University Press has chosen Dart as their hyperbook distribution system. This is surprising; my opinion is that Dart cannot be recommended until a few more features (enhanced editing, runtime control, file binding) are in place. However, along with Orpheus and HyperShell, it is a great example of how to do a lot with a little. I look forward to the next version. 2. Folio VIEWS (DOS) -------------------- Folio VIEWS 2.1 is a document indexing and retrieval package for DOS text mode. In the terminology of this software, nodes are folios and collections of folios are infobases. An infobase consists of the original text plus full text indexing. The total file size is about half that of the original text, due to some clever file compression. As one might expect, the searching facility is powerful, supporting Booleans, wildcards, and proximity criteria. Reference links may be made to other folios, external programs, PCX graphics, or audio files in RealSound format. Nodes may be grouped to facilitate organization. Text editing features include block operations and highlighting. Over forty file formats may be imported; 2GB of text may be stored in all. The interface is based on a window paradigm and supports a mouse. On-line help is available. A personal edition of Folio VIEWS, which has full functionality but cannot create new infobases, is $295. An unlimited not-for-profit runtime license is $1995. This pricing and the limited hypertext functionality restrict interest in an otherwise capable product. A Windows version is now available. 3. Knowledge Pro (DOS, Windows) ------------------------------- Knowledge Garden Inc. have designed Knowledge Pro to be a programmer's toolkit--providing functions for hypertext, list processing, and interface creation. Two versions exist: KPDOS 1.0 for DOS, and KPWin 2.0 for Microsoft Windows. Judging by the version numbers, development of the Windows product has been given priority. Though often mentioned alongside other hypertext products, Knowledge Pro is not for the casual user. It is certainly easier to build an attractive application in KPWin than in C, but the process still is meant for programmers, not writers. 4. SmarText (Windows) --------------------- Lotus' SmarText differs from the other products discussed here in that it is designed to be a central organiser for a group of heterogenous files, which remain on disk in their native formats. It can read most common graphic and text files. SmarText analyzes their structure and builds an outline-based table of contents, an index, and reference links. Nodes can be searched using storable queries. Wildcards, Boolean connectives, and proximity criteria are supported. A Key-Word In Context (KWIC) hit list is presented. Strangely, this list does not indicate the name of the file in which the occurrence was found. Authors are able to increase the accuracy of this process by specifying words to include (key words) or exclude (stop words) from the index. Supplementary manual linking is still required, but SmarText makes this as easy as highlighting the source anchor, selecting "Create Link" on the menu, and selecting the destination anchor. Anchors can be either text or graphics, and appear as boxes or a specified colour. Command links may be used to launch other applications. The interface is elegant; much can be done with a simple click of the mouse. Text fonts can be customized, graphics can be shown at different scales, an index entry may be expanded to show a KWIC list, and table of contents entries act as expansion links. Lotus has included a button bar which provides single-click access to common functions. Annotations and bookmarks are supported. Up to 3,500 text nodes and 3,500 graphics nodes may be included in a single book, which may be compiled into a single file for distribution. 5. Storyspace (Apple) --------------------- Storyspace is a hypertext system for the Macintosh which has been designed specifically for writers by writers (Jay David Bolter, John B. Smith, Michael Joyce, and Mark Bernstein), all of whom are active in research. Storyspace follows Bolter's terminology in calling nodes writing spaces. These are displayed as scrollable windows on a desktop which includes the usual Mac pull-down menus and a toolbar. Writing spaces may contain text, graphics, sound, or video. They also act as containers for other writing spaces. Text-editing features are unfortunately minimal. While font control is simple, paragraph and style formatting are not available. Writing spaces may be viewed in one of three configurations, as a global map, an outline, or a horizontal flow chart. A magnification tool allows zooming in on areas of particular interest. Navigation is as easy as point and click. Links may be made by highlighting the anchor text, dragging the mouse to the destination node, and typing a label. Anchors (which appear as boxed text) may be made visible momentarily through a simple key combination. Though only reference links are available, a note tool automates annotation by combining the few steps that would otherwise be made manually. A local map is provided through the Roadmap menu item. Paths may be named and saved, though there is no provision for automated tours. If there is more than one link from a node, priorities may be assigned to them by using "guard fields." These allow the author to embed an intelligence in their hyperbook without the necessity of a scripting language. Access to links may depend on whether a reader has previously visited a given writing space, or selected a specific anchor. Boolean connectives are provided. Writing spaces may hold only 32,000 characters. This is sufficient for most purposes, but is a limitation when importing from existing works. Storyspace splits files into separate nodes every 25,000 bytes; these must then be manually edited to the desired length. Storyspace uses XTND translaters to read and write external file formats and is packaged with one for MacWrite. Many other useful features are provided. Extensive printing options are available. A user's environment preferences may be saved. Storyspace books may be converted to HyperCard stacks. Keywords may be assigned to writing spaces. Several visual window types are possible. A path builder allows the user to query writing spaces for certain conditions. In effect, this combines a tool for automatic linking with a query facility. The documentation consists of a tutorial-style manual titled "Getting Started with Storyspace." From this, one would assume that a more extensive reference manual would also be included, but this is not the case. Some features, such as support for video and external devices, go completely unexplained. Thankfully, telephone support is excellent; Bernstein himself answers the calls. Works written in Storyspace may be packaged for distribution using one of three readers: Storyspace, Page, Easy. Each offers the reader a different view of the hyperbook, and lets them navigate with different tools. The author's selection of Readers will govern how their hyperbook will be perceived. In particular, the Storyspace Reader allows access to the global map; this reveals the internal structure of the work for inspection and free navigation. Some of Storyspace's navigation tools are counter-intuitive. In particular, the rosette does not allow navigation as its compass form would imply, ie: north, south, east, west to adjacent nodes in the same plane. Rather, it combines planar movement with motion in depth. I find this confusing. Also, some interface elements are remnants of earlier versions, and should be removed (eg. the text entry region). Many hyperbooks are available in Storyspace, due, no doubt, to its profile in the academic community. These include Joyce's seminal _Afternoon, a story_, Guyer and Petry's _Izme Pass_, and Bolter's _Writing Space_. A Windows reader (but not the authoring system) will be available before the end of 1993. 6. Windows Help Compiler (Windows) ---------------------------------- Buried within the host of files Microsoft Windows dumps on a hard drive is a hypertext book reader. The Windows Help engine is a simple system which allows navigation using links (reference, note, or command), a simple keyword search, or a default path. Bookmarks and history are provided. Graphics (BMP, DIB, WMF) may contain multiple anchors. The interface is that of Windows itself--multiple scrolling windows. Microsoft does not spend much time publicizing this system. WinHelp is designed for use by programmers who wish to add context-sensitive help to their applications. As such, it is not sold separately, but instead comes bundled with development packages (such as Borland C++ and Visual Basic Professional Edition). It is also available on the Internet. Building books with the Help Compiler is a multi-stage operation. 1. The text is written in a word processor which supports RTF files. Each new node must be tagged with footnotes and other formatting according to proscribed rules. These indicate to the compiler the node title, keywords, and anchor text. Graphics may also be added, most efficiently by referencing external files. 3. Macros (actually short command directives) may be added to customize the menu. 4. The project file is created. This ASCII document lists all of the RTF files, graphics, and macros which are required to make the complete book. It also includes specific compiler directives which may be used to customize the interface. 5. The hyperbook is created by running the Help Compiler from Windows. This reads the project file, compiles the indicated source documents together, and makes any specified environment changes. The result is a help file which may be run from Windows as a stand-alone book, using WINHELP.EXE. The advantages of using the Windows help system are obvious. One can distribute books freely, guarantee that every owner of Windows can read them, and provide an environment with which the reader will be immediately familiar. Enough navigation features are provided for the advantages of the hypertext form to be readily apparent. There are some disadvantages. Since the compiler was designed for creating on-line manuals, it is optimized for hierarchical structures. The single browse sequence fixes the nodes in a default linear path. (It is possible to omit the Browse buttons if this emphasis is not desired.) Several menu labels assume that the contents of the hyperbook will in fact be a help file and not some other form of electronic document. In addition, the lack of any sort of map, and the keyword-only search mechanism favours help-type systems. Conclusions ----------- Of course it is not possible to recommend just one of these seventeen hypertext packages for all uses. Yet it is surprisingly easy to narrow the field considerably. Of the HyperCard clones, Toolbook is the best choice for work in Windows because of its speed, price, and features, while HyperCard itself is ideal for the Mac. However, I should reiterate here that, despite its popularity, the "stack of cards" paradigm is not ideal for hyperbook development. HyperWriter! is the definite winner in the card-based arena. For $1000, this program will do almost anything you want, though it does lack even simple decision-making ability. I did not expect to seriously consider Knowledge Pro, Folio VIEWS, FrameMaker, SmarText, or the Windows Help Compiler as authoring systems. However, SmarText surprised with its ability to automate tedious work and make stand-alone hyperbooks. Limiting factors include the reader price and lack of any method to embed intelligence. The Windows Help Compiler has a lot going for it, and deserves a look by any serious hypertext author. Finally, Storyspace can be recommended for its reasonable price, breadth of features, and overall interface. While certain design decisions are irritating and the lack of text formatting features is a disappointment, it is easy to see why this package is popular among writers. The term "hypertext" has been interpreted loosely by many application developers and reviewers. Support for truly nonlinear writing and reading is found in few products. Distributed and multi-author texts are not possible. The traditional wall between author and reader is barely scratched. This survey reveals that the theory and practice of hypertext, at least at a consumer level, are distinct. These products will improve; as users become more demanding, features from research systems such as Intermedia and NoteCards will become commonplace on the desktop. Until that time, there is more than enough here to satisfy writers restricted by the printed book, eager to break the spine and free the leaves within. Works Cited ----------- ACM. _Communications of the ACM_ July 1988. Computer software. New York: ACM, 1988. DOS 3.1, 540KB RAM. Bernstein, M. "The Bookmark and the Compass: Orientation Tools for Hypertext Users." _ACM SIGOIS Bulletin_ 9.4 (October 1988): 34-45. Bolter, Jay David. _Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing_. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991. ---. _Writing Space_. Computer Software. Watertown MA: Eastgate Systems, 1990. Macintosh Plus, System 6.0, 2MB RAM. Conklin, E. Jeffery. "Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey." _IEEE Computer_ 20 (September 1987): 17-41. Delany, Paul and George P. Landow, eds. _Hypermedia and Literary Studies_. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1991. Gess, Richard ed. _Perforations 1.3_ (Spring/Summer 1992). _After the Book: Writing Literature Writing Technology_. Atlanta: Public Domain, 1992. Guyer, Carolyn and Martha Petry. _Izme Pass_. Computer software. Writing on the Edge 2.2 (Spring 1991). Macintosh Plus, System 6.0, 2MB RAM. Joyce, Michael. _Afternoon, a story_. Computer software. Jackson, MI: Riverrun Limited, 1989. Macintosh Plus, System 6.0, 2MB RAM. Landow, George P. _Hypertext: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology_. London: Johns Hopkins UP, 1992. ---. "The Rhetoric of Hypermedia: Some Rules for Authors." _Journal of Computing in Higher Education_ 1 (1989): 39-64. Rpt. in Delany and Landow. 81-103. Moulthrop, Stuart. "Dreamtime." Vers. 3.1. Computer software. Macintosh Plus, System 6.0, HyperCard 1.2.5. In Gess, Perforations. Nelson, Ted. _Literary Machines_. Swarthmore, PA: Self-published, 1981. Nielson, Jakob. "The Art of Navigating through Hypertext." _Communications of the ACM_ 33 (March 1990): 296-310. ---. _Hypertext and Hypermedia_. San Diego: Academic Press, 1990. Schneiderman, Ben and Greg Kearsley. _Hypertext Hands-on!_. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1989. Stepno, Bob. "A HyperCard for the PC." _Byte_ (September 1989). 189-192. Willmot, Rod. _Everglade_. Computer software. Sherbrooke PQ: Hyperion Softword, 1990. 8086 processor. About the Author ---------------- robin is a computer consultant interested in software applications to creative writing. His last project involved the development of FileMix, a program which algorithmically recombines texts according to the techniques of William Burroughs. For eight years he has produced Missing 15 Minutes, a weekly radio program which acts as a forum for fiction, music, and sound art. robin 3 Westcott Upper London, Ontario, Canada voice: 519-679-7459 N6C 3G6 E-Mail: 42131_4001.uwovax.uwo.ca Credits ------- This paper stems from the research project _Hypertext Fiction and the Literary Artist_ by C.J. Keep, Tim McLaughlin, and robin, which was made possible through the assistance of the Canada Council.